1. fire protection management

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Fire ProtectionManagement

C H A P T E R 1

A hostile fire can occur at any time and quickly become amajor disaster if a facility is not prepared. Competent planninginvolves more than an annual inspection from the local fireauthority and a call to 911 to summon help in case of anemergency. Within today’s complex environment, commercialand industrial facilities require a detailed organization that iscapable of handling a wide variety of emergencies.

FIRE LOSS PREVENTION AND CONTROLThe threat to life and property are real and apparent dangers of

fire. But in a business environment, there are other fire loss conse-quences that must be examined. Business interruption, damage tothe corporate image, and loss of future profits can present a threatto corporate goals and even survival.

A well-planned and managed fire protection program preventslosses. By preventing losses, unplanned expenses can be eliminated.These expenses include insurance deductibles, insufficient insur-ance coverage, increased insurance premiums and the intangiblesthat insurance does not cover. The costs of business interruptionand lost market share can also be high, and are often difficult toaccurately calculate. Complying with government regulations andmanaging contractors when rebuilding can be expensive and time-consuming. Losing the respect of customers, employees and thecommunity can be particularly ruinous to the health of a business.

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A fire protection program should be examined from a liabilityrisk perspective. Facility managers should recognize that simplycomplying with applicable regulations and codes may not beadequate when defending against a negligence claim. In a claim ofthis sort, the program will be compared to the standard of care of areasonable person. In a jury’s judgment, it might be necessary thata reasonable person be prudent, careful, consistently up to stan-dard and one who embodies a community ideal of wise and soundbehavior. In this light, would a fire and life safety program that con-forms to only minimum standards be considered wise and sound?

The magnitude of these consequences has led to the develop-ment of a formal structure to manage fire loss prevention and con-trol. These fire risk management loss control strategies should be apart of every facility’s fire protection program.

Hazard IdentificationThe process of recognizing the hazards that could affect serious

undesirable losses is known as hazard identification. It entails thecontinuous inspection of an existing facility and the evaluation ofadditions, modifications, new materials and evolving strategies.

The American Institute of Chemical Engineers’ Guidelines forHazard Evaluation Procedures presents many of the current meth-odologies used for hazard identification. These include:

• Engineering checklists and hazard indexes.

• Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA).

• Fault tree analysis (FTA).

• Hazard and operability study (HAZOP).

• Preliminary hazard analysis (PHA).

• Event tree analysis (see Figure 1-1).

• Cause-consequence diagrams.

Risk AssessmentOnce a hazard has been identified, an estimate of the potential

for loss must be determined. Methods that predict the probability

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and magnitude of a loss utilize a combination of statistical data,deterministic models and expert opinion. Fire risk assessment mod-els include the steps listed below:

1. Identifying the circumstances that could lead to a serious loss.

2. Quantifying fire event occurrences and loss consequences forvarious scenarios.

3. Developing alternative fire prevention and protection strategiesto reduce risk.

4. Evaluating the estimated changes in risk for each alternative.

Fire risk is the product of the probability of the occurrence of afire and the loss consequences of that fire (see Figure 1-2). If validdata is available, fire risk can be determined in an objective man-ner. An evaluation of historical data such as design standards, in-spection methods, maintenance and operations procedures, andenforcement of safety standards can be used to determine the

Fire Protection Management

Figure 1-1. A simple event tree is one of the many methods usedto identify hazards.

NO

NO

NO

FIRE

MINORDAMAGE

MAJORDAMAGE

HEAVYDAMAGE

MODERATEDAMAGE

EXTINGUISHED BYOCCUPANTS

YESEXTINGUISHED BYFIRE DEPARTMENT

CONTROLLED BYSPRINKLERS

YES

YES

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probability of a loss and its ensuing consequences.If historical data is not available, probabilities can be evaluated

using subjective estimations. Loss-trending statistics such ashuman error, equipment failures, ignition sources and loss controlelements are substituted for valid factual sources. An experiencedfire protection engineer will also apply knowledge of past fire lossesand evidence of loss control defects in a subjective appraisal.

When the intensity of a potential fire has been quantified, directand indirect loss potentials can be assessed. Damage to buildings,contents and equipment constitute direct losses. Indirect lossesinvolve liabilities for injury or death, business interruptions, envi-ronmental contamination and the tainting of a company’s image.These loss potentials are usually expressed in monetary terms.

Risk ManagementRisk management entails establishing acceptable degrees of risk

and then identifying methods of controlling these recognized risks.Defining what is an acceptable risk depends upon the specific goalsof the organization. Some of the criteria considered in the decision-making process include:

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Figure 1-2. Algorithm for the fire risk management process.

