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Chapter 11Chapter 11

Linguistics and Linguistics and Foreign Language Foreign Language

TeachingTeaching

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► Applied linguistics: Applied linguistics: its broad interpretation vs its broad interpretation vs narrow interpretationnarrow interpretation

► Linguistics: theoretical linguistics vs descriptiLinguistics: theoretical linguistics vs descriptive linguisticsve linguistics

► Language teaching: language teaching theoriLanguage teaching: language teaching theories, approaches, and methods vs language teaes, approaches, and methods vs language teaching practicesching practices

► Theoretical views of language explicitly or implTheoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching.ted in language teaching.

► Linguistics, as the science of language, should Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of lbe of fundamental importance for teachers of language.anguage.

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►According to McDonough, a teacher who According to McDonough, a teacher who is able to explain some linguistic featureis able to explain some linguistic features would have a stronger position than ons would have a stronger position than one who handles the argument by using aute who handles the argument by using authority – “it’s like that”, “it’s an exceptiohority – “it’s like that”, “it’s an exception”, or “it’s less formal”.n”, or “it’s less formal”.

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Two Pairs of Interchangeable anTwo Pairs of Interchangeable and Distinctived Distinctive Terms Terms

► Second language vs foreign languageSecond language vs foreign language► Language learning vs language acquisitiLanguage learning vs language acquisiti

onon

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1. Linguistics and language learni1. Linguistics and language learningng

► Many language learning theories are proposed Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. based on certain linguistic theories.

► e.g. mechanic drill practices and structuralise.g. mechanic drill practices and structuralism; syntactic rule learning and TGm; syntactic rule learning and TG

► In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can of understanding what language learners can learnlearn, , how they actually learn and what they how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately.learn ultimately.

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►As Ellis As Ellis ((19941994) ) points out, “whereas points out, “whereas much of the earlier [second language much of the earlier [second language acquisition] work focused on the acquisition] work focused on the linguistic and, in particular, the linguistic and, in particular, the grammatical-properties of learner grammatical-properties of learner language and was psycholinguistic in language and was psycholinguistic in orientationorientation, , later work has also attended later work has also attended to the pragmatic aspects of learner to the pragmatic aspects of learner language and, increasingly, has adopted language and, increasingly, has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective.a sociolinguistic perspective.

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►Although certain language learners Although certain language learners ((e.g.e.g., , advanced learners and students advanced learners and students majoring a foreign languagemajoring a foreign language) ) certainly certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguisticsbenefit from a knowledge of linguistics, , it it is not sensible to recommend the is not sensible to recommend the majority of language learners to study majority of language learners to study linguistics while they are still struggling linguistics while they are still struggling with the task of learning the language with the task of learning the language itself. itself.

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1.1 Grammar1.1 Grammar

►Do we teach grammar?Do we teach grammar?►How do we teach grammar?How do we teach grammar?►As a compromise between theAs a compromise between the “ “purely purely

form-focused approaches” and the form-focused approaches” and the “purely meaning-focused” approaches“purely meaning-focused” approaches, , a recent movement called a recent movement called FOCUS ON FOCUS ON FORMFORM seems to take a more balanced seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language view on the role of grammar in language learning.learning.

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Focus on FormFocus on Form►Although language learning should Although language learning should

generally be meaning-focused and generally be meaning-focused and communication-orientedcommunication-oriented, , it is still it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. form occasionally.

►Focus on form often consists of an Focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic occasional shift of attention to linguistic code featurescode features——by the teacher and/or one by the teacher and/or one or more studentsor more students——triggered by triggered by perceived problems with comprehension perceived problems with comprehension or production.or production.

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Problems of Focus on FormProblems of Focus on Form►Two variables concerning the Two variables concerning the

amenability of language elements to amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of focus on form are the relevance of Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar ( (UGUG) ) and the and the complexity of language structures. complexity of language structures.

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Problems Related to UGProblems Related to UG►According to the advocates of focus on According to the advocates of focus on

formform, , if an L2 structure is part of UGif an L2 structure is part of UG, , the the amenability is high; otherwiseamenability is high; otherwise, , the the amenability is low.amenability is low.

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►The problem is that no one knows for The problem is that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here sure what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the study of linguistics comes into that the study of linguistics comes into play. play.

►The study of UGThe study of UG, , which is often which is often considered as the theory for the sake of considered as the theory for the sake of theorytheory, , is now needed in language is now needed in language learning research in the most practical learning research in the most practical sense.sense.

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►The study of UG has attracted The study of UG has attracted considerable attention from many considerable attention from many second language acquisition researchers second language acquisition researchers because knowledge of linguistic because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways. acquisition in a number of ways.

►For exampleFor example, , it can provide explanations it can provide explanations for developmental sequences and for developmental sequences and language transfer.language transfer.

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Problems Related toProblems Related to Structural CStructural Complexityomplexity

► It can be assumed that less complex structures It can be assumed that less complex structures have higher amenabilityhave higher amenability, , but complexity is but complexity is hard to define. hard to define.

► Complexity is not any easier to tackle. Complexity is not any easier to tackle. Formally simple structures can be functionally Formally simple structures can be functionally complex and formally complex items are not complex and formally complex items are not necessarily functionally complex. necessarily functionally complex.

► Again we resort to linguistics in order to have Again we resort to linguistics in order to have a better understanding of the complexity of a better understanding of the complexity of language structures.language structures.

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Grammar-based teachingGrammar-based teaching

► Grammar has its due value in language lGrammar has its due value in language learning. The problem is we do not know earning. The problem is we do not know enough about grammar, or even we do enough about grammar, or even we do not agree on what grammar is. One reasnot agree on what grammar is. One reason is that there is no reliable model of gon is that there is no reliable model of grammar available at present. A call for a rammar available at present. A call for a satisfactory model of grammar does invsatisfactory model of grammar does involve linguistics.olve linguistics.

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1.2 Input1.2 Input

►Language learning can take place when Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the learner has enough access to input in the target language. the target language.

►This input may come in written or spoken This input may come in written or spoken form. form.

► In the case of spoken inputIn the case of spoken input, , it may occur it may occur in the context of interaction or in the in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discoursecontext of non-reciprocal discourse ..

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►Views diverge greatly as to what kind of Views diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language input should be provided for language learners.learners.

►Authentic input vs modified inputAuthentic input vs modified input►Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1►Premodified inputPremodified input► Interactively modified input: tends to do Interactively modified input: tends to do

a better joba better job

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Problems Concerning InputProblems Concerning Input► One of the most obvious problems concerninOne of the most obvious problems concernin

g input is the lack of linguistic analysis of diffeg input is the lack of linguistic analysis of different types of input. We do not know the exact rent types of input. We do not know the exact linguistic differences between different types linguistic differences between different types of input.of input.

► Linguistically, how is authentic input differenLinguistically, how is authentic input different from non-authentic input?t from non-authentic input?

► How can we know the modified input is i+1, nHow can we know the modified input is i+1, not i+2, or i+0?ot i+2, or i+0?

► How should we modify input? Through linguisHow should we modify input? Through linguistic means or what? If linguistically, what are ttic means or what? If linguistically, what are the criteria?he criteria?

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Even if we have evidence that a certain tEven if we have evidence that a certain type of input is desirable, the next step iype of input is desirable, the next step is to examine its linguistic features so ths to examine its linguistic features so that we can create or look for similar matat we can create or look for similar materials. This is another area in language lerials. This is another area in language learning where linguistic studies can maearning where linguistic studies can make due contribution.ke due contribution.

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1.3 Interlanguage—output 1.3 Interlanguage—output

►The type of language constructed by The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as language is often referred to as INTERLANGUAGEINTERLANGUAGE. .

► It is often understood as a language It is often understood as a language system between the target language and system between the target language and the learner’s native language.the learner’s native language.

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► Interlanguage is a dynamic language sysInterlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the tem, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level.departure level to the native-like level.

►Research on interlanguage can be done Research on interlanguage can be done in two ways: in two ways:

►(1(1) ) investigating the psychologicalinvestigating the psychological, , biological or neurological mechanisms biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of involved in the production of interlanguage; interlanguage;

►(2(2) ) investigating the linguistic features of investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage.interlanguage.

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►Concerning the linguistic features of Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguageinterlanguage, , the following questions the following questions can be asked:can be asked:

►(1(1) ) LinguisticallyLinguistically, , how is interlanguage in how is interlanguage in general different from the target general different from the target language or the native language?language or the native language?

►(2(2) ) In what way is lower level In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher level interlanguage different from higher level interlanguage?interlanguage?

►(3(3) ) How is the interlanguage system used How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning?to convey meaning?

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ConstructivismConstructivism

►LanguageLanguage ( (or any knowledgeor any knowledge) ) is socially is socially constructed. constructed.

►Learners learn language by cooperatingLearners learn language by cooperating, , negotiating and performing all kinds of negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks. tasks.

► In other wordsIn other words, , they construct language they construct language in certain social and cultural contexts.in certain social and cultural contexts.

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2. Linguistics and Language 2. Linguistics and Language TeachingTeaching

►Linguistic theories influence our general Linguistic theories influence our general orientation in approaches to language teorientation in approaches to language teaching. aching.

►E.g. E.g. audiolingualism and structuralismaudiolingualism and structuralism communicative approach and funccommunicative approach and func

tionalismtionalism►Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to bLinguistic knowledge helps teachers to b

etter explain the specific language items etter explain the specific language items they teach.they teach.

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2.1 Discourse-based view2.1 Discourse-based view

What is discourse?What is discourse? Discourse encompasses the use of spoken, wriDiscourse encompasses the use of spoken, wri

tten and signed language and multimodal/mutten and signed language and multimodal/multimedia forms of communication. Although eltimedia forms of communication. Although early linguistic approaches judged the unit of darly linguistic approaches judged the unit of discourse to be larger than the sentence, pheniscourse to be larger than the sentence, phenomena of interest can range from silence, to a omena of interest can range from silence, to a single utterance (such as "ok"), to a novel, a ssingle utterance (such as "ok"), to a novel, a set of newspaper articles or a conversation.et of newspaper articles or a conversation.

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►Linguistic patterns exist across stretches Linguistic patterns exist across stretches of text. of text.

►These patterns of language extend beyonThese patterns of language extend beyond words, clauses and sentences, which hd words, clauses and sentences, which have been the traditional concern of languave been the traditional concern of language teaching. age teaching.

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►Focuses on complete spoken and written Focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contetexts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates. xts in which such language operates.

►Accordingly, it aims at developing discouAccordingly, it aims at developing discourse competence, similar to the well-knowrse competence, similar to the well-known concept of n concept of communicative competencecommunicative competence..

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Communicative competenceCommunicative competence

►Dell Hymes Dell Hymes ►What a learners knows about how a langWhat a learners knows about how a lang

uage is used in particular situations for euage is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. ffective and appropriate communication.

► Includes knowledge of the grammar and Includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speakivocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and responng, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and sod to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how tcial conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately. o use language appropriately.

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► It is believed that language learning will It is believed that language learning will successfully take place when language successfully take place when language learners know how and when to use the learners know how and when to use the language in various settings and when language in various settings and when they have successfully cognized various they have successfully cognized various forms of competence such as forms of competence such as grammatical competence (lexis, grammatical competence (lexis, morphology, syntax and phonology) and morphology, syntax and phonology) and pragmatic competence (e.g., speech pragmatic competence (e.g., speech acts). acts).

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► In the case of foreign/second language leIn the case of foreign/second language learning, language learners are encouragearning, language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, whid to deal with accomplishing actions, which are thought to help them acquire the tch are thought to help them acquire the target language. arget language.

►The The COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACCOMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)HING (CLT) and and TASK-BASED LANGUAGTASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (TBLT)E TEACHING (TBLT) are the best known are the best known examples of such a theory. In the CLT or examples of such a theory. In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students are expected tTBLT classroom, students are expected to learn by performing tasks.o learn by performing tasks.

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TBLTTBLT

► Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks and Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. pedagogical tasks.

► A real-world task is very close to something we A real-world task is very close to something we do in daily life or work. E.g. do in daily life or work. E.g. a discussion of wha discussion of what to bring for a picnicat to bring for a picnic

► Pedagogical tasks are those activities that studPedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the classroom but that may not take ents do in the classroom but that may not take place in real life. E.g. place in real life. E.g. a discussion of the differa discussion of the differences between two quite similar picturesences between two quite similar pictures

► Both kinds contain information gap, and hencBoth kinds contain information gap, and hence communicative in nature.e communicative in nature.

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Drawbacks of TBLTDrawbacks of TBLT ► Overemphasizes the role of external factors in Overemphasizes the role of external factors in

the process of language acquisition and gives the process of language acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning processes. little importance to internal learning processes.

► Similar to the behaviouristic view of language Similar to the behaviouristic view of language acquisition in that environmental factors and acquisition in that environmental factors and input are at the very centre in attempting to input are at the very centre in attempting to explicate the acquisition process. explicate the acquisition process.

► Overstresses the role of knowledge of Overstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a competence and functions in acquiring a language, and hence fails to notice universal language, and hence fails to notice universal principles that guide language acquisition.principles that guide language acquisition.

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2.2 Universal Grammar (UG)2.2 Universal Grammar (UG)

►Noam ChomskyNoam Chomsky►A native speaker possesses a kind of A native speaker possesses a kind of

linguistic competence. linguistic competence. ►The child is born with knowledge of The child is born with knowledge of

some linguistic universals. some linguistic universals. ►While acquiring his mother tongue, he While acquiring his mother tongue, he

compares his innate language system compares his innate language system with that of his native language and with that of his native language and modifies his grammar.modifies his grammar.

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► Input is poor and deficient in two ways. Input is poor and deficient in two ways. ►(1) It is “degenerate” because it is damag(1) It is “degenerate” because it is damag

ed by performance features such as slips,ed by performance features such as slips, hesitations or false starts. Accordingly, t hesitations or false starts. Accordingly, the input is not an adequate base for langhe input is not an adequate base for language learning.uage learning.

►(2) It is devoid of grammar corrections. It (2) It is devoid of grammar corrections. It does not normally contain “negative does not normally contain “negative evidence”, the knowledge from which the evidence”, the knowledge from which the learner could exercise what is “not” learner could exercise what is “not” possible in a given language.possible in a given language.

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►Although UG was not originally Although UG was not originally proposed to account for second proposed to account for second language acquisition, many researchers language acquisition, many researchers are working on its implication for are working on its implication for language learning and teaching. language learning and teaching.

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Drawbacks Drawbacks

►UG’s primary aim is to account for how UG’s primary aim is to account for how language works, not acquisition. language works, not acquisition.

►UG is only concerned with the core UG is only concerned with the core grammar of language (syntax). grammar of language (syntax).

►The communication function is The communication function is discarded in UG. discarded in UG.

►Chomsky is concerned only with Chomsky is concerned only with ‘competence’, but there can be little ‘competence’, but there can be little likelihood of SLA researchers carrying likelihood of SLA researchers carrying out empirical research.out empirical research.

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3. Syllabus Design3. Syllabus Design

► A syllabus is a description of the contents of a A syllabus is a description of the contents of a course of instruction, the order and the ways icourse of instruction, the order and the ways in which they are to be taught.n which they are to be taught.

► A bridge between language teaching theory anA bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice. d language teaching practice.

► Translates theoretical understanding of languaTranslates theoretical understanding of language teaching and sets up an operable frameworge teaching and sets up an operable framework for language teaching. k for language teaching.

► The most important part of syllabus design is sThe most important part of syllabus design is selecting and sequencing language items.electing and sequencing language items.

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3.1 Syllabus vs Curriculum3.1 Syllabus vs Curriculum A syllabus is a specification of what takes placA syllabus is a specification of what takes plac

e in the classroom, which usually contains the e in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. A curricontains suggestions of methodology. A curriculum, however, provides (1) general statemculum, however, provides (1) general statements about the rationale about language and ients about the rationale about language and its learning and teaching, (2) detailed specificts learning and teaching, (2) detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets, and (3) iation of aims, objectives and targets, and (3) implementation of a program. In some sense, mplementation of a program. In some sense, a syllabus is part of a curriculum.a syllabus is part of a curriculum.

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Another difference worth noticing is that syllaAnother difference worth noticing is that syllabus is often used to refer to something similar bus is often used to refer to something similar to a language teaching approach, whereas cuto a language teaching approach, whereas curriculum refers to a specific document of a lanrriculum refers to a specific document of a language program developed for a particular couguage program developed for a particular country or region. Syllabus design is more of a pentry or region. Syllabus design is more of a pedagogical nature whereas curriculum developdagogical nature whereas curriculum development is an educational planning issue.ment is an educational planning issue.

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3.2 Theoretical Views Behind Syll3.2 Theoretical Views Behind Syllabus Designabus Design In most cases, the process of syllabus deIn most cases, the process of syllabus de

sign in foreign language teaching mainlsign in foreign language teaching mainly includes selecting and grading what is y includes selecting and grading what is to be taught. A process of selection musto be taught. A process of selection must be undertaken since learning the wholt be undertaken since learning the whole system of a foreign language is neithee system of a foreign language is neither possible nor necessary.r possible nor necessary.

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Selection involves two sub-processes: fiSelection involves two sub-processes: first, the restriction of the language to a rst, the restriction of the language to a particular dialect and register; second, particular dialect and register; second, the selection from within the register of the selection from within the register of the items that are to be taught accordinthe items that are to be taught according to criteria such as frequency of occurrg to criteria such as frequency of occurrence, learnability and classroom needs. ence, learnability and classroom needs. The whole process of selection must be The whole process of selection must be applied at all levels of language, such as applied at all levels of language, such as phonology, grammar, lexis, contexts.phonology, grammar, lexis, contexts.

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As to what should be selected in the actAs to what should be selected in the actual process of syllabus design, it to a larual process of syllabus design, it to a large extent depends on the syllabus desigge extent depends on the syllabus designer’s understanding of language. If he ner’s understanding of language. If he or she adheres to a structural view of laor she adheres to a structural view of language, he or she will probably select wnguage, he or she will probably select what he or she sees as the kernel elementhat he or she sees as the kernel elements of the structural system. If he or she as of the structural system. If he or she adheres to a functional view of language, dheres to a functional view of language, he or she will probably select the most fhe or she will probably select the most frequently occurring functions and notiorequently occurring functions and notions of language.ns of language.

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After a list of language items have been selectAfter a list of language items have been selected, the next process is to put them into the med, the next process is to put them into the most appropriate order for practical teaching post appropriate order for practical teaching purposes. This process is often referred to as gurposes. This process is often referred to as grading, which is subdivided into two distinct rading, which is subdivided into two distinct operations. The first operation, known as “stoperations. The first operation, known as “staging”, is to arrange the items into blocks of aging”, is to arrange the items into blocks of the right size for the various years, terms, mothe right size for the various years, terms, months, weeks, days and classes of the teaching nths, weeks, days and classes of the teaching course. The second operation, known as “secourse. The second operation, known as “sequencing”, tackles the problem of sequence quencing”, tackles the problem of sequence in which the items in the blocks are to be taugin which the items in the blocks are to be taught.ht.

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Such practical matters might appear to have nSuch practical matters might appear to have nothing to do with linguistics, but in fact, linguothing to do with linguistics, but in fact, linguistics has important contribution to make. In istics has important contribution to make. In the first place, linguistics provides both the dthe first place, linguistics provides both the description of an L2 and an understanding of hescription of an L2 and an understanding of how the components make us the whole of the ow the components make us the whole of the language system. Secondly, reference back to language system. Secondly, reference back to linguistic categories will ensure that, in the pllinguistic categories will ensure that, in the planning of a teaching program, all aspects of lanning of a teaching program, all aspects of language that need to be taught are included. anguage that need to be taught are included. This does not imply that phonology, grapholoThis does not imply that phonology, graphology, lexis, grammar and context need to be taugy, lexis, grammar and context need to be taught as separate levels: these are linguistic catght as separate levels: these are linguistic categories, concepts for the description of languegories, concepts for the description of language, not teaching procedures.age, not teaching procedures.

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3.3 Types of syllabus3.3 Types of syllabus

► In theory, a language teaching syllabus In theory, a language teaching syllabus can be designed in many different ways,can be designed in many different ways, depending on the designer’s views of l depending on the designer’s views of language and language teaching and leaanguage and language teaching and learning.rning.

►Structural syllabusStructural syllabus►Situational syllabusSituational syllabus►Communicative syllabusCommunicative syllabus►Task-based syllabusTask-based syllabus

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Structural SyllabusStructural Syllabus

► Based on structuralism, a structural syllabus is a graBased on structuralism, a structural syllabus is a grammar-oriented syllabus with a selection of language mmar-oriented syllabus with a selection of language items and structures. The vocabulary and grammaticitems and structures. The vocabulary and grammatical rules included are carefully ordered according to sal rules included are carefully ordered according to such factors as frequency, complexity and usefulness.uch factors as frequency, complexity and usefulness.

► The underlying assumptions are that language is a syThe underlying assumptions are that language is a system consisting of a set of grammatical rules, that lanstem consisting of a set of grammatical rules, that language learning means learning these rules and then aguage learning means learning these rules and then applying them to practical use and that a language is bpplying them to practical use and that a language is best learned through item-by-item introduction.est learned through item-by-item introduction.

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Structural SyllabusStructural Syllabus

The structural syllabus has been used for manThe structural syllabus has been used for many years, and still dominates some language pry years, and still dominates some language programs. Its major drawback is that it concentograms. Its major drawback is that it concentrates only on the grammatical forms and the rates only on the grammatical forms and the meanings of individual words, whereas the mmeanings of individual words, whereas the meaning of the whole sentence is thought to be eaning of the whole sentence is thought to be self-evident. Students are not taught how to self-evident. Students are not taught how to use these sentences appropriately in real situuse these sentences appropriately in real situations. As a result, students trained by a strucations. As a result, students trained by a structural syllabus often prove to be communicatitural syllabus often prove to be communicatively incompetent.vely incompetent.

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Situational SyllabusSituational Syllabus► Without a strong linguistic basis, the situatioWithout a strong linguistic basis, the situatio

nal syllabus is based on the view that languagnal syllabus is based on the view that language is used for communication. Its aim is to spece is used for communication. Its aim is to specify the situations in which the target language ify the situations in which the target language is used. is used.

► The selection and organization of language itThe selection and organization of language items are based on situations. Grammatical forems are based on situations. Grammatical forms and sentence patterns are introduced and ms and sentence patterns are introduced and practiced, but they are knitted in dialogues epracticed, but they are knitted in dialogues entitled “At the Airport”, “At the Supermarkntitled “At the Airport”, “At the Supermarket”, “At the Bank” and so on. et”, “At the Bank” and so on.

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Situational SyllabusSituational Syllabus► In class an aural-oral method is adopted, i. e., In class an aural-oral method is adopted, i. e.,

new materials are read and written by the leanew materials are read and written by the learners. This method may still be teacher-centrrners. This method may still be teacher-centred, but compared with the grammar-translatied, but compared with the grammar-translation method there is more participation on the on method there is more participation on the learner’s part. The teacher can make use of learner’s part. The teacher can make use of pictures, real objects, and the postures of the pictures, real objects, and the postures of the participants to involve students in dialogues participants to involve students in dialogues and role playing.and role playing.

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Situational SyllabusSituational Syllabus► Advantages: Advantages: ► setting out to meet the learner’s direcsetting out to meet the learner’s direc

t communicative needs t communicative needs ► Disadvantage: Disadvantage: ► relying on whatever linguistic descriptirelying on whatever linguistic descripti

on is available; essentially grammatical;on is available; essentially grammatical; “pseudo-functional”; not truly authe “pseudo-functional”; not truly authentic situations; not systematic. ntic situations; not systematic.

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Communicative SyllabusCommunicative Syllabus► A COMMUNICATIE SYLLABUS aims at the A COMMUNICATIE SYLLABUS aims at the

learner’s communicative competence. learner’s communicative competence. Based on a notional-functional syllabus,Based on a notional-functional syllabus, it teaches the language needed to expr it teaches the language needed to express and understand different kinds of fuess and understand different kinds of functions, and emphasizes the process of nctions, and emphasizes the process of communication. communication.

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► Yalden lists ten components of a communicative syllabus:Yalden lists ten components of a communicative syllabus:► as detailed a consideration as possible of the purposes for whicas detailed a consideration as possible of the purposes for whic

h the learners wish to acquire the target language;h the learners wish to acquire the target language;► some idea of the setting in which they will want to use the targesome idea of the setting in which they will want to use the targe

t language;t language;► the socially defined role the learners will assume in the target lathe socially defined role the learners will assume in the target la

nguage, as well as the roles of their interlocutors;nguage, as well as the roles of their interlocutors;► The communicative events in which the learners will participatThe communicative events in which the learners will participat

e: everyday situations, vocational or professional situations, ace: everyday situations, vocational or professional situations, academic situations, and so on;ademic situations, and so on;

► the language functions involved in these events, or what the leathe language functions involved in these events, or what the learner will need to be able to do with or through the language;rner will need to be able to do with or through the language;

► the notions involved, or that the learner will need to be able to tthe notions involved, or that the learner will need to be able to talk about;alk about;

► the skill involved in the “knitting together” of discourse: discthe skill involved in the “knitting together” of discourse: discourse and rhetorical skills;ourse and rhetorical skills;

► the variety or varieties of the target language that will be needethe variety or varieties of the target language that will be needed, and the levels in the spoken and written language which the ld, and the levels in the spoken and written language which the learners will need to reach;earners will need to reach;

► the grammatical content that will be needed;the grammatical content that will be needed;► the lexical content that will be needed.the lexical content that will be needed.

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► It is supposed that these ten components It is supposed that these ten components take into account everything required to atake into account everything required to assure communication. A communicative sssure communication. A communicative syllabus should take into consideration moyllabus should take into consideration most of these factors, if not all. Since which cst of these factors, if not all. Since which component receives the most emphasis is fomponent receives the most emphasis is flexible, there is a variety of communicativlexible, there is a variety of communicative syllabus types, from the structural-functe syllabus types, from the structural-functional to the fully communicative.ional to the fully communicative.

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Task-Based SyllabusTask-Based Syllabus► Task-based syllabuses are more concerneTask-based syllabuses are more concerne

d with the classroom processes which stid with the classroom processes which stimulate learning than with the language kmulate learning than with the language knowledge or skill that students are supponowledge or skill that students are supposed to master. These syllabuses consist of sed to master. These syllabuses consist of a list of specification of the tasks and activa list of specification of the tasks and activities that the learners will engage in in clasities that the learners will engage in in class in the target language.s in the target language.

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► As TBLT evolved and developed, different As TBLT evolved and developed, different researchers have defined TASK from differresearchers have defined TASK from different perspectives. ent perspectives.

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► Long’s definitionLong’s definition► A task is “a piece of work undertaken for A task is “a piece of work undertaken for

oneself or for others, freely or for some reoneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus examples of tasks include painward. Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child In other wordting a fence, dressing a child In other words, by “task” is meant the hundred and os, by “task” is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at wone things people do in everyday life, at work, at play and in between”.rk, at play and in between”.

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► Prahue’s definitionPrahue’s definition► A task is an activity which required learners to arA task is an activity which required learners to ar

rive at an outcome from given information throurive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought and which allowed tgh some process of thought and which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process. eachers to control and regulate that process.

► According to this definition, when students do a According to this definition, when students do a task, they are provided with some information atask, they are provided with some information and required to process this information in order nd required to process this information in order to arrive at an outcome. However, it is not clear to arrive at an outcome. However, it is not clear what kind of outcome the students are supposewhat kind of outcome the students are supposed to arrive at.d to arrive at.

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► Nunan’s definitionNunan’s definition► A task is a piece of classroom work which iA task is a piece of classroom work which i

nvolves learners in comprehending, maninvolves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the tpulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is priarget language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than oncipally focused on meaning rather than on form.n form.

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► One obvious difference among these definitions One obvious difference among these definitions is that for Long, tasks are those things we do in tis that for Long, tasks are those things we do in the real world, whereas for Prabhu and Nunan, tahe real world, whereas for Prabhu and Nunan, tasks are the activities we so in the classroom. Thisks are the activities we so in the classroom. This is probably the reason why later researchers ds is probably the reason why later researchers define two broad kinds of tasks: real-world tasks efine two broad kinds of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. Real-world tasks are the and pedagogical tasks. Real-world tasks are the one hundred and one things we do in life or worone hundred and one things we do in life or work, pedagogical tasks are the things students are k, pedagogical tasks are the things students are asked to do in the classroom.asked to do in the classroom.

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► It is worth nothing that these definitions are not It is worth nothing that these definitions are not contradictory. Rather we think they are supplemcontradictory. Rather we think they are supplementary, each emphasizing certain aspects. On thentary, each emphasizing certain aspects. On the one hand, if we are talking about language leare one hand, if we are talking about language learning tasks, they cannot be a hundred percent rening tasks, they cannot be a hundred percent real. After all, most activities in the classroom are al. After all, most activities in the classroom are designed with a purpose of learning and practicidesigned with a purpose of learning and practicing the language in question. On the other hand, ng the language in question. On the other hand, pedagogical tasks can be designed in such a way pedagogical tasks can be designed in such a way that they have a varying degree of resemblance tthat they have a varying degree of resemblance to real-world things.o real-world things.

► In later definitions, it seems that the distinction In later definitions, it seems that the distinction between real and non-real features is intentionabetween real and non-real features is intentionally blurred, though authenticity is always emphally blurred, though authenticity is always emphasized as a key feature of tasks. sized as a key feature of tasks.

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► According to Skehan, a task is an activity in whicAccording to Skehan, a task is an activity in whichh

► meaning is primary,meaning is primary,► learners are not given other people’s meaning learners are not given other people’s meaning

to regurgitate,to regurgitate,► there is some sort of relationship to comparable there is some sort of relationship to comparable

real-world activities,real-world activities,► task completion has some priority, andtask completion has some priority, and► the assessment of the task is in terms of outcomthe assessment of the task is in terms of outcom

es. es. ► Anything that is in line with these (or most of theAnything that is in line with these (or most of the

se) criteria can be called a task. Thus it can be rese) criteria can be called a task. Thus it can be real, half-real or non-real.al, half-real or non-real.

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► One of the latest definitions available in the literOne of the latest definitions available in the literature is given by Bygate, Skehan & Swain (2001). ature is given by Bygate, Skehan & Swain (2001). According to these researchers, a task is an activAccording to these researchers, a task is an activity which requires learners to use language, with ity which requires learners to use language, with emphasis on meaning, to attain an objective. Themphasis on meaning, to attain an objective. This definition is very close to what Willis (1996) pris definition is very close to what Willis (1996) provides, “tasks are always activities where the tovides, “tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the learner for a comarget language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an municative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.”outcome.”

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► The essence of a task is that it is an activitThe essence of a task is that it is an activity in which students use the target languagy in which students use the target language to do something, usually with a non-linge to do something, usually with a non-linguistic purpose. uistic purpose.

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► Six principles concerning TBLT:Six principles concerning TBLT:► A task should have a clear purpose.A task should have a clear purpose.► A task should have some degree of resemA task should have some degree of resem

blance to real-world events.blance to real-world events.► A task should involve information seeking,A task should involve information seeking,

processing and conveying. processing and conveying.► A task should involve students in some mA task should involve students in some m

odes of doing things.odes of doing things.► A task should involve the meaning-focuseA task should involve the meaning-focuse

d use of language.d use of language.► A task should end with a tangible product. A task should end with a tangible product.

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► The final product have several aspects of sThe final product have several aspects of significance: (1) it indicates the task has (or ignificance: (1) it indicates the task has (or has not) been completed; (2) it partially inhas not) been completed; (2) it partially indicates how successfully the students havdicates how successfully the students have completed the tasks; (3) it can be shared e completed the tasks; (3) it can be shared with other groups of students; (4) it can be with other groups of students; (4) it can be put in the students’ portfolio as leaning put in the students’ portfolio as leaning achievement.achievement.

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► Although we emphasize that a task should Although we emphasize that a task should have a final product, we do not mean TBLhave a final product, we do not mean TBLT is a product-oriented approach of languT is a product-oriented approach of language teaching. On the contrary, TBLT is a prage teaching. On the contrary, TBLT is a process-oriented approach (Numan, 1988). Iocess-oriented approach (Numan, 1988). It attaches more attention to how students t attaches more attention to how students learn than what they learn. It advocates elearn than what they learn. It advocates experiential learning by asking students to xperiential learning by asking students to experience and explore language in the prexperience and explore language in the process of using language to do things.ocess of using language to do things.

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Components of a syllabusComponents of a syllabus►Aims/goals: Aims/goals: general statementsgeneral statements ►Objectives/targets/requirements: Objectives/targets/requirements: specific specific

statementsstatements ►Non-language outcomes: confidence, moNon-language outcomes: confidence, mo

tivation, interest, etc.tivation, interest, etc.►Learning strategies, thinking skills, interLearning strategies, thinking skills, inter

personal skills, etc.personal skills, etc.► Implementation: approaches, methods, pImplementation: approaches, methods, p

rinciples, suggestions, textbooks, etc.rinciples, suggestions, textbooks, etc.►Assessment/evaluationAssessment/evaluation

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Current trendsCurrent trends

►Co-existence of the old and the newCo-existence of the old and the new►Emphasis on the learning processEmphasis on the learning process► Inclusion of non-linguistic objectivesInclusion of non-linguistic objectives►Emergence of the multi-syllabusEmergence of the multi-syllabus

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4. Contrastive Analysis4. Contrastive Analysis

►A way of comparing L1 and L2 to A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not.learned and what not.

► Its goal is to predict what areas will be Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what will be difficult.easy to learn and what will be difficult.

►Associated in its early days with Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism.behaviorism and structuralism.

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4.1 Main assumptions4.1 Main assumptions

►Language is a habit and LL involves Language is a habit and LL involves establishment of a new set of habits.establishment of a new set of habits.

►L1 interferes with L2.L1 interferes with L2.►Errors in L2 can be accounted for by Errors in L2 can be accounted for by

differences between L1 and L2.differences between L1 and L2.►Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so

similarities can be ignored.similarities can be ignored.

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►Therefore,Therefore,►Need for careful analysis of similarities Need for careful analysis of similarities

and differences between L1 and L2.and differences between L1 and L2.►Teachers should focus on areas of Teachers should focus on areas of

negative transfer.negative transfer.

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4.2 Drawbacks4.2 Drawbacks

►Overemphasis on linguistic contrasts but Overemphasis on linguistic contrasts but lack of psychological considerations.lack of psychological considerations.

►Cannot predict all errors while some Cannot predict all errors while some predicted errors do not occur.predicted errors do not occur.

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5. Error Analysis5. Error Analysis

►S. Pit CorderS. Pit Corder►Many errors made by L2 learners were caMany errors made by L2 learners were ca

used by factors other than L1 interferencused by factors other than L1 interference.e.

►Errors are not just to be seen as somethiErrors are not just to be seen as something to be eradicated.ng to be eradicated.

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5.1 Error and mistake5.1 Error and mistake

►Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/ Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/ competencecompetence

►Mistake: learner’s failure to perform their Mistake: learner’s failure to perform their competencecompetence

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5.2 Interlingual vs. intralingual5.2 Interlingual vs. intralingual

► Interlingual errors (transfer errors): misuInterlingual errors (transfer errors): misuse of an item because of L1 influence.se of an item because of L1 influence.

► Intralingual errors (developmental errors):Intralingual errors (developmental errors): within L2 (e.g. overgeneralization) within L2 (e.g. overgeneralization)

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5.3 Procedure of error analysis5.3 Procedure of error analysis

►RecognitionRecognition►DescriptionDescription►ExplanationExplanation

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5.4 Problems5.4 Problems

►Rely on errors to study how L2 is learned Rely on errors to study how L2 is learned – inadequate.– inadequate.

►Difficult to determine what an error is: Difficult to determine what an error is: There are so many people live around There are so many people live around herehere..

►Over-stresses production error but fails Over-stresses production error but fails to account for error avoidance: learner to account for error avoidance: learner avoids a certain word or structure.avoids a certain word or structure.

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6. Corpus6. Corpus

►Language corpora make it possible for Language corpora make it possible for materials developers to select authentic, materials developers to select authentic, natural and typical language. natural and typical language.

►The two most important factors in a The two most important factors in a corpus are the size and types of texts corpus are the size and types of texts selected. selected.

►Usually the uses that will be made of the Usually the uses that will be made of the corpus decide the number and type of corpus decide the number and type of texts in a corpus.texts in a corpus.

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6.1 Types6.1 Types

►GeneralGeneral►SpecializedSpecialized►SampleSample►MonitorMonitor

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6.2 Uses6.2 Uses

►FrequencyFrequency►Context and co-textContext and co-text►GrammaticalGrammatical►Collocation and Collocation and

phraseologyphraseology►pragmaticspragmatics