1 grammatical metaphor j r martin department of linguistics, university of sydney

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Grammatical metaphor

J R Martin

Department of Linguistics, University of Sydney

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1. Grammatical metaphor

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- grammatical metaphor...

- at Manly wharf

[Dad, reading sign] ‘Seven miles from Sydney and 1000 miles from care’

[Phoebe, age 4] - Where’s Care?

- in a Manly bakeshop

[Xian] I wonder if I could have one of those...

[Server] - Why do you wonder? It’s right there in front of you.

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‘grammatical metaphors’ (Halliday 1994)

metaphors, because…

- there are two meanings involved

- they are layered (literal/t ransferred; figure/g round; surface/deep)

- one resembles the other (symbolisation)

grammatical, because…

- the meanings involved are the kind typically made through wordsin structures (prepositional phrase, imperative mood…)

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‘care’ as a place/ feeling…‘worry’ as a location

1000 miles from care1000 miles from caring/worrying1000 miles away and so I don’t have to worry about things

‘worry’ as a process

…thus an ‘abstract’ location standing for a process

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‘care’ as a place/ feeling…‘worry’ as a location

1000 miles from care1000 miles from caring/worrying1000 miles away and so I don’t have to worry about things

‘worry’ as a process

…thus an ‘abstract’ location standing for a process

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‘request’ as a command/ statement…‘command’ as declarative

I wonder if I could have a walnut bun.Could I have a walnut bun?Give me a walnut bun.

‘command’ as imperative

…thus a declarative standing for a command

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Grammatical metaphor enables the more traditional ‘lexical metaphors’ by setting up structural environments that induce the layers of meaning…

I have walked that long road to freedom. I have tried not to falter; I have made missteps along the way. But I have discovered the secret that af ter climbing the great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb. I have taken a moment here to rest, to steal a view of the glorious vista that surrounds me, to look back on the distance I have come. But I can only rest for a moment, for with freedom come responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my long walk is not yet ended. [from Mandela 1995: 751]

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‘freedom’ as a locationI have walked that long road to freedomI have walked that long road to being freeI have walked a long way so I could be free

‘freedom’ as quality

‘walk’ as a thingmy long walk is not yet endedI haven’t ended/ finished my long walk yetI haven’t finished walking yet

‘walk’ as a process

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2. Ideational grammatical metaphor

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- 'concrete' (‘when I was a child I spake as a child’)

I was not born with a hunger to be free. I was born free - free in every way that I could know. Free to run in the fields near my mother's hut, free to swim in the clear stream that ran through my village, free to roast mealies under the stars and ride the broad backs of slow-moving bulls. As long as I obeyed my father and abided by the customs of my tribe, I was not troubled by the laws of man or God. [Mandela 1995: 750-751]

participant as Thing (noun)I, fields, hut, stream, village, mealies, stars, bulls, father...

quality as Epithet (adjective)free, clear, broad

process as Process (verb)was born, to run, to swim, to roast, rise, obeyed...

logical relation as Textual Theme (conjunction)as long as

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I was not born with a hunger to be free. I was born free - free in every way that I could know. Free to run in the fields near my mother's hut, free to swim in the clear stream that ran through my village, free to roast mealies under the stars and ride the broad backs of slow-moving bulls. As long as I obeyed my father and abided by the customs of my tribe, I was not troubled by the laws of man or God.

It was only when I began to learn that my boyhood freedom was an illusion, when I discovered as a young man that my freedom had already been taken from me, that I began to hunger for it. At first, as a student, I wanted freedom only for myself, the transitory freedoms of being able to stay out at night, read what I pleased and go where I chose. Later, as a young man in Johannesburg, I yearned for the basic and honourable freedoms of achieving my potential, of earning my keep, of marrying and having a family - the freedom not to be obstructed in a lawful life.

‘freedom’ as quality (adjective)

‘freedom’ as thing (noun)

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I have walked that long road to freedom.

‘walking’ as a process (verb)

But I can only rest for a moment, for with freedom come responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my long walk is not yet ended.

‘walking’ as a thing (noun)

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Later, as a young man in Johannesburg, I yearned for the basic and honourable freedoms of achieving my potential, of earning my keep, of marrying and having a family.

It was this desire for the freedom of my people to live their lives with dignity and self-respect that animated my life, that transformed a frightened young man into a bold one, that drove a law-abiding attorney to become a criminal, that turned a family-loving husband into a man without a home, that forced a life-loving man to live like a monk.

‘freedom’ as an object of desire...

‘freedom’ as a catalyst of change...

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It was this desire for the freedom of my people to live their lives with dignity and self-respect...

- that animated my life,

- that transformed a frightened young man into a bold one,

- that drove a law-abiding attorney to become a criminal,

- that turned a family-loving husband into a man without a home,

- that forced a life-loving man to live like a monk.

cause...

effects...

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I wanted my people to be free

and so my life became animated

and so a frightened young man became bold

and so a law-abiding attorney became a criminal

and so a family-loving husband became a man without a home

and so a life-loving man lived like a monk

- in more ‘spoken’ language...

‘cause’ between clauses

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This desire for the freedom of my people to live their lives with dignity and self-respect

animated my life,

transformed a frightened young man into a bold one,

drove a law-abiding attorney to become a criminal,

turned a family-loving husband into a man without a home,

forced a life-loving man to live like a monk.

- in more ‘written’ language...

‘cause’ in the clause (Agent affecting Medium)

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3. Ideational grammatical metaphor

3.1 constructing knowledge in social science (Bernstein - sociology)

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Consider a situation where a small holder meets another and complains that what he/she had done every year with great success, this year failed completely. The other says that when this happened he/she finds that this 'works'. He/she then outlines the successful strategy.

Now any restriction to circulation and exchange reduces effectiveness. Any restriction specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge. Stratification procedures produce distributive rules which control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire. Thus both Vertical and Horizontal discourses are likely to operate with distributive rules which set up positions of defence and challenge.

- Bernstein changing gears...

