1. background and introduction - totalweb! lite · a report titled “local repeatedly-used deep...

Comparative Testing: Cooking Oil

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1. Background and Introduction

According to Malaysian Standard 682:2004 Cooking Oils-Specification (First Revision),

cooking oil is defined as triacylglycerols of vegetable origin. The oil used shall be

wholesome and free from extraneous matter. Permitted food additives may be added as

specified under the current Malaysian Food Regulations 1985 (section 19).

Literature reviews on repeatedly-used frying oils/cooking oils indicates that food

scientists and health authorities in several countries, especially in the European Union,

are very concerned about the potential health hazards of oxidized products and lipid

polymers formed in repeatedly-used deep frying oils/ cooking oils.

During the frying process at temperatures of 170° – 200°C, steam formed from moisture

in the food being fried help volatile products rise to the surface of the frying medium and

into the kitchen atmosphere, imparting a mixture of fried-flavours and off-flavours. The

non-volatile compounds formed, however, gradually build up in the oil as it is being

repeatedly-used for food frying operations. These non-volatiles, primarily “polar

compounds” (PC) get absorbed into fried foods and eventually end up in body system.

Reports indicate that in the frying fast-food business or industry, a batch of frying oil is

discarded anywhere from 1 to 4 days depending on the operation hours (Phiri G et al.,

2006). In Japan, it has been reported that restaurant frying oils used for about 3 hours

daily at 180°C are discarded only after 9 days (Totani N et al., 2006); this works out to

be a total of 27 hours of frying time at 180°C.

A report titled “Local Repeatedly-Used Deep Frying Oils Are Generally Safe” by Dr Tony

Ng Kock Wai, states that, there is a market for discarded oils which can be recycled as

biofuel or heating fuel. When there is no market or collection system for recycling of

these waste vegetable oils (WVO), the staff of the establishment would probably take

them home for further edible use. In the local scenario, there is popular but

unsubstantiated belief that such used oils from the frying food industry end up in the

woks of “pasar malam” petty traders.

Another research by Dr. Tony Ng Kock Wai on “Evaluation of the Safety of Heated

Vegetable Oils Containing 25% of Polar Compounds” concluded that, long-term

consumption of heated vegetable oils containing PC in the region of 25% has negative

effects on growth, metabolism, and pregnancy outcome. In a Malaysian Study in the

white rat model by Dr. Tony Ng Kock Wai, it was shown that the long-term consumption

of vegetable oils which contain 25% polar compounds induces adverse effects similar to

Malaysian Association of Standards Users

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those observed in earlier studies using severely heated fats: namely inhibited growth,

enlarged liver and kidney, elevated alkaline phosphatase, poor pregnancy outcomes

and maternal mortality caused by excessive haemorrahage in rats.

According to American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, December 2003, Spanish

researchers found that people whose kitchens contained any type of oil that had been

reused many times over were more likely to have high blood pressure than people

whose cooking oils were changed more frequently.

Around the month of July this year (2011), the Majlis Bandaraya Petaling Jaya

organized 'Recycling used cooking oil for biodiesel’ campaign and competition to

encourage PJ residents to recycle waste cooking oil. The event is to promote

responsible disposal of waste cooking oil which would otherwise be discarded in drains

and ends up clogging the drainage or worst still the sewerage system. Industry partners

of the campaign were quoted as mentioning that used cooking oil can be processed into

candles, cleaners and additives in animal food.

Malaysian Association of Standards Users was concerned about the health and safety

risks to consumers associated with the use / consumption of food fried or prepared with

used cooking oil. We decided to conduct comparative testing on the frying oils/cooking

oils packed in 1 kg plastics and a number of popular brands of cooking oil – packed in

bottles. The reason for choosing cooking oils packed in 1kg pack is due to feedback

from housewives that they do not buy them because they are "recycled oil".

2. How to Determine Cooking Oil Degradation

Quality of cooking oil is determined by various indicators and among the popular ones

are:

2.1 Free Fatty Acids or FFA

Free fatty acids are present in vegetable oils and are removed in the refining process.

During the neutralization of refining process, the oil is treated with sodium hydroxide

and free fatty acids are converted into insoluble soaps, which can be easily separated

by centrifugation and removed. High content of FFA in frying oil will decrease the smoke

point and cause the oil to smoke at lower temperature. Thus, free fatty acids should be

limited because of their pro-oxidant activity as well as of their contribution to smoke

when heating at frying temperatures. The Malaysian Food Regulations 1985 and MS


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682: 2004 on Cooking Oils-Specification limits FFA content for cooking oil to a

maximum of 1.0% for blended oil and 0.2% for unblended oil.

2.2 Peroxide Value

This is measurement to indicate extent of rancidity of oils or fats. Fatty acids which are

building blocks of