Loss Conse-quencesPotential impacton• life• property• operations(C)

HazardIdentification

Probabilityof a fireoccurring (P)

RiskQuantification(PxC)

AcceptableRisk• monitor

Not AcceptableRisk

• avoid• transfer• improve

Cost/BenefitAnalysis ofLoss ControlImprovement

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• Safety of employees and the public.

• Environmental concerns.

• Community goodwill.

• Fire codes, building codes, OSHA guidelines and other legalrequirements.

• Insurance company requirements.

• Competitive market position.

• Profit and continued growth.

• Continuity of company operations.

• Protection of company assets from major loss exposures.

No action is necessary if a risk is deemed acceptable, exceptthat changes that could increase risk must be monitored. If a risk isdeemed unacceptable, decisions on how to handle it must be made.Some of the options available in managing a fire risk are:

• Avoid the risk by not participating in risky operations.

• Transfer the risk by obtaining insurance to cover a potential loss.

• Transfer the risk through funded reserves or self-insurance.

• Effect loss control improvements.

• Using a combination of the above to develop a risk manage-ment program.

When a risk management decision that involves loss controlimprovements has been made, a cost/benefit analysis should beconducted. But the benefit or a measure of risk reduction may bedifficult to evaluate. Since this assessment of reduced probability ofa fire and the reduction of fire loss is subjective, it should be sup-ported by an examination of previous fire loss data and the opinionof a fire protection engineer.


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Evaluating the costs of a fire protection alternative is a muchsimpler task. These costs can be divided into initial costs, ongoingcosts and ripple effect costs. Samples of these are described below:

Initial Costs - Initial costs include:

• Equipment Costs—It is easier to estimate the cost of mass pro-duced or pre-engineered products and systems, and they willalso be less expensive than custom-made equipment.

• Installation Costs—Labor costs and overhead rates will varydepending upon the person-hours and skill level required.

• Financing Costs—Relevant interest expenses.

• Permit Costs—One-time fees payable to the building and/or firedepartments.

• Cost Offsets From Resale—The new systems may increase theresale value of the property and partially offset the initial costs.

Ongoing Costs - These include:

• Operating Costs—These include expenses for labor and utilities.

• Maintenance, Repair And Replacement Costs—Systems requireroutine maintenance, random repairs and often periodic replace-ment of the complete system or some of its components.

• Inspection Costs—Systems often require testing or inspection atperiodic intervals. Some tests require the destruction of systemcomponents that must then be replaced.

• System-Caused Damage Costs—Such as clean-up costs from theaccidental discharge of a dry chemical suppression system.

• License or Permit Costs—Such as annual fees payable to a localjurisdiction.

• Cost Offsets—Replaced system components may produce rev-enues from salvage. Purchased equipment may be depreciatedover a number of years.

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Ripple-Effect Costs - Ripple-effect costs include:

• Supporting System Costs—New equipment may compel themodification or addition of a support system. Water tanks andfire pumps for automatic sprinklers are examples of thesesupport systems. The initial and ongoing costs of the supportsystems must be identified and evaluated.

• Property Tax Costs—There may be tax consequences if the sys-tem adds value to the property.

• Trade-offs—Adding safety features may allow trade-offs in suchareas as increased density or the reduction in other required fireprotection equipment or assemblies.

• Credits And Incentives—Insurance premiums should be loweredbecause the expected property loss will be reduced. Purchaseincentives and income tax credits must also be considered.

Loss ControlAn important part of any fire risk reduction plan is the develop-

ment and implementation of a loss control program. A fire losscontrol program should contain specific objectives for life safety,property conservation and minimizing the interruption of companyoperations. An up-to-date written document should include discus-sions concerning these topics:


Fire’s Lingering EffectsIn 1982, a fire in electrical equipment roared through the basement

of the State Office Building in Binghamton, NY. Smoke and products ofcombustion spread throughout the structure, depositing dangerous PCBand dioxin residues.

Thirteen years later, after cleaning, rebuilding and then recleaningthe interior, the building finally reopened. The state invested a total of$53 million on detoxification efforts.

Even after the renovation, dangerous amounts of dioxin-tainted dustwere found. After additional cleaning efforts, a small amount of residueremained but was deemed safe.

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• Fire Prevention —System designs, operational controls, employeetraining and maintenance methods employed to prevent firesfrom starting.

• Fire Detection And Suppression Systems—Automatic fire pro-tection equipment and devices used to detect, control and ex-tinguish fires that do occur.

• Manual Protection—Manual firefighting provisions for incipientfires or to backup automatic fire protection systems.

