Groundwater Governance in the Aral Sea Basin of Central Asia : case study from the

Pritashkent aquifer

Introduction

Recent growing global population increased demand for drinking water supplies and food

production, which was met partially by the use of groundwater. The lack of informed management

of groundwater resources in many areas has led to an overexploitation of local and regional aquifers.

Other areas face shortage of water supply due to underdevelopment of available water resources. A

comprehensive understanding of the resource and its characteristics are the basis for decision

making and planning, and of special importance in the case of transboundary aquifers, shared

between two or more countries. Transboundary aquifer management requires the cooperation

between the various authorities in charge of groundwater management. UNESCO’s International

Hydrological Programme (UNESCO-IHP) initiated a global programme - Internationally Shared

Aquifer Resources Management (ISARM) in order to facilitate the improved management of

transboundary groundwater resources. UNESCO-IHP has also contributed to the preparation of the

UN GA Resolution 63/124 on the law of transboundary aquifers, which offers guidance to States in

jointly managing their transboundary aquifers.

Within this context, UNESCO-IHP has initiated a close collaboration with the Global Environment

Facility (GEF) and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) aimed at advancing

the assessment of transboundary aquifers globally and improving the management and governance

of transboundary groundwater resources. Within the scope of the GEF Transboundary Waters

Assessment Programme (TWAP), UNESCO-IHP has been entrusted with the execution of the

transboundary aquifers component and will carry out an indicator-based assessment of 166

transboundary aquifers in cooperation with a network of partners at national, regional and

international level. The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) has kindly agreed

to financially support the project “Groundwater governance in Transboundary aquifers” aiming in-

depth assessments of transboundary aquifers in Southern Africa, Central America and Central Asia.

The main objectives of the project are: improve knowledge and recognition of the importance and

vulnerability of transboundary groundwater resources; establish cross-border dialogue and

cooperation; develop shared management tools; facilitate joint management and better groundwater

governance focused on improving coordination, scientific knowledge, livelihoods, economic

development and environmental sustainability. The project includes the sub-regional activity on the

Prethashkent aquifer, shared between the Kazakhstan and the Uzbekistan, as the case study, aiming

the strengthening the scientific knowledge and the interstate cooperation.

In the framework of the preparation phase of the project, it was agreed that International Water

Management Institute (IWMI) will provide consultancy services on:

Collecting the relevant documentation on the Pritashkent groundwater aquifer including data

regarding geological, hydrological and hydrogeological studies, current status of monitoring,

legal, institutional and socio-economic aspects, and information on relevant on-going

projects and initiatives;

Preparing a preliminary description of the characteristics of the transboundary aquifer and

issues of concern;

Identifying major stakeholders in the countries of the transboundary aquifer in the following

group: national and local governments, NGOs, academia, user associations, technical experts

and other, and preparing a short description of the role of each of them is playing in the

groundwater aquifer management;

Preparing the list of persons that should be met during the first SDC-UNESCO mission and

making first contact with them in anticipation of the mission;

Assisting the mission during the meetings and accompanying members of the mission;

Identifying institutions which are responsible for the groundwater aquifer resources

management, including monitoring and preparing on their role;

Providing a report.

It was agreed that IWMI will become the regional partner in the Central Asia in the main phase of

the project.

As follow up of this agreement, IWMI participated in the Regional Consultation on Groundwater

Resources Governance for the UNESCO Europe, North America and Central Asia Region which

was organized by UNESCO IHP, in The Hague, Netherlands, from 19 to 21 March, 2013. The

mission of the SDC-UNESCO to the Central Asia was postponed and the consultation meeting on

Pritashkent aquifer with participation of four experts of Uzbekistan and four experts of Kazakhstan

was organized by UNESCP IHP in Paris on 9-11 April, 2013.

This report provides summary of groundwater governance in Central Asia and current status of the

Pritashkent aquifer. The report is written by Dr. Akmal Karimov, IWMI Central Asia, Dr. Jamol

Djumanov, Head of department of the Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Dr.

Aslon Mavlonov, Deputy Chief of the Committee of Geology of Uzbekistan and Ms. Hilola

Masharipova, PhD student of Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Melioration,. The study is

supervised by Dr. Vladimir Smakhtin, Theme Leader of IWMI.

Regulation of groundwater use in the state of the Aral Sea basin

Within the Aral Sea basin, 339 aquifers are available with groundwater resources at 31.1 km3

(CAWATER.info, 2013). In spite of significant renewable resources, only third part is used for

different uses, among which household water use makes 42%, agricultural water use – 32%,

extraction for drainage purposes 14% and industrial water use – 10% (Figure 1).

Groundwater use in the Aral Sea basin

House.

WU68%

Ind. WU

29%

Other

3%

KazakhstanGWR = 1.8 km3GWE = 0.42 km3 HWU

10%IWU

14%

Agr. WU

76%

KyrgyzstanGWR = 0.86 km3GWE = 0.40 km3

House.WU

34%

IWU

9%

Agr.WU

56%

O

1% TajikistanGWR = 6.65 km3GWE = 0.99 km3

HWU

46%

IWU

8%

AWU

33%

DW

13%

TurkmenistanGWR = 3.36 km3

GWE = 0.46 km3

House.WU

42%

Ind. WU

9%

Agr. WU

25%

Drain.W

22%

Rangelands

1%

Dewatering mines

7%

UzbekistanGWR 18.5 km3GWE = 5.43 km3

Figure 1. Groundwater use in the Fergana Valley

This under-development of groundwater resources is the consequence of the legal and institutional

environment, when canal water is supplied free of charge to water users. Existing legal and

institutional environment prioritizes groundwater use for household needs and restricts for

agricultural water use. Groundwater supply plays major role in household water supply in the

downstream countries, and in less extent in the upstream Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan having

excessive surface water. At the same, there is significant potential for groundwater use in

agriculture, facing shortage of water in many parts of the region. This potential is realized by

farming communities. Thus, the rapid groundwater development for agricultural purposes indicated

outside of canal commands, in the areas, with temporal or permanent water shortage. Farmers of the

Fergana Valley within Uzbekistan and Tajikistan move from surface water to groundwater for

irrigation of orchards, grapevines and vegetables.

Preserving groundwater for future household needs allows maintaining low concentrations of

dissolved solids in aquifers, at the same time, since the aquifers are full, this policy leads to salinity

and waterlogging issues on the irrigated lands, high return flow and increasing salinity of the river

flow in the midstream and the downstream. As consequence over 2.0 million (M) of the irrigated

land have moderate or high salinity levels, the salinity of Syrdarya River and Amudarya River in the

downstream exceeds 1,500 mg/l. At the same time, high inter-linkage between the surface water and

the groundwater is to be accounted in groundwater development plans, which have to include the

groundwater governance aspect. Figure 2 illustrates interrelations between different stakeholders in

groundwater administration in the Uzbekistan; the scheme is typical for the other states of the Aral

Sea basin.

Institutions involved in groundwater governance in Uzbekistan

Nature Protection

Committee

Committee of

Geology

Farm Unions, WUAs

Local

Authorities Groundwater

Use issues

Payment for

drinking

water;

Payment for

electricity

Services

Payment

Permits

Allocation

of GW

Reg. Centers,

GW develop.

Reg. Stations

GW

monitoring

State Control

Small business, GW

development

Ministry of Agriculture and

Water Management

HG. Dep.

GW Monitor.

Pump station

dep: Well M.

Figure 2. Institutions involved in groundwater governance in Uzbekistan

According the Water Law of Uzbekistan (The Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan on “Water and

Water Use”, 1993), for any groundwater extraction using pumps users have to obtain permits, called

permissions for special water use. Users receive permits from the State Committees of Nature

Protection. To get the permissions, groundwater resources have to be allocated, which is to be done

by the regional hydrogeology departments of the Committee of Geology. The installation of a well

has to be permitted, and the design of the well has to be specified by the same agency. The

hydrogeology departments have responsibilities to monitor the groundwater and estimate its

resources, quantity and quality. The Committee of Nature Protection has mandate for monitoring of

use for both, groundwater and surface water. The Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources

accounts groundwater use for agricultural purposes, and monitors depths and quality of shallow

groundwater within the irrigated lands. At the same time, this agency is responsible for future

planning the State investment into surface and groundwater development for agricultural purposes.

Differences in groundwater regulations in the countries of the Aral Sea basin are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Regulation of groundwater use in Central Asia states

Kazakhstan1 Kyrgyzstan

2 Tajikistan

3 Turkmenistan

4 Uzbekistan

5

1 Water is the property of

the State (article 4) State (article 4) State (article 5) State (article 4) State (article 3)

2 Water administration Basin& Territorial

(article 6)

Basin/State (article 5,

11)

is based on the

combination of basin,

and administrative-

territorial governance

principles (article 9)

Territorial (basin)

(article 102)

Basin/territorial (article

111)

3 Water use Right/Permit based

(article 24)

Right/Permit based

(article 34, 35)

Right/Permit based

(article 38, 43, 44)

Permit based (article 23,

24)

Right/Permit based

(article 32)

4

Permission for

groundwater use issued

by

State committee of

Geology and Protection

of Mineral Resources

(article 34)

Local authorities by Nature protection

committee (article 33)

Ministry of Water

Resources (article 24)

Nature protection

committee (article 8)

5 Water use permanent or

temporary

permanent & temporary

(article 37)

temporary (article 27,

23, 29, 34)

permanent & temporary

(article 39)

permanent & temporary

(article 28)

permanent & temporary

(article 31)

short term, years 3 up to 15 years 3 3 3

long term, years 25 50 years 25 25 20

6 Payment for water use

Payment for services of

water withdrawal and

supply, full cost,

subsidies (article 49)

for water supply

services (article 40)

Use of water resources

and services (article 31)

Payment is indicated

(not clarified for what)

(article 29)

for WUA services only

(article 35, 106)

7

Use of groundwater of

drinking quality for

other needs

Not allowed, except in

some cases when there

are no other sources,

permission can be

received (article 53)

not stated

Prohibited except in the

case when there are no

surface water source and

there are sufficient

underground water of

drinking quality (article

56)

Not allowed, except in

the case when there are

no surface water sources

and there are sufficient

underground water of

drinking quality (article

42)

May not be used, except

in the regions where

sufficient sources of

surface water are not

available (article 43)

8

Priority has

International agreements

or national water Law?

International Water

agreements has priority

(article 123, 95, 119)

Water Code of RK has

priority (article 7, 98)

Water Code of RT has

priority (article 3)

International Water

agreements has priority

(article 113)

International Water

agreements has priority

(article 119, 4, 83, 84,

91)

9 Transboundary Water

courses recognized? Recognized Not recognized Not recognized recognized (article 82)

recognized (article 2.1,

83, 84)

10

Is convention on

transboundary water

courses signed?

Yes, on 11.01.1996 No No Yes, in process, not

declared yet officially Yes, on 4.09. 2007

1The Water Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, 1993;

2The Water Code of the Kyrgyz republic, 2005;

3The Water Code of the Republic of

Tajikistan. 2001; 4The Water Code of the Republic of Turkmenistan. 2004;

5The Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan on “Water and Water

Use”. 1993

Pritashkent aquifer: needs for cooperation

Study area

Pritashkent artesian aquifer, selected for the studies, is the transboundary aquifer located on the

territory of the Uzbekistan and the Kazakhstan (Figure 3). The smaller south-eastern part of the

aquifer is located in the Tashkent province of Uzbekistan, and the bigger, the north-west part in the

Chymkent province of Kazakhstan. The artesian aquifer has geographic coordinates of 41.00o-

42.80o northern latitude and 68.00

o-69.45

o eastern longitude. The study area is highly populated,

especially on the Uzbek part. There are located many cities and towns, such as Tashkent, Chirchik

and Yangiyul on the Uzbek part, and Saryagach, Chardara, Abay, Tobolino, Leninskoe, Fogodevka,

Darbaza and Djilga on the Kazakh part. The main ethnic groups of the population are Uzbeks,

Kazakhs, Tatars and Russians.

Figure 3. Location of the Pritashkent aquifer

By geomorphology, the area is divided into three zones: mountain zone, foothills and valleys. As a

transition zone between the foothill zone and the valley, Pritashkent steppes form buffer zone

between the foothill zone and the valley. The mountain zone is characterized by high-billowy

terrain. It consists of the southern slopes of the foothill Beltau, Kazy-Kurt and ravines of the western

Tien-Shan, including mountains ridges of Karzhantau, Ugam, Chatkal, Kuramin, mountains of

Magol-Tau and Angren plateau. These ridges surround the study area from the north, northeast, east

and south-east. The mountains characterized by: almost parallel spread with northeastern stretches;

asymmetric structures with low slopes to the north and steep to the south; reducing absolute altitudes

in south-western direction from 3000-4000 meter above sea level (masl) to 800-1000 masl;

represented by paleozoic magmatic rocks.

The foothill areas represented by undulating plains, surrounding the mountains have the width

varying from 0.5 to 5.7 km, and altitudes above 400 masl. The plains are formed by lateral cones of

temporary watercourses, streaming down from the surrounding ridges. These cones gradually merge

with the alluvial sediments of ancient terraces of the main watercourses. The surface of foothill

plains has low slopes (up to 0.005) in the direction of flow of the rivers. The width of the river

channels varies from 3-7 m to 30-40 m and sometimes makes 70 m. The valley including the lower

reaches of the Angren River, Chirchik River, Keles River, Kuruk-Keles River and right bank of the

Syrdarya River has altitudes at 400 masl or less. This zone has smooth relief, except river channels

forming depressions of 80-100 m wide and 10-25 m deep. Highlands of Pritashkent steppe,

occupying the central and north-western part of the territory have altitudes of 400-560 masl.

The climate of the study area is sharp continental, dry. The average annual temperature for the

period of 1950-2000 is 11.50C. The average monthly temperature in January, the coldest month is -

9.9оС and in July, the hottest month is +27.8°C. Absolute maximum air temperature in summer

reaches up to +42.60C (1973), and the absolute minimum temperature in January falls to -30.3

0

(1969). The mean annual relative humidity is 60.3%. The dry season is typical for July-August,

when the value of the relative humidity drops to 36-39%. Wind direction within the study area is

northeastern and speed is 2.8-3.3 m/s.

The main rivers in the study area are the Chirchik, the Keles and the Kuruk-Keles. There are also the

Syrdarya River and the Ahangaran River crossing the western and south-eastern parts of the study

area, respectively. Each of these rivers has numerous tributaries, supplying the rivers, and off-takes

in the form of irrigation canals and irrigation ditches. The Syrdarya River originates in the Fergana

Valley by melting snowfields and glaciers. The flow of the river is fully regulated by Toktogul,

Kairakum and Chardara reservoirs located in sequential order along the river channel. Maximum

average monthly flow of the river is in May and June from 1400-1800 m3/s. The salinity of the river

flow has seasonal variations. Total dissolved solids vary from 900-1300 mg/l in fall and winter and

lower to 500 – 700 mg/l in summer. The Keles River, originating on the southern flank of the Kazy-

Kurt Mountains, crosses the study area from east to west. Its total length is 220 km and the

catchment area is 2200 km2. The main source of the river flow is precipitation and, to a lesser extent,

groundwater.

Method and data

The description of the Pritashkent aquifer is based on archival data and technical reports collected

by the local consultants from the Data Base of the Institute of the Hydrogeology and Engineering

Geology, Uzbekistan. The technical reports include the Assessment of the groundwater resources of

the Pritashkent aquifer carried out in different years by the Institute of Hydrogeology and

Engineering Geology.

Description of the Pritashkent aquifer

The geological structure on the territory of Uzbekistan consists of geological formations of

sedimentary, magmatic and metamorphic genesis from Proterozoic to Quaternary deposits. In

mountainous areas, Proterozoic and Paleozoic rocks appear on the surface, and in the vast plains and

intermountain hollows they lay below Mesozoic and the Cenozoic rocks. Underground mineral

water in Uzbekistan is exploited from Neogene-Quaternary, Paleocene and Cretaceous deposits.

Earlier studies of the Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology show that mineral water is

mainly associated with the Cretaceous-Neogene sediments, Quaternary and Palaeozoic formaitons.

The Pritashkent aquifer is associated with Paleozoic floor, which is made of thick Cenozoic

deposits containing mineral water. The formations are represented by sand-clay differences of

Cretaceous deposits (Cenomanian layer) (Figure 4). There are 20 wells, extracting water from this

aquifer operate within Tashkent city and its surrounding area.

Figure 4. The hydrogeological cut along the Pritashkent aquifer

The mineral groundwater of the Pritashkent aquifer has no specific components, low-saline, thermal,

nitrogenous, calcium hydrocarbonate-sulfate-chloride, sodium, has therapeutic properties for

internal and external uses in the form of mud-baths and other procedures. The depth of the mineral

groundwater ranges from 815 m (Chernyavka village, 25km north of the city of Tashkent) to 2200 m

(site “Tekstilkombinat”). In average, the roof of the Cenomanian layer within Tashkent city lies at

the depths of 1160 m (site Nazarbek) - 1640 m (site Lunacharsky).

Mineral water of the Cenomanian layer is known as “Tashkent mineral”. At the beginning of the

exploitation period of the aquifer, the water had a high excessive pressure, reaching 150 m or more

above the ground (Figure 5). But with time (over 40 years) the pressurized level has dropped and in

some wells now, it is below the surface of the ground (wells № 10/81 “Botany”, well №7

“Chinabad” and well №8 “Lunacharsky”) (Figure 6). These days, water from these wells is supplied

to the users by pumping.

Figure 5. Drawdown of the water table in the Pritashkent aquifer since 1970

Figure 6. Water table drawdown at the well 8 on the territory of the Uzbekistan

In the southeastern part of Pritashkent aquifer, Upper Cretaceous deposits lie at a depth of 2.5 km.

To the west from the Chikrchik fault water bearing deposits of Neogene spread at depths of 1050 m

below the soil surface. Most part of the Pritashkent aquifer formed in the Lower Cretaceous

deposits, represented by clay differences with the interlayer of sandstone, having low conductivities.

These deposits were found at depths of 1330 m (site ‘Dendro’) to 2030 m (site ‘Karakamysh’). The

wells at these sites have the yield varying from 2 to 20 m3/d. Mineral water is used for external

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20

40

60

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Gro

un

dw

ate

r h

ead

, m

procedures, except for the water produced at the site Zangi-Ata, where the salinity is less than 4000

mg/l and is used as heating water in the hospitals.

Sharing the water use

The resources of the aquifer were estimated at 40.59 l/s. According to the agreement (Protocol N

9179 dated on 18.02.1983, State Commission for Reserves, USSR) signed during the Soviet time,

Uzbekistan has right to extract 23.65 l/s and Kazakhstan 16.94 l/s. The list of water users from the

Pritashkent aquifer on the Uzbek side is given in Table 2. The list of the water users is preliminary

and reflects the situation with groundwater use before 1990 and after within the territory of

Uzbekistan.

Table 2. List of the water users from the Pritahskent aquifer on the territory of Uzbekistan

(Data of the Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology)

Well Water user Water

allocated

Head in

1983

Head in

2007

Yield of well

l/s m m l/s

1 Well 1 Sanatorium Semashko 2.92 +195 -18.5 0.80

2 Well 3 Sanatorium Semashko 2.7 +195 -6.0 0.60

3 Well 5 Hospital 2 0.35 +56.8 +56.8 0.20

4 Well 6 Sanatorium Semrug 1.2 +77.5 +6.0 0.80

5 Well 7 Sanatorium Zangiota 2.85 +135 +60.0 1.5

6 Well 8 Sanatorium Fedorovich 2.31 +189.6 +9.2 0.7

7 Well 1/78 Sanatorium of the

Ministry of Railroads

1.45 +193 +10.0 4.5

8 Well 11 The Institute of

vegetables

0.5 +87.9 +2.2 0.2

9 Well 7 Sanatorium Chinabad 2.31 +170.5 -6.0 0.40

10 Well 6 Sanatorium of Ministry

of Health Protection

1.74 +191.0

11 Well 13 Sanatorium Botanika 2.35 »+138.0 -64.7 0.85

12 Well 3 Sanatorium Turon - +47 -4.4 0.75

13 Well 7 Sanatorium Chatkal 2.85 +37.2 +8.0 0.80

14 Well 1-5 Sanatorium

Tashminvody (private)

1.74 +168 +6.0 0.60

15 Well 7 Joint venture Montella

(private)

1.2 -21

16 Well 11 Hospital 1 0.5 +49.2 +49.2 0.60

17 Well 1-76 Company Shirin suv 0.40 +10 +1.70 0.54

18 Well 13 Company Kibrai 2.40 +13 +4 0.30

The Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology carried special studies to estimate the water

table drawdown and estimate groundwater extraction volumes.

After 1990s, according to data of the Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology (data

requiring verification), there is indicated the installation of private wells within the Pritashkent

aquifer on the territory of Kazakshtan. Owners of the wells do not have permits for the groundwater

extraction and new wells are not registered. In many cases, the water from the Pritashkent aquifer

is used for heating purposes, especially green houses during cold winter seasons. This could be the

main reason of water table drawdown in the Pritashkent aquifer.

Conclusions

The data collected during the preliminary phase of the “Groundwater governance in transboundary

aquifers” project indicated water table drawdown in some parts of the Pritashkent aquifer by 100 m

and more. This highlights the importance of the transboundary groundwater cooperation and

collaboration between the Kazakhstan and the Uzbekistan. The implementing the main phase of the

project will assist in establishing close interstate collaboration, weakened during the last years. The

studies in the main phase could be focused on: (1) accounting of groundwater extractions, the

efficiency of use and other factors, causing the groundwater depletions; (2) modeling the

groundwater to project future of the aquifer under no-cooperation and cooperation scenarios, and (3)

activities related to promoting the groundwater cooperation.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the Swiss Development Agency (SDC) for providing financial support

for this study under the “Groundwater Governance in Transboundary Aquifers” project. The authors

would like to express their thanks to Mrs. Alice Aureli, Chief Groundwater Section, IHP, UNESCO,

Mr. Holger Treidel, IHP, UNESCO and Dr. Neno Kukuric, Director of the IGRAC- International

Groundwater Center for kind collaboration and promoting transboundary aquifer studies in Central

Asia.

References:

CAWATER.Info. 2013. Aral Sea Basin. Groundwater: reserves and use. http://www.cawater-

info.net/aral/groundwater_e.htm (the last accessed on 22.04.2013).

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(the last accessed on 22.04.2013).

The Water Code of the Kyrgyz republic, 2005. http://www.cawater-info.net/bk/water_law/pdf/

water_code_kyrgyz_en.pdf (the last accessed on 22.04.2013).

The Water Code of the Republic of Tajikistan. 2001. http://www.cawater-info.net/bk/water_law/pdf

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