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- writing as we speak (another Basil Bernstein example)

Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a

cover, and peeps through its slit.

participants as nouns:lavatory, walls, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring,

paper

qualities as adjectives:stark, bare, pristine, white, square

processes as verbs:imagine, are painted, sits, is folded, hangs, is hidden, peeps

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participants as nouns:

lavatory, wall, washbowl, apparatus, soap, sink, towel, rail, ring, paper

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paper


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paper


processes as verbs:imagine, are painted, sits, is folded, hangs, is hidden, peeps

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In the second lavatory there are books on a shelf, pictures on the wall, and some relaxing of the rigours of the first. In the third lavatory there are books on the shelf, pictures on the wall, and perhaps a scattering of tiny objects. In the fourth lavatory the rigour is totally relaxed. The walls are covered with a motley array of postcards, there is a wide assortment of reading matter and curio. The lavatory roll is likely to be uncovered and the holder may well fall apart in use.

nominalising (processes as things):

some relaxing of the rigours of the first[not organised as strictly]

a scattering of tiny objects[tiny objects are scattered (about)]

in use[when used]

- towards writing as we write...

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We can say that as we move from the first to the fourth lavatory we are moving from a strongly classified to a weakly classified space; from a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion to a space regulated by weak rules of exclusion. [Bernstein 1975: 153]

'cause in the clause' (nominalised processes as Agents):

a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion

- written explanations...

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Imagine four lavatories. The first is stark, bare, pristine, the walls are painted a sharp white; the washbowl is like the apparatus, a gleaming white. A square block of soap sits cleanly in an indentation in the sink. A white towel (or perhaps pink) is folded neatly on the chrome rail or hangs from a chrome ring. The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and peeps through its slit. In the second lavatory there are books on a shelf, pictures on the wall, and some relaxing of the rigours of the first. In the third lavatory there are books on the shelf, pictures on the wall, and perhaps a scattering of tiny objects. In the fourth lavatory the rigour is totally relaxed. The walls are covered with a motley array of postcards, there is a wide assortment of reading matter and curio. The lavatory roll is likely to be uncovered and the holder may well fall apart in use. We can say that as we move from the first to the fourth lavatory we are moving from a strongly classified to a weakly classified space; from a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion to a space regulated by weak rules of exclusion. [Bernstein 1975: 153]

- drifting from exemplification to theory (Maton’s semantic gravity)...

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- Bernstein’s explanatory drift...

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the pay-off - definitions ( taxon o my building te ch nicali t y; Halliday / Martin 20 0 3 ) ...a Vert ical disc o urse (Token/term)

takes the fo rm of (= )

a coheren t , explic it and s ystemat ically pri ncipled s tr uc tur e , hiera rch ically organised as in the scie nces, o r it takes t he form of a series of specialised languages with specialised modes of inter rogati o n and sp e cialised criteria fo r the prod uc tion and circulati o n of te xts as in the so cial scie nces and humanities. (Value/definition)

A Horizo ntal dis cou rse (Token/term)

entails ( = )

a set of strategies wh ich are lo cal, segme ntally organised, co ntext sp e cific and dependent, for maximising e nco unters wit h pers on s and habitats. (Value/defiition)

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the pay-off - explanations (Halliday 1998, 2004; Martin & Wodak 2004)

Consider a situation where a small holder meets another and complains that what he/she had done every year with great success, this year failed completely. The other says that when this happened he/she finds that this 'works'. He/she then outlines the successful strategy.

Now any restriction to circulation and exchange reduces effectiveness. Any restriction specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge. Stratification procedures produce distributive rules which control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire. Thus both Vertical and Horizontal discourses are likely to operate with distributive rules which set up positions of defence and challenge.

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Now any restriction to circulation and exchange (Agent)reduces effectiveness (Medium)

Any restriction (Agent)specialises, classifies and privatises knowledge (Medium)

Stratification procedures (Agent) produce distributive rules… (Medium)

distributive rules which (Agent)control the flow of procedures from reservoir to repertoire (Medium)

...distributive rules which (Agent)set up

position of defence and challenge (Medium)

- finely tuned causality...

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3.2 Constructing knowledge in humanities (Billig - critical theory)

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There are several very different transformations which the concept ‘nominalization’ can describe:

Linguistic Nominalization...Etymological Nominalization...Psychological Nominalization...Between-Text Nominalization...Within-Text Nominalization...

- classifying discourse…

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- arguing

… explaining how the fact that critical writers themselves use language they critique as distorted might be construed as distorting their own discourse:

Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals and distorts. Their argument is made through the use of nominalization. Because it uses forms that are said to distort, the argument must itself be distorted. Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself – or reduces itself to a self-referential paradox. Either way, it is seriously compromised.

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Causal relations in this explanation, both between clauses (via the linkers because, thus) and within them (Halliday's Agent Medium relations) depend on Billig nominalising what critical writers do (i.e. argue that nominalisation conceals and distorts) as an argument...

Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals and distorts. Their argument is made through the use of nominalization. Because it uses forms that are said to distort, the argument must itself be distorted. Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself – or reduces itself to a self-referential paradox. Either way, it is seriously compromised.

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...the argument is then played off as an affecting or affected participant as his rhetoric requires. The relevant affecting and affected participants are outlined in Table 1 (with elided items filled in parentheses). Agent (affecting) Process Medium (affected) nominalization conceals and distorts (something) (by critical writers) is made their argument It (their argument) uses forms forms are said to distort (something) (distorting forms) must be distorted the argument the critical argument destroys itself (the critical argument) (the critical argument) reduces itself (the critical argument) (distorting forms) is compromised it (the critical argument)

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Turning to considerations of information flow, Billig begins by referring to critical writers; but his explanation is not about them, it's about their arguments. So their argument is nominalised and re-iterated thereafter as the Theme (pace Halliday) of every clause (bold face red font below):

Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals and distorts. Their argument is made through the use of nominalization. Because it uses forms that are said to distort, the argument must itself be distorted. Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself – or (the argument) reduces itself to a self-referential paradox.

Either way, it is seriously compromised.

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At the other end of all but one these clauses Billig concentrates on his news, namely, the negative evaluation he is developing of critical writers' argument (bold face below). The bad news involves either negative processes (e.g. distorts) or attributes (e.g. a self-referential paradox):

Critical writers have argued that nominalization conceals and distorts. Their argument is made through the use of nominalization. Because it uses forms that are said to distort, the argument must itself be distorted. Thus, the critical argument either destroys itself – or (the argument) reduces itself to a self-referential paradox.

Either way, it is seriously compromised.

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These negative evaluations highlight another important function of nominalisation - that of affording opportunities for evaluation. As foreshadowed in Trew 1979, resources for both positive and negative evaluation in language key heavily on nominals (cf. Trew's rioting blacks, African demonstrators, thirteen unarmed Africans, Zimbabweans).

And without nominalisation, there would be no affected participant for long-term critics of CDA to pounce upon:

Long-term opponents of critical discourse analysis might pounce gleefully upon the preceding analyses.

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3.3 Comparison with lexical metaphor

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compare lexical metaphor...

The lavatory paper is hidden in a cover, and peeps through its slit.

...a word is used in such a way that:

- there are two meanings involved['peeping' and 'just visible']

- they are layered (literal/transferred; figure/ground; surface/deep)['peeping' literal, 'just visible' transferred]

- one implies the other (symbolisation) ['looking quickly and secretly' implying 'just visible'

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vs grammatical metaphor... (Halliday 1994, Simon-Vandenbergen 2003)

...a structure is used in such a way that:

a space regulated by strong rules of exclusion

- there are two meanings involved

Medium (affected) a spaceProcess regulatedAgent (cause) by strong rules of exclusion

(Someone) regulated the spacex by strongly excluding things by means of rules

- they are layered (literal/transferred; figure/ground; surface/deep...)

Medium process Agent literal & enhancing clause complex transferred

- one implies the other (symbolisation)

'written' Medium process Agent implying

'spoken' enhancing clause complex

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3.4. Halliday summary

from The Language of Science

& Complementarities in Language

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3.5 Derivation and grammatical metaphor

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We can treat nominalisation at the level of grammar (syntax if you will) as a grammatical resource for deriving nouns from other word classes -

e.g. nouns from verbs (transform/transformation)

transform transformation

or nouns from adjectives (free/freedom)

free freedom

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As a second step we can ask how this resource may or may not evolve to affect the relationship between discourse semantics and lexicogrammar.

For example, if we derive runner from run, we have a nominalisation that refers to a participant which operates as a human entity in semantic figures of various kinds (the runner won, the runner said... , the runner was tired); a runner is someone who runs, not a process.

The grammar and semantics match since we have a semantic entity realised by a noun.

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By the same token, if we derive a verb from a noun, so we can talk about texting someone, we have a verbalisation (to text) realising a semantic process; texting is the process of sending a written message via a mobile phone, not a participant.

The semantics and grammar match again because we have a process realised by a verb.

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[Mike Carlton SMH August 16, 2008]

Somehow, the Olympic Games are not doing it for me this time around.

All the usual stuff is in place. The opening sarah-moany was the most extravagant spectacle ever. Our silvery-blue team uniforms were a welcome change from green and gold, which - seditious though it may be to say so - simply don't work as colours together.

We are racking up the medal tally at a satisfactory rate, oi oi oi. Libby Trickett seems to have grown an extra row of pearly white teeth since her marriage. And the television commentary has been as doggedly banal as you could hope for. It is always a delight to hear those two verbs to medal and to podium get a workout. As in "Jessica medalled in this event in Athens and is hoping to podium again here in Beijing." All very emotional, as they keep assuring us, although they never specify exactly which emotion.

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It is these matching relations between discourse semantics and lexicogrammar that Halliday refers to as congruent (e.g. Halliday & Matthiessen 1999, 2004). This congruent relation, for the clause the runner texted his manager is outlined below. semantics participant process participant the runner texted his manager grammar nominal verbal nominal

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Contrast... An incongruent relation, for the clause their poor play led to their elimination... semantics process cause process Their poor

play led to their

elimination grammar nominal verbal nominal

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In his studies of the evolution of scientific English, however, Halliday notes that in writing a language may come to deploy derivation in ways that scramble a congruent relationship between semantics and grammar.

So when Billig writes that their argument is made through the use of nominalisation, he realises semantic processes of 'arguing', 'using' and 'nominalising' as nouns (instead of verbs), and the logical connection between them through a preposition (instead of a conjunction).

In this case the semantics and grammar don't match, but are in tension with one another - a tension we can release by rephrasing Billig in congruent discourse, e.g. they argued by using language which nominalised verbs.

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Halliday (e.g. 2004) refers to this phylogenetic development as grammatical metaphor, in this case ideational metaphor (since it involves processes, participants and causal relations between them). This incongruent relation, for Billig's clause, is outlined below. semantics process process manner process [[process]] the argument is made through the use of

nominalisation grammar nominal verbal preposition nominal

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As we can see, nominalisation (and derivation in general) is a resource for extending the lexical resources of a language.

Grammatical metaphor on the other hand is a resource for scrambling, within limits, the realisation relationship between semantics and grammar and so indefinitely extending a language's meaning potential.

This is much more than a vocabulary building exercise. It allows writers, and people who learn to speak writing, to mean more than one thing at once.

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Because of the tension between semantics and grammar there are two levels of meaning involved, not one, with one symbolising the other, in a figure to ground relation.

For Billig, grammatically speaking, one thing (the argument) is created by means of another one (the use of nominalisation);

at the same time, sufficiently literate speakers recognize that he is symbolising an additional layer of meaning comprising the various processes involved in someone deriving nouns and using them to argue with.

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Roman Holiday 1953 Paramont Pictures. (Audrey Hepburn & Gregory Peck; Eddie Albert).Produced and Directed by William Wyler. [CIC 77341, distributed in Australia by RainbowProducts Ltd]

J ournalist, cameraman pal, ‘incognito’ princess… (J ournalist talking to pal, getting rid ofhim to develop some sensational compromising pictures he has taken of journalist withincognito princess)

(J ): Well, I guess uh Irving has to go now.

(Irving): I do?

(J ): Yes, you know that big business development of yours that youhave to attend to.

(I): Ah… Oh, the development.

J : Yes, can’t afford not to take care of that.

(I): Yeah. I’ll see you later, Smitty. (shaking hands)

(S): Good luck with the new development.

(I): Thanks.

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Muller, M 1999 A Walk Through the Fire (A Sharon McCone Mystery). London: TheWomen’s Press.

(Sharon on the phone with Hy, after a shooting at a film shoot)

I considered. “That depends. D’you know where Tanner is?”

“He had a charter at noon, should be back by one-thirty.”

“Then I think I’ll stop in to see him. Glenna’ll drop me there, I’m going tohave a busy day, so I’ll see you whenever. Glenna can give you herimpressions of what happened at t he shoot when she gets to thehouse.”

The shoot. The shooting.

I glanced at Glenna. The irony of it hadn’t been lost on either of us. [p60]

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4. Historical explanation

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In history, reasoning is typically realised within rather than between clauses; events are nominalised and related to one another via agency and circumstantiation. e.g. The outflow of Vietnamese boat people throughout the region gave rise to great moral dilemmas in the implementation of government policies

- explaining...

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Realising cause inside the clause enables historians to fine tune causality by deploying verbs which elsewhere literally construe material and verbal activity (argue, act, attract, spark) but here enact finely differentiated types of cause and effect relations. This indefinitely enhances historians’ resources for explaining how one event affects another and is one important sense in which written language elaborates the meaning potential of a language. Nominal, prepositional and verbal realisations of cause inside the clause are typical of historical accounts (and of explanations as we shall see below). Manne begins text [3.8] in just these terms…

The Howard government’s unwillingness to apologise determined the nature of its response to other recommendations contained in Bringing them home.

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[3.8] [7] The Howard government’s unwillingness to apologise determined the nature of its response to other recommendations contained in Bringing them home. Because it refused to consider the present generation of Australians legally or morally responsible for the mistakes of the past, it refused altogether Bringing them home’s recommendation for financial compensation for members of the stolen generations. Because it thought the policies of child removal had been lawful and well-intentioned, it treated almost with contempt the arguments in Bringing them home which suggested that in removing Aboriginal children from their families by force previous Australian governments had committed serious violations of the human rights treaties they had signed or even acts of genocide. Because, nonetheless, it accepted that the Aboriginal children who had been taken from their families had suffered serious harm it was willing to allocate modest sums to assist members of the stolen generations with psychological counselling, family reunion, cultural projects, oral histories and so on.

cause inside the clause

cause between clauses

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causal verbs (circumstantial relation): The wide reporting of the violence had caused concern to grow among the politically powerful missionary societies in Britain The narrow selection of sources results in a profound ignorance of the basics of Va n Diemanian economy, society and... which in turn leads to a series of elementary errors. The wide reporting of the violence had caused concern to grow among the politically powerful missionary societies in Britain

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Pushing this one step further, nominalising the causal connection as impact: Only when the level of killing became such a prominent public issue from 1827 onwards, with such a dramatic impact on profit, colonisation and the operation of the penal system, did Arthur change tack (cf. the level of killing impacted on profit etc .): the level of killing …from 1827 onwards with such a dramatic impact on profit, colonisation and the operation of the penal system

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- co-opted action verbs (taking advantage of Agent Process Medium structure) The over-reliance on the government’s own records grossly distorts Windschuttle’s understanding of the realities of frontier life for two reasons. ‘very considerable difficulties arise from the insufficiency of stationery’. Government record keeping improves somewhat with the arrival of Sorrell in 1817 the detention in remote places were contributing to more regular bad decision making at the primary stage the savings from not holding unlawful arrivals in protracted detention… could be devoted to increased surveillance of all overstayers in the community This (= increased surveillance of all overstayers in the community) would facilitate the orderly departure from Australia of overstayers

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5. Ideational metaphor in science

5.1 explaining

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Warm fronts. When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass, the warm air, being less dense, slides up over the cold air and the temperature falls. Condensation generally ensues. The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front. Warm fronts are rare in Australia.

The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, known as cirrus cloud. As the front approaches, the clouds become lower and thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds. The weather usually clears quickly after the front has passed. However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval which may be anything up to a day or more, by a cold front. [Mesel 1963. 7.7]

Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions.

Fig. 7.7 shows how a cold front causes uplift and condensation in a warmer, humid, air mass.

The arrival of a cold front is marked by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

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The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, known as cirrus cloud. As the front approaches, the clouds become lower and thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds. The weather usually clears quickly after the front has passed. However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval which may be anything up to a day or more, by a cold front. [Mesel 1963. 7.7]




- temporal relations - causal relations

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- as sequential explanation

- as causal explanation

- genres may construe comparable knowledge differently!

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The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds, known as cirrus cloud. As the front approaches, the clouds become lower and thicker, culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds. The weather usually clears quickly after the front has passed. However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval which may be anything up to a day or more, by a cold front. [Messel 1963. 7.7]

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Warm fronts.

When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass,

the warm air, <<...being less dense>>, slides up over the cold air

being less dense

and the temperature falls.

Condensation generally ensues.

The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front.

Warm fronts are rare in Australia.

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Warm fronts.

When a warm air stream meets a colder air mass,

the warm air, <<...being less dense>>, slides up over the cold air

being less dense

and the temperature falls.


The surface between the two air masses is inclined at a smaller angle than is the case for a cold front.

Warm fronts are rare in Australia.

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Then water vapour generally condenses.

‘condensation’ as a noun

‘condensation’ as a verb

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The approach of a warm front is heralded by the appearance of high, white, wispy clouds,

known as cirrus cloud.

As the front approaches,

the clouds become lower and thicker,

culminating in masses of heavy rain clouds.

The weather usually clears quickly

after the front has passed.

However, a warm front is commonly followed, after an interval [[which may be anything up to a day or more]], by a cold front.

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The approach of a warm front is heralded by ...

As the front approaches,

‘approaching’ as a noun

‘approaching’ as a verb

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high, white, wispy clouds appear

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High, white, wispy clouds appear and so (we know that) a warm front is approaching

nouns affecting nouns (inside a clause)

processes leading on to processes (between clauses)

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Cold fronts.

A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground

as it flows towards regions [[in which warmer, less dense, air is rising.]]

This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier,

and if it is humid

condensation of water vapour will take place.

The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type.

The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front.

Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions.



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The arrival of a cold front

is marked

by a sharp drop in temperature

and a sudden change of the wind direction.

When the cold front arrives

the temperature drops sharply

and the wind changes direction suddenly

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Condensation of water vapour will take place.

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- causality between clauses...

if it is humid

condensation of water vapour will take place.

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This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier,

The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front.

Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs as a result of cold front conditions.


noun

verbprepositional

adjectival

- causality within clauses...

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Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier,

A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler because ‘the temperature of an expanding air mass falls because it uses heat energy to expand’

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Cold fronts. A stream of comparatively cold, dense air tends to move along close to the ground as it flows towards regions in which warmer, less dense, air is rising. This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type.

This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. So usually cumulous clouds form.

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This rising air becomes cooler for the reasons mentioned earlier, and if it is humid condensation of water vapour will take place. The resulting clouds are usually of the cumulous type. The front edge of the cold air mass is known as a cold front. Much of the rain that falls in Australia occurs because cold front conditions occur.

98

Cold fronts. ...


Fig. 7.7 shows how a warmer, humid air mass rises and (water vapour) condenses because a cold front (arrives).

99

The arrival of a cold front

is marked (cf. is heralded)

by a sharp drop in temperature and a sudden change of the wind direction.

- evidence of...

100




101


5.2 defining

102

The amount of water vapour present in a sample of air is called the humidity.

The amount of water vapour actually present in the air, expressed as a percentage of the amount needed to saturate it at its temperature, is called the relative humidity.

In a low pressure area - often called a depression or simply a “low”, ...

- some nominalised technical terms:

103

The amount of water vapour present in a sample of air

is called

the humidity.

The amount of water vapour actually present in the air, expressed as a percentage of the amount needed to saturate it at its temperature,

is called

the relative humidity.

In a low pressure area -

often called

a depression or simply a “low”, ...

- definitions relate one ‘thing’ to another:

104

- either or both sides of a definition may involve nominalisation

This curving of the waves which

is called

diffraction

this bumping of the electrons into atoms

forms

a friction or resistance to the passage of electrons through the wire

105

Let us examine what happens when a tuning fork vibrates.

As the prong of the fork moves outwards it gives a kick to the air particles next to it. These bunch together and in turn pass the kick to those next to them...

As the prong moves backwards it leaves a space where the air particles are spread further apart than they were before and the bunched up particles bounce back into this space...

On its next outward movement the prong bunches up more of the particles. This is repeated every time the prongs vibrate. Very quickly a series of bunches, or compressions and spaces, or rarefactions, spreads out from the tuning fork. These make up the sound wave...

A sound wave is often referred to as a compression wave...

- another nominalised definition...

107

If we look at how a tuning fork produces sound (b) we can learn just what sound is. (c) By looking closely at one of the prongs (d) you can see that it is moving to and fro (vibrating). (e) As the prong moves outwards (f) it squashes, or compresses, the surrounding air. (g) The particles of air are pushed outwards (h) crowding against and bashing into their neighbours (i) before they bounce back. (j) The neighbouring air particles are then pushed out (k) to hit the next air particles and so on. (l) This region of slightly 'squashed' together air moving out from the prong is called a compression. (m) When the prong of the tuning fork moves back again (n) the rebounding air particles move back into the space that is left. (o) This region where the air goes 'thinner' is called a rarefaction (p) and also moves outwards. (q) The particles of air move to and fro in the same direction in which the wave moves. (r) Thus sound is a compression wave that can be heard. (Heffernan & Learmonth 1982:127)

108


5.3 classifying

109

Shapes of Magnets (cloze exercise - building field)

Magnets are of many shapes, Some are cylindrical rods and some are rectangular bars. They are called bar magnets. Some are U-shaped. Some are called 'horse-shoe magnets' because they look like hore-shoes.

110

Types of magnets (cloze exercise - building field)

There are two kinds of magnets: temporary magnets and permanent magnets. Temporary magnets are usually made of iron and are able to keep their magnetism for a short time. Permanent magnets are usually made of steel and are able to keep their magnetism for a long time.

Magnets must be treated gently. If a magnet is struck with a hard object, or falls on the ground, then the magnetic particles inside it will become jumbled and it will become weaker. Similarly, heating a magnet will also make it weaker.

111

As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, (b) we can place most substances into one of two groups. (c) The first group contains materials with many electrons that are free to move. (d) These materials are called conductors (e) because they readily carry or conduct electric currents. (f) Conductors are mostly metals (g) but also include graphite. (h) The second group contains materials with very few electrons that are free to move. (i) These materials are called nonconductors (j) and are very poor conductors of electricity. (k) Nonconductors can be used to prevent charge from going where it is not wanted. (l) Hence they are also called insulators. (m) Some common insulators are glass, rubber, plastic and air. (n) There are a few materials, such as germanium and silicon, called semiconductors. (o) Their ability to conduct electricity is intermediate between conductors and insulators. (p) Semiconductors have played an important role in modern electronics. (Heffernan & Learmonth 1983:212)

113

As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, (b) we can place most substances into one of two groups. (c) The first group contains materials with many electrons that are free to move. (d) These materials are called conductors (e) because they readily carry or conduct electric currents. (f) Conductors are mostly metals (g) but also include graphite. (h) The second group contains materials with very few electrons that are free to move. (i) These materials are called nonconductors (j) and are very poor conductors of electricity. (k) Nonconductors can be used to prevent charge from going where it is not wanted. (l) Hence they are also called insulators. (m) Some common insulators are glass, rubber, plastic and air. (n) There are a few materials, such as germanium and silicon, called semiconductors. (o) Their ability to conduct electricity is intermediate between conductors and insulators. (p) Semiconductors have played an important role in modern electronics. (Heffernan & Learmonth 1983:212)

114

As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, we can place most substances into one of two groups.

These materials are called conductors because they readily carry or conduct electric currents.

These materials are called nonconductors and are very poor conductors of electricity.

There are a few materials, such as germanium and silicon, called semiconductors. Their ability to conduct electricity is intermediate between conductors and insulators.

115

substances can carry electricity

substances can’t carry electricity

a low ability to carry electricity

an intermediate ability to carry electricity

a high ability to carry electricity

‘ability’ as a verb (can or can’t):

‘ability’ as a noun (various degrees):

116

6. Interpersonal metaphors

6.1 basic mood and modality metaphors

117

INTERPERSONAL METAPHOR - met aphors of mood (so -called ‘indire ct speech act s’)

que st ioning ( ‘demand for inf ormatio n’)

realised directly : What ’s your name ? [inter rogat ive: wh mood]

realised indirectly : And you are… ? [declarat ive moo d] Tell me y our name . [imperat ive moo d]

118

Frank: And you are...?Rita: I'm a what.

Frank: Pardon.Rita: What?Frank: And you are...? What is your name?Rita: Me first name?Frank: Well, that would at least constitute some sort of start, wouldn't it?Rita: Rita.Frank: Rita. [Russell, W 1985 Educating Rita. London: Longman]

119

commanding (‘demand for goods or service’)

realised directly:

Give me a walnut bun. [imperative mood]

realised indirectly:

Could you give me a walnut bun? [interrogative: polar mood]

I wonder if I could have a walnut bun. [declarative mood]

121

The metaphor interpretation predicts that (i) both mood and speech function can be responded to, typically in that order (figure then ground); (ii)mood can be negotiated literally, at face value; (iii) grammar will symbolise semantics, by factoring out and redistributing the meaning of a speech function; (iv) the number of indirect realisations is not closed, though indefinitely constrained by (iii).

Can you please detain them?- Yes, alright. (i)

Can you please detain them?- I can but I won’t. (ii)

Can/could/will/would you please detain them. (iii)I’m wondering if you could detain them. (iii)I’d like you to detain them please. (iii)If you could just detain them… (iii)etc. (iv)

122

- metaphors of modality (‘indirect’ probability, inclination, obligation…)

[Dr Watson with Sherlock Holmes in The Valley of Fear]

"I'm inclined to think---" said I.

"I should do so," Sherlock Holmes remarked impatiently.

I believe that I am one of the most long-suffering of mortals; but I'll admitthat I was annoyed at the sardonic interruption. "Really, Holmes," said Iseverely, "you are a little trying at t imes." [Doyle 1981: 769]

123

- degrees of commitment(recommitting experiential meaning in modality metaphor)

When laughter can be the best medicine

This was followed by Kapokie Tapokie from Pukekohe's phone message: "Hey bro. Heard the one about a lie detector being installed on the Wallabies bus? A centre hooked himself up and said, 'I think we have the best defence in the world'. The detector went off. A front-rower then hooked himself up and said, 'I think I'm the best player in the world'. The detector went off. A second-rower said, 'I think...' and the detector went off. Good one. eh! Eh! You there?" [Monday Maul Greg Crowden SMH 14/5/2007]

124

modal verbs

will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, must; ought to, used to;need, dare [cf. needs to, dares to, is to, has to; has got to, had better...]

modal adverbs

probably, presumably, predictably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably,assuredly, surely, certainly, obviously... ; sometimes, occasionally, usually,always, seldom, never...

related complex verbal expressions (be + adjective or passive verb)

be willing to, be prepared to, be able to, be anxious to, be determined to,be keen to, be reluctant to... ; be allowed to, be permitted to, be entitledto, be supposed to, be expected to, be required to, be intended to, bedesignated to, be obliged to, be prohibited from, be desired to...

125

direct modalisation indirect modalisation

126

direct realisation = modal verb/adverb (would probably)

indirect realisation = first person, present tense, cognitive process

Holmes responds literally, reconstruing Watson’s ‘intended’ metaphoricalmodality as a mental process:

127

When laughter can be the best medicine

This was followed by Kapokie Tapokie from Pukekohe's phone message: "Hey bro. Heard the one about a lie detector being installed on the Wallabies bus? A centre hooked himself up and said, 'I think we have the best defence in the world'. The detector went off. A front-rower then hooked himself up and said, 'I think I'm the best player in the world'. The detector went off. A second-rower said, 'I think...' and the detector went off. Good one. eh! Eh! You there?" [Monday Maul Greg Crowden SMH 14/5/2007]

128

- subjective/objective metaphors… Probability Unmarked realisation Metaphor modalise I can’t bear it, can I? subjectify I don’t think I can bear it, can I? objectify It’s not likely I can bear it, can I? Obligation Unmarked realisation Metaphor modulate You should get it fixed. subjectify I’d like you to get it fixed. objectify It’s advisable you get it fixed.

129

- ‘expanded’ negotiability

‘I don’t suppose there’s any chance I might be able to get an extensionon my essay…’

- you c an’t, no … [ able]- cert ainly not, no … [ might ]- not a chance, no… [ chance]- I don ’ t t hink so, I’ m sorry… [I don’t sup pose]

130

6.2 More on modality

132

Fig. 6: Explicit subjective assessment of probability

- Is he?

- orientation/manifestation

133

Fig. 7: Implicit subjective assessment of probability

134

Fig. 8: Implicit objective assessment of probability

135

Fig. 9: Explicit objective assessment of probability

136

Fig. 10: Summary of ORIENTATION and MANIFESTATION

objective

subjective

explicit

137

TYPE low value median value high value

PROBABILITY possibly probably certainly

USUALITY sometimes usually always

INCLINAT ION be willing to be keen to be determined to

OBLIGATION be allowed to be supposed to be required to

ABILITY [be able to] - -

Table 1: Low, median and high valued realisations for modality types

- value

138

Fig. 11: Graded probability as an example of scaled value

- value

median

is

isn’t

139

Modalisation (epistemic modality in formal semantics) is concerned withassessing states of knowledge. The two key systems are probability(how sure?) and usuality (how often?). Their implicit objective form ofrealisation involves modal adverbs, which may be used to reinforce thevalue of an accompanying modal verb as in Table 2.

value probability usuality

high must certainly must always

median would probably would usually

low might possibly might sometimes

- type

140

Fig. 12: Negotiating a proposition (statement) through a modalisation ofprobability

141

Modulation (deontic modality in formal semantics) is concerned withassessing commitment to action. The two key systems are inclination(how willing?) and obligation (how obliged?). Their implicit objective formof realisation involves a periphrastic form of the verbal group - the verbbe plus an adjective or passive participle as outlined in Table 3. The beplus adjective forms realise inclination, with the adjective allowingsubmodification (e.g. I'm very determined, rather keen, quite willing ); thebe plus passive participle forms realise obligation, which is not open tograding of this kind (*I'm very required to ).

value inclination obligation

high must, be determined to must, be required to

median will, be keen to will, be supposed to

low may, be willing to may, be allowed to

142

Fig. 13: Negotiating a proposal (command) through a modulation ofobligation

143

explicit subjective = modalisation metaphor

145

7. Unpacking metaphors

147

Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

If we connect a battery across a body, there is a movement of free electrons towards the positive end. This movement of electrons is an electric current. All materials can be classified into three groups according to how readily they permit an electric current to flow. These are: conductors, insulators and semiconductors.

In the first category are substances which provide an easy path for an electric current. All metals are conductors, however some metals do not conduct well. Manganin, for example, is a poor conductor. Copper is a good conductor, therefore it is widely used for cables. A non-metal which conducts well is carbon. Salt water is an example of a liquid conductor.

A material which does not easily release electrons is called an insulator. Rubber, nylon, porcelain are all insulators. There are no perfect insulators. All insulators will allow some flow of electrons, however this can usually be ignored because the flow they permit is so small.

Semiconductors are midway between conductors and insulators. Under certain conditions they allow a current to flow easily but under others they behave as insulators. Germanium and silicon are semiconductors. Mixtures of certain metallic oxides also act as semiconductors. These are known as thermistors. The resistance of thermistors falls rapidly as their temperature rises. They are therefore used in temperature-sensing devices. (Glendinning 1980:1)

- not much nominalisation...

149

Conductors and insulators

All the practical effects of electricity are produced by the movement of electrons. In electrical work generally, materials can be grouped as either conductors or insulators. As a general definition a conductor has the ability to conduct electrons easily, while an insulator tends to prevent the flow of electrons. The production of charges as described in Section 2.1 is more readily demonstrated because the rods used are made of materials that are poor conductors. Most metals are good conductors and, with one or two exceptions, most non-metals are poor conductors (insulators).

Whether a material is a good or bad conductor cannot be decided in some arbitrary fashion, because there is no sharp dividing line. All materials have some opposition to the movement of electrons and the degree of opposition governs the use of the material. For example, an electric light receives electricity by means of a good conductor (copper) and to ensure the electrons flow only where desired, the copper wires are encased in a plastic sheathing (a poor conductor or a good insulator). The circumstances governing a material's use also have an effect on the selection.

- much more nominalisation...

150

Some salts are insulators when solid but are good conductors when molten. Neon is an insulator when not put under electrical stress, but becomes a conductor when the applied voltage is high enough to ionise the gas.

It is important to realise that there are degrees of conductivity. Under normal everyday usage, there is no perfect conductor, nor is there a perfect insulator. In addition to this there are materials in which the degree can be varied. These are called semi-conductors and in the highly refined state are very poor conductors (i.e. good insulators). As their content of impurities is increased, their ability to conduct electrons also increases. Semiconductors are first purified and then "doped" to the required degree of impurity to control the rate of flow of electrons through them.

Insulators that are porous and capable of absorbing moisture must be regarded with caution because as they become damp their insulating qualities decrease markedly. These materials (e.g. wood) are often impregnated with varnish to prevent the absorption of moisture. (Jenneson 1980:23.)

151

The Abstract summarises relationships between the hardness of these steels, and their resistance to abrasive wear. A direct linear relationship between hardness and wear resistance was found for some steels, but for not for others. The study showed that resistance to wear varied with both carbon content and micro-structure. And the type of wear also varied with both carbon content and micro-structure. [5:16] A study of the abrasive wear of carbon steels Abstract The abrasive wear behaviour of 0.01%-1.4% carbon steels heat treated to various micro-structures and hardnesses was studied using a pin-on-drum machine. For constant hardness and carbon content less than 1.0%, the results show that bainite had the hardest wear resistance, followed by tempered martensite and annealed structures. For 1.2% steel, the annealed structure had wear resistance superior to the quenched and tempered structure and spheroidized structure. Additionally the relationship between relative wear resistance and hardness was linear for annealed steels, but the slope for hypoeutectoid steels was lower than for hypereutectoid steels. A non-linear relationship between wear resistance and hardness of tempered martensite was confirmed for both 0.38% and 0.75% steels. This behaviour indicates that abrasive wear resistance is not simply related to the hardness of materials, but is determined also by the microstructure and fracture properties. Microscopical studies showed the dominant wear mechanism to be microcutting with significant microploughing for very low carbon hypoeutectoid steel, and substantial cracking and spalling in higher carbon steels and in quenched and low temperature tempered medium carbon steels.

152

Introduction Numerous empirical observations between abrasive wear of carbon steels and both hardness and carbon content have been established [1-5]. Kruschov and Babichev [1-3] proposed a linear relationship between wear resistance and hardness, and also an additive rule of wear resistance for structurally inhomogeneous materials. For tempered structures, Larsen-Badse and Mathew [5] and Larsen-Badse [6] suggested that wear resistance should be a linear function of the logarithm of the absolute tempering temperature above 2500C and the square root of distance between the dispersed carbides. The volume fraction of pearlite is evidently important in controlling the wear of annealed carbon steels, and it has been agreed [7, 8] that wear resistance is, in fact, proportional to this volume fraction in hypoeutectoid steels. ... Experimental details ... The microstructures of the specimen materials were examined using optical microscopy. Wear mechanisms were elucidated by scanning electron microscopy of the wear debris, wear surface topography and subsurface. The subsurface was exposed by partially removing and polishing the slightly curved surface formed by the geometry of the drum. Precipitated carbides were studied using transmission electron microscopy, and retained austenite was measured using computer aided image analysis and by linear intercept analysis.

153

Results and Discussion ...

The results presented in Figs 1-3 indicate that the grain boundary allotriomorphs of cementite and the cementite in pearlite have different effects with increasing hardness and wear resistance. Also it is clear that a linear relationship between wear resistance and hardness can exist only for steels having similar microstructural characteristics and, for this condition, hardness can be used as a predictor of wear resistance. Therefore, for the steels with the same type of annealed structures, the linear relationship between relative wear resistance, e, and hardness, HV, can be expressed as e = a + b HV where a and b are constants. This relationship is a modified form of the equation e = b HV proposed by Kruschov and Babichev, ...

154

Conclusions (1) For annealed steels, both the wear resistance and hardness were linearly related to carbon content with different slopes for hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels. Similarly the the slope of the linear relationships between relative wear resistance and hardness was different for hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels. Thus hardness can be used as a predictor of wear resistance only for annealed steels with the same type of microstructure. ...

155

8. Construing knowledge

- across the curriculum...

156

history:

This most successful phase of the Long March owes a great deal to the diplomatic skills of Zhou Enlai and to the bravery of the rearguard.

English:

Click is about a young girl who has run away from reality and its unhappiness and death that it confronted her with.

economics:

An increase in consumer demand will result in high prices owing to a shortage in domestic supply.

157

science:

Thus sound is a compression wave that can be heard.

As far as the ability to carry electricity is concerned, (b) we can place most substances into one of two groups.

geography:

The effects of industrialisation and the need of more land due to the growth of population seriously affected wildlife and still is today already...

158

In terms of a dynamic perspective on language, research suggests that direct realisations tend to precede grammtically metaphorical ones…

- in the evolution of a culture (with the emergence of a writing system as a crucial step)

- in the development of the individual (with secondary schooling as transitional)

- and in unfolding discourse (with more direct textures tending to precede more metaphorical ones)

Learning to access disciplinary knowledge in secondary school thus depends on control of this resource for meaning.

159

Christie, F & J R Martin 2007 Knowledge Structure: functional linguistic and sociological perspectives (Ed. F Christie & J R Martin). London: Continuum.

Coffin, C 2006 Historical Discourse: the language of time, cause and evaluation. London; Continuum.

Halliday, M A K 1998 Things and relations: regrammaticising experience as technical knowledge. in Martin & Veel. 185-235.

Halliday, M A K 2004 The Language of Science. London: Continuum (Vol 5 in the Collected Works of M A K Halliday J Webster Ed.). London: Continuum.

Halliday, M A K 2008 Complementarities in Language. Beijing: Commercial Press.

Halliday, M A K & J R Martin 1993 Writing Science: literacy and discursive power. London: Falmer (Critical Perspectives on Literacy and Education).

Halliday, M A K & C M I M Matthiessen 1999 Construing Experience through Language: a language-based approach to cognition. London: Cassell.

Halliday, M A K & C M I M Matthiessen 2004 An Introduction to Functional Grammar. (3rd Edition) London: Arnold.

160

Martin, J R 1993b Technology, bureaucracy and schooling: discursive resources and control. Cultural Dynamics 6.1. 84-130.

Martin, J R & David Rose 2003 Working with Discourse: meaning beyond the clause. London: Continuum.

Martin, J R & R Veel [Eds.] 1998 Reading Science: critical and functional perspectives on discourses of science. London: Routledge.

Martin, J R & R Wodak [Eds.] 2003 Re/reading the past: critical and functional perspectives on discourses of history (Ed. J R Martin & R Wodak) Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Simon-Vandenbergen, A-M, M Taverniers & L J Ravelli [Eds] 2003. Metaphor: systemic and functional perspectives. Amsterdam: Benjamins

Wignell, P 2007 On the Discourse of Social Science. Darwin: Charles Darwin University Press.

Zhu, Yongsheng 2008 Nominalisation, verbalisation and grammatical metaphor. J Webster [Ed.] Meaning in Context: strategies for implementing intelligent applications of language studies. London: Continuum. 297-308.

162

Roman Holiday 1953 Paramont Pictures. (Audrey Hepburn & Gregory Peck; Eddie Albert).Produced and Directed by William Wyler. [CIC 77341, distributed in Australia by RainbowProducts Ltd]

J ournalist, cameraman pal, ‘incognito’ princess… (J ournalist talking to pal, getting rid ofhim to develop some sensational compromising pictures he has taken of journalist withincognito princess)

(J ): Well, I guess uh Irving has to go now.

(Irving): I do?

(J ): Yes, you know that big business development of yours that youhave to attend to.

(I): Ah… Oh, the development.

J : Yes, can’t afford not to take care of that.

(I): Yeah. I’ll see you later, Smitty. (shaking hands)

(S): Good luck with the new development.

(I): Thanks.

163

Muller, M 1999 A Walk Through the Fire (A Sharon McCone Mystery). London: TheWomen’s Press.

(Sharon on the phone with Hy, after a shooting at a film shoot)

I considered. “That depends. D’you know where Tanner is?”

“He had a charter at noon, should be back by one-thirty.”

“Then I think I’ll stop in to see him. Glenna’ll drop me there, I’m going tohave a busy day, so I’ll see you whenever. Glenna can give you herimpressions of what happened at t he shoot when she gets to thehouse.”

The shoot. The shooting.

I glanced at Glenna. The irony of it hadn’t been lost on either of us. [p60]

1 grammatical metaphor j r martin department of linguistics, university of sydney

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