• Protection For Buildings And Equipment—Active and passive fireprotection measures used to defend structures, equipment andoperations from fires that are not quickly extinguished.

The effectiveness of a loss control program depends on man-agement involvement and support. Administration, engineering andproduction managers should all provide input for the developmentof the program. Responsibility for implementing the plan should restwith the facility manager, loss control manager or a committee thathas direct access to top management.

Program Elements - Establishing formal procedures is the firststep in any loss control program. Written procedures should iden-tify specific objectives and will reduce the possibility of interpretiveerrors. A written document will also provide an available referenceand a constant reminder. It is management’s responsibility to en-sure that employees receive the proper training so they may satis-factorily perform the duties that the program delegates to them.

Individual procedures should focus on specific loss preventionelements such as housekeeping tasks, electrical maintenance orflammable materials handling. In addition to explaining what to doand when to do it, the procedures should educate employees as towhy the task is important. It should also give them the authority totake action when needed.

Frequent spot checks will ensure that procedures are being per-formed as intended. These spot checks might include implementinga regular system for examining the adequacy of housekeeping or beas uncomplicated as visiting a work area to insure that hot-workprecautions are being followed. An inspection report like the oneshown in Figure 1-3 can be used to easily document common fireprevention problems.

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9Fire Protection Management

Figure 1-3. Fire prevention inspection report. Courtesy: LosAngeles City Fire Department.

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The use of appropriate passive physical controls is another keyelement in a comprehensive fire prevention program. When flam-mable liquids are stored and handled, equipping containers withapproved shut-off valves will ensure that no unplanned releasesoccur. Devices such as fuses, circuit breakers and ground fault,overcurrent and differential relays interrupt a circuit and ensure thatequipment will be shut down before abnormal conditions can causea fire. The installation of barriers such as chain-link fencing aroundmachinery areas will help keep them separate and clear of combus-tible storage. Signs such as those shown in Figure 1-4 can serve asreminders to prompt safe practices.

SELLING FIRE PROTECTION TO MANAGEMENTThe purpose of every sales call is to secure a commitment. An

effective fire protection program involves the commitment of peopleat all levels in an organization. A facility manager committed to acertain fire safety measure must sell top management to gain ad-equate funds and labor to move ahead. Management must then sellthe rank-and-file to ensure their compliance.

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Figure 1-4. Signs posted in work areas can remind employees touse safe work habits.

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The ability to secure a commitment is just one of the many skillsa modern facility manager must possess. Since fire protection pro-grams are most vulnerable when costs are examined, knowledge ofbasic sales techniques and how to apply them must be understood.

Basic Sales ModelA need and a product that fulfills that need are the components

of the basic sales model. That the transaction benefits all parties,


Easy-To-Perform Tasks Can Prevent Hard-To-Swallow Fines

The U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety And HealthAdministration (OSHA) recently cited a St. Louis firm for willful viola-tions of basic safety and fire protection rules. Was the $414,000 fineassessed S.A.S. Company, Inc. a hard pill to swallow or actually a spoon-ful of sugar? Compared to the emotional and financial trauma inflictedby a wrongful death lawsuit, it was probably the latter.

The company’s facilities include a mattress factory and a generalmerchandise warehouse. They were cited for three “egregious” or espe-cially flagrant violations and nine other “serious” violations, including:

• Obstructed exits and blocked open fire doors.

• An unguarded open elevator shaft.

• An elevator with no inner gates, an unsecured rear wall and missingbolts in the drive machine.

• Improperly mounted fire extinguishers.

• No extinguisher training program.

• Lack of safe electrical practices.

• No hazardous materials training program.

Willful violations, according to OSHA, are committed with an inten-tional disregard of, or plain indifference to, the requirements of the Oc-cupational Safety And Health Act and regulations. Serious violationsinvolve those in which there is a substantial probability that death orserious physical harm could result from a hazardous condition and thatthe employer knew or should have known of the hazards.

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both the buyer and the seller, is another important aspect.When the sales model is applied to a fire safety measure, the

need is for some sort of protection. The product is the specific typeof protection and the benefits are the reduction of damage and otherloss-related elements caused by a fire.

A top salesperson studies a customer’s needs before making asales call. A facility manager should do the same. Prior to meetingwith management or owners to sell a fire safety measure, the facil-ity manager should effectively document:

• A detailed scenario and dollar estimates of the property damageand business interruption that could result under the currentconditions.

• A recommendation for improving the present condition and thebenefits of that improvement.

• A key benefit is the potential savings. The savings is the differ-ence between the loss with and without the improvement.

• Estimated costs to effect the improvement.

Justification for the measure is found in the difference betweenthe possible savings and the costs associated with the improvement.If the recommendation appears to be both feasible and economical,then management should be approached to gain their commitment.

Sales Model ApplicationAfter a fire damages a laboratory at a research facility, the

manager discovers that there was a considerable delay in contact-ing the municipal fire department. It is also determined that nobodyat the facility was properly trained in the use of portable fireextinguishers.

The loss from the fire, smoke and water damage, as well as busi-ness interruption, amounts to nearly one million dollars. The facil-ity manager believes that the delay in reporting the fire and the lackof appropriate extinguisher training significantly contributed to thelarge dollar loss. The manager realizes that there is a need for ef-fective emergency action. A product or program that could fulfillthat need is the development of an emergency organization (EO).

The facility manager needs to study two loss expectancies, onewith an EO in place and one without. The loss without an EO is

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already known—$950,000. The manager confers with the facility’sproduction, engineering and maintenance departments and con-cludes that the loss could have been limited to $125,000 if an effec-tive EO had been in place. The projected figures used here are notarbitrary. Figure 1-5 details actual fire loss statistics compiled by anational insurance carrier.

The facility manager meets with the company’s CEO and CFOand presents the two loss expectancies. The need already beingapparent to all, the manager introduces the product—an effectiveEO. The benefits of the EO are outlined:

• The EO is staffed, equipped and trained to handle fire, EMS,hazmat and other internal emergencies.

• The EO can instantly respond to an emergency where each pass-ing second can mean increased damage and dollar loss.

• Trained EO personnel will help to eliminate the delayed or wrongactions often taken by anxious people in an emergencysituation.


Figure 1-5. Average dollar loss per non-residential fire, 1980-1989.

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• A potential $825,000 savings in the event of a fire could be real-ized with an effective EO in place.

The substantial savings is presented by the facility manager asthe justification for the training and equipment expenses needed toassemble an EO.

Another element of the classic sales model emerges at thispoint—the objection. Everybody acknowledges that an EO is needed,but true to form, the CFO points to historical data that shows largefires rarely occur at the company’s facilities.

The facility manager is prepared to overcome this objection bynegotiating a compromise. The amount needed to form an EO isjust a fraction of the potential savings it would represent. After dis-cussing the estimated costs presented by the well-prepared man-ager, an initial expenditure of $40,000 and annual expenses of$10,000 are earmarked for an EO. The five-year cost of the EO willbe less than one-tenth the loss expectancy of a single fire.

THE EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION Many facility managers feel that it is enough to rely on the local

fire department to handle emergencies as they arise. But today’scomplex environment compels a much more ambitious strategy. Adetailed organization is required by modern facilities to manageemergency situations that may develop. While the make-up of thisorganization may be somewhat different than the management teamthat runs the day-to-day operations, the two must work togethertoward a common goal.

During an emergency, the emergency team is responsible forcontrolling the situation within the context of their ability. Theirobjectives are to protect life, minimize property damage and attemptto reduce any adverse impact on the facility’s image.

The Emergency PlanThe objective of an emergency plan is to protect a facility and

its occupants. The plan is a precise outline detailing the variousfacets that must be coordinated in an emergency situation. The planshould start with a description of its purpose and can include anorganizational chart. Each position of the emergency response teamshould have a designated back-up, since a fire can occur when akey member is sick or on vacation.

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Descriptions of the responsibilities of each team member areimportant aspects of the plan. Details for reporting emergencies,directing evacuations, assisting disabled occupants and otherimportant functions must be included. Specific information on man-aging the press, working with government agencies, notifyinginsurance carriers and notifying family members in case of injury ordeath are part of a well-structured emergency plan.

A strategy for the timely restoration of a facility following a firemust not be omitted from the plan. Organizing a team to start aclean up so that the facility can return to normal operations asquickly as possible is essential to restoration. The team needs totake prompt action to ensure that further damage does not occur,but must preserve the scene for cause determination and insuranceinvestigation.

Organizational StructureThe key person in the emergency organization is the Fire Safety

Director or Emergency Coordinator. The person in this position isresponsible for the implementation and the updating of the fire/lifesafety program or emergency plan. The director will ensure that thebuilding staff, employees, tenants and all occupants are familiar withthe emergency procedures. This position is often filled by the facil-ity manager, risk manager or one of their regular staff.

The emergency management team should also include a repre-sentative from engineering. This individual will have access to theplans of the building and be knowledgeable about the location ofmechanical equipment, utilities, roof access and other importantphysical features. A representative from operations will have knowl-edge of the hazardous materials that may be present and what otheroperations may cause special problems for the fire department.

A spokesperson who will coordinate information with outsideagencies should be designated. This individual will disseminate in-formation to the fire department upon their arrival and act as con-tinuing liaison between the facility emergency organization and thefire department command staff. The spokesperson may also meetwith representatives from other local, state or federal agencies.Responses to these government representatives should be pre-planned so that appropriate information is available when required.

If the emergency becomes a significant incident, media pres-ence can be expected. A media relations coordinator should handleall contacts. Some questions to anticipate are: What happened? Wasanyone hurt? What is the extent of the damage? Answers to


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questions relating to business or facility operations such as the num-ber of employees, annual sales, and types of operations conductedshould be pre-planned by the management team. The fire depart-ment will often have a public information officer respond to signifi-cant emergencies. This person can provide assistance in coordinat-ing and controlling information.

Emergency Response Team - Each individual floor or area ofa facility should have its own emergency response team (see Figure1-6). The basic responsibilities of the team are to notify buildingoccupants and the fire department that there is a fire and to assistwith the evacuation. Some facilities choose to train specific teammembers to use portable fire extinguishers on incipient fires.

Wardens are appointed to lead each response team. Wardensshould be selected for their ability to take charge, make rationaldecisions and maintain order. It is important that these individualshave a thorough knowledge of the facility’s emergency plan and areavailable during standard business hours.

Wardens, in times of emergency, will be in charge of makingsure that notifications have been made to the appropriate emer-gency personnel and managing the emergency team in their desig-nated area. They will also coordinate any relocation or evacuationand handle communications with emergency officials.

Room Monitors or Suite Wardens will ensure that all employeesor visitors in their immediate area have been evacuated. They willnotify the Floor Warden of this fact prior to leaving the area them-selves. The Room Monitor should also make sure that all electricalequipment has been shut off, enlist assistance for the physicallydisabled, take a head-count at the designated safe refuge or evacu-ation area and keep the group together and under control.

Stairwell Monitors, after meeting with Floor Wardens, assumetheir designated positions in all stairwells. They instruct relocatingoccupants of the safe refuge area to be used, coordinate the flowand entry of people into the stairwell, and secure the floor and closethe stairwell door when the floor has been evacuated.

Traffic Monitors are utilized when floor areas are large or com-plex. If sizable numbers of visitors frequent the building, Monitorsshould be assigned to the elevator lobbies to redirect evacuees.

Searchers assist the Wardens in conducting a systematic searchof specific areas such as restrooms or storage rooms. Searchers arealso useful when an area contains a complicated corridor system.Doors should be marked with chalk after a room has been searched.

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17Fire Protection

Man

agemen

t

Figure 1-6. Example of an emergency organization for a large or high-rise facility.

AREA WARDEN AREA WARDEN AREA WARDEN

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

ROOMMONITOR

FIRE SAFETY DIRECTOR

STAIRWELLMONITOR

STAIRWELLMONITOR

STAIRWELLMONITOR

TRAFFICMONITOR

TRAFFICMONITOR

TRAFFICMONITOR

SEARCHER SEARCHER SEARCHER

EQUIPMENTMONITOR

EQUIPMENTMONITOR

EQUIPMENTMONITOR

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Telephone Monitors are assigned to maintain an open line foreach floor or area.

Communications Monitors are utilized to physically relay infor-mation to or from an emergency site. These monitors should bevery familiar with the building layout.

First Aiders should only be qualified personnel. They report tothe Warden or to primary relocation or evacuation routes.

Fire Equipment Monitors operate fire extinguishers as needed.These persons must be trained in the safe and proper use of firehose and extinguishers.

Fire And Evacuation DrillsThe fire codes of many jurisdictions require that fire drills be

conducted in certain types of occupancies at predetermined inter-vals. Fire and evacuation drills should be essential components inevery facility’s emergency plan.

Initial drills can be announced in advance. Notices such as theone in Figure 1-7 can be used to advise tenants and employees ofthe proposed drill. Wardens and Monitors can be given pre-instruc-tions. Since the object of the introductory drills is to help uncoverweaknesses and work-out problems, they can be limited to groupsof three to five areas or floors.

Subsequent drills may be unannounced and should simulate asclosely as possible actual emergency conditions. The joint testingof facility emergency systems, staff procedures and tenant/occu-pant control factors will create an effective drill program. All drillsshould be taken seriously by all personnel.

The responsibilities given to the Fire Safety Director, Wardensand Monitors are numerous and vital. These are the people thatwill conduct, document and critique the drills. It is crucial that thepeople selected for these positions have management’s full supportand cooperation. The authority given to them should be clearly de-fined and understood by their associates. Identifying these key peoplewith vests, hats or armbands will ensure that they are recognizedby everybody.

Drills can be initiated in several ways:

• Singling out a person and presenting a fire/evacuationproblem.

• Direct activation of the fire alarm system by pull-station.

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Figure 1-7. Sample fire drill announcement. Attach a drillschedule and any special instructions.

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• Specific verbal advisement using the public address system.

• Other reaction-based method that would initiate procedures.

Prior to and at the completion of all drills, the fire departmentand/or the central alarm supervising station should be notified. Ifgiven advance notice, the fire department may want to participatein the drill. Some departments can provide an inspector to help con-duct or evaluate the initial drill program.

Timing the various phases of the drill will assist future drills byestablishing goals for improvement. Significant times to note are:

• Time from the discovery of the emergency to the notification ofstaff and systems operation.

• Time from alarm initiation to the evacuation of a floor or area.

• Time from the alarm initiation to the relocation at specificrefuge sites and a head count taken.

Since fire drills are required by many fire authorities, non-par-ticipation by tenants or employees must be documented. A list ofthese individuals should be given to the Fire Safety Director so thatthe appropriate action may be taken.

Some form of critique should follow each drill. Methods involvea meeting of the Fire Safety Director, staff and wardens to reviewthe drill, or the collecting of drill report forms such as the one shownin Figure 1-8. These forms are then analyzed and a general evalua-tion is issued to all members concerned. In either case, the evalua-tion should examine the problems encountered, changes neededand any ways to improve the program. The fire drill procedures andthe entire emergency plan are dynamic blueprints for a fire protec-tion program that must be constantly reviewed and updated.

PRIVATE FIRE BRIGADESMany large commercial and industrial facilities train groups of

their own employees to perform actual firefighting duties. Theaspect of limiting fire loss by containing fires in the incipient stageis the primary justification for forming a private fire brigade.

“Does our facility really need a fire brigade? Don’t we pay a lot

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Figure 1-8. Sample fire drill critique form.

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of taxes? Shouldn’t we be able to rely on the local fire departmentfor our fire protection needs?” These are valid questions often askedby managers, and in fact, a facility has every right to rely exclu-sively on the fire department for all fire suppression activities. But anumber of factors must be considered before the idea of a fire bri-gade is rejected:

• Does the facility have a high vulnerability to fire?

• How great are the property damage and business interruptionpotentials?

• Would a fire brigade help in reducing a facility’s susceptibility tolosses?

• Is a local fire department readily available and can it beeffective?

The possible benefits versus the costs of a fire brigade programshould also be evaluated:

• How much will the program cost?

• How much time will be spent on training?

• Will brigade members’ increased awareness of fire make pre-venting fires more likely?

• Can fires be safely fought by the brigade? Will injuries increasethe worker’s compensation premiums?

• Would an expanded fixed automatic fire protection system bemore effective? Which would have the greater effect on hazardinsurance premiums?

Local, state and even federal requirements must also be consid-ered. OSHA guidelines, for example, allow management to choosethe level of a facility’s fire fighting capacity from five options:

1. No employee will have any fire fighting responsibility. All occu-pants will evacuate the facility upon notification of a fire.

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2. All employees will receive training in the use of fire extinguish-ers to fight incipient fires.

3. Only specified employees throughout a facility will receive train-ing and respond to incipient fires.

4. An organized fire brigade will fight incipient fires.

5. An organized fire brigade will fight structural fires.

A structural fire brigade—as indicated in Option 5—could bebeneficial in many situations, but is often difficult to maintainfinancially. A well-trained team of employees equipped to attackincipient fires—Option 4—on the other hand, is comparatively simpleto develop and support. Whatever option is chosen, the effective-ness of the program depends on the commitment of companymanagement and their ability to motivate the employees involved.

FunctionThe basic responsibility of a fire brigade is to control an emer-

gency prior to the arrival of the fire department. The brigade doesnot replace the fire department, but should be considered as aninterim measure. A brigade’s performance during the early stagesof an emergency will help to increase the effectiveness of theresponding fire companies. Brigade member’s familiarity with thefacility and the events of and prior to the emergency are a valuableresource.

In addition to fire fighting duties, fire brigades can be trained toprovide emergency medical services (EMS) and conduct physicalrescues. Pre-planning emergencies, organizing fire drills andproviding CPR education are other functions that a brigade may per-form. When a facility handles hazardous materials, the brigade maybe involved in administering public education and safety programs,organizing community drills and responding to hazmat incidents.Figure 1-9 presents the wide variety of issues that may be of con-cern to fire brigades.

Organization And StaffingOSHA standards include requirements for the organization and

training of fire brigades when they are established by an employer.Below is a sampling of the fundamental guidelines:


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• The employer will have a written policy explaining the brigade’sexistence, training levels, membership and function.

• The employer will ensure that employees are physically able toperform required duties.

• All fire brigade members will receive training at least annually.All members expected to perform structural firefighting dutieswill be trained at least quarterly.

• The employer will inform members about special hazards suchas the storage and use of hazardous materials which they maybe exposed to during operations.

• The employer will maintain and inspect firefighting equipmentannually, and portable fire extinguishers and respirators at leastmonthly.

Organization of typical fire brigades is shown in Figures 1-10and 1-11. The Brigade Chief has overall responsibility for brigade

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Figure 1-9. Issues for fire brigade consideration.

PRIVATEFIRE

BRIGADES

FIRE RISKLOSS POTENTIAL EMPLOYEE

SAFETY

PUBLIC FIREDEPARTMENTCAPABILITIES

AUTOMATICPROTECTIONSYSTEMS

GOVERNMENTGUIDELINES INSURANCE

TRAINING &EQUIPMENTEXPENSES

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operations. The Chief should have qualifications commensurate withthe duties of the position. For larger facilities, the position of Chiefcan be a full-time job, reporting to the facility’s Emergency Coordi-nator. In some cases, the Chief’s duties will include those of theEmergency Coordinator.

An Assistant Chief is assigned on each shift. They have overallresponsibility for any emergency occurring on their shift. One ormore Captains are assigned under the Assistant Chiefs. The Cap-tains direct crews performing specific tasks. Smaller facilities maycombine the functions of the Assistant Chief and Captain into oneposition. Employees in either position will generally have other full-time responsibilities.

Comprehensive job descriptions will ensure that all brigade mem-bers have a working knowledge of their own responsibilities and ofthe organization as a whole. Emergency duties, as shown in Table1-1, can range from monitoring the fire alarm panel, to coordinat-ing employee evacuation or fire department access, to actual firesuppression activities.

Staffing requirements will be determined by the responsibilitiesestablished for the fire brigade in its organizational statement.


Figure 1-10. Organization of a small facility fire brigade.

FIRE BRIGADE MEMBERS

FIRE BRIGADE LEADER

EMERGENCY COORDINATOR

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Staffing levels can be initiated with economy in mind, but safetymust take precedence over any economic concern. The operationof a brigade with too few members could be ineffectual or evendangerous. With too many people, the result could be chaos.

Determining whether service in the fire brigade should be vol-untary or mandatory depends on the facility and the level of servicerequired. Many facilities utilize security and/or maintenance per-sonnel as brigade members and fill the remaining positions withvolunteers. Volunteers should be chosen for positions based on theirexperience with the facility and/or their experience with some formof firefighting.

The manner in which volunteers are solicited for brigade posi-tions has an important impact on results. Management’s attitudeand genuine enthusiasm will have a surprising effect. If the brigadeis a source of company pride and some sort of incentive is offered,members can often be chosen from a long waiting list. And moneyis not the only incentive. Some indication of service such as a badgeor pin can become a mark of distinction and will be enough toinspire favorable numbers of recruits.

Figure 1-11. Fire brigade organization for a larger facility.

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SHIFT ASST. CHIEF SHIFT ASST. CHIEF SHIFT ASST. CHIEF

FIRE BRIGADE CHIEF

SHIFT CAPTAIN(S)SHIFT CAPTAIN(S)SHIFT CAPTAIN(S)

BRIGADEMEMBERSAND SUPPORTSTAFF



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TrainingNothing is more important to the effectiveness of a fire brigade

than training. A comprehensive training program must be adoptedand a commitment made to furnish brigade members with the skillsnecessary to protect the facility and themselves.

A foundation of training needs can be developed by studyingthe facility’s emergency records. The type of problems encounteredin the past are good examples of the incidents that can be expectedin the future. Addressing these problem areas can help to minimizeproduction downtime, lower the number and size of insurance claimsand keep outside emergency services intervention to a minimum.

NFPA 600, Private Fire Brigades suggests that training sessionsbe conducted monthly. OSHA requires that brigade membersreceive training “commensurate with their responsibilities.” Theseguidelines should be considered minimums at best. The actual train-ing needs of a facility’s brigade will depend on the frequency ofincidents, the experience and number of brigade members, and thelevel and type of training provided. Local fire departments can offerassistance in developing a training program and in many instancesmay help conduct drill sessions (see Figure 1-12).

Figure 1-12. An instructor from the Los Angeles City FireDepartment’s Fire Safety Education Unit leads a fire extinguishertraining session for a group of office facility employees.Courtesy: Los Angeles City Fire Department.


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Fire drills are a significant ingredient in a complete training pro-gram. Unannounced drills are the only practical way to examinethe effectiveness of the brigade response and to determine if pre-fire plans are viable. If drills are conducted in a realistic manner,the problems encountered can be worked out before an actualemergency occurs.

Pre-Fire PlansPre-fire plans should be developed for all areas of a facility. The

objective of these plans is to limit the danger to employees and visi-tors, and to minimize the damage resulting from fires. Encouragingbrigade members to participate in the development of these plansis an effective training tool. It will allow them to become more fa-miliar with the facility from a fire protection point-of-view.

Pre-fire plans should be detailed enough to comprehensivelycover the different areas within a facility but must be flexible enoughto allow for the myriad variables encountered in an emergency situ-ation. The work sheet shown in Figure 1-13 is a sample form thatcan be used to gather data. Figure 1-14 is a sample building plan. Apre-fire plan should include the following information:

Chapter 1

Table 1-1. Key fire brigade positions.

Title Function

Advisor Liaison between management and brigade.

Alarm Panel Monitor Monitors alarm panel until system is reset. Monitors panelfor additional alarms.

Crowd Control Keeps unauthorized people away from fire area.

Electrician Supports staff. Provides electrical assistance.

Firefighter Or Extinguisher Assists in controlling emergency.

Hydrants Opens hydrant houses. Assists fire department withhydrant connections.

Staging Area Director Ensures extinguishers and other equipment are on scene.

Standby Main Gas Valve Stands by to shut off gas supply, if necessary.

Standby Sprinkler Valve Stands by to close sprinkler control valve, if necessary.

Traffic Coordinator Directs fire department to scene. Keeps pathways clear.

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• A facility plot plan with access and evacuation routes for eacharea denoted.

• A review of the building construction features and their expectedperformance under fire conditions.

• A discussion of facility operations, equipment and fire hazards.

• An overview of fire alarm and suppression devices, sprinklercontrol valves, fire pumps and other related equipment.

• The strategy and tactics to be used for fighting a fire in the speci-fied area.

• A review of the proposed operations of the public fire depart-ment and its interaction with the brigade.


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Figure 1-13. Pre-incident Planning Form.

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Figure 1-13. Pre-incident Planning Form (continued).

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Figure 1-14. Sample building plan. Courtesy: Los Angeles CityFire Department.

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Figure 1-15. Sample worksheet for gathering pre-fire plan data.


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Sources

Bouvier, Kenneth J., “An Overview of an Industrial Response Teams’Capabilities,” Fire Chief, January 1992.

Brannigan, Francis L., “Fire Loss Management,” Fire Engineering, October1989.

Edwards, Richard J., “The Fire Brigade: Industry’s First Line of Defense,” FireEngineering, August 1990.

Emergency Procedures Guideline Format for High-Rise Buildings. Los Angeles,CA: Los Angeles City Fire Department, 1987.

“Fire Brigade Options,” The Sentinel, January 1992.

Fire Inspection Management Guidelines. Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1982.

Fire Protection Handbook, 17th Edition. Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1992.

Floor Warden Tenant Response Team Manual. Los Angeles, CA: SkylineVentures, Inc., 1983.

Health Care Facilities Training Manual And Lesson Plans. Los Angeles, CA: LosAngeles City Fire Department, 1994.

“Loss Prevention Management Has Major Impact on Profitability,” TheSentinel, July 1993.

Petrocelly, Kenneth L. Facilities Evaluation Handbook. Lilburn, GA: TheFairmont Press, Inc., 1992.

Required Safety Manual for Hospitals. Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles City FireDepartment, 1992.

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For Further Reading

Bryan, John L., “Damageability of Buildings, Contents And Personnel fromExposure to Fire, Fire Safety Journal, July 1986.

Dittman, Charles R., “Selling Management The Best Fire ProtectionAvailable,” Professional Safety, Vol. 33, No. 10, 1988.

“Fire Protection Through Private Enterprise,” Journal of American Insurance,Vol. 56, 1980.

Fire Safety in Health Care Facilities (Video). Quincy, MA: National FireProtection Association, 1994.

Handbook of Industrial Loss Prevention. Norwood, MA: Factory MutualSystem, 1967.

High Rise Evacuation (Video). Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1993.

Holmes, Craig and Wylie, Jim, “Route to Business Recovery,” BuildingOperating Management, December 1994.

NFPA 600, Industrial Fire Brigades. Quincy, MA: National Fire ProtectionAssociation, 1996.

Stronach, Ian, “Industrial Fire Brigades: Alive And Well?” Firehouse, January1994.

1. fire protection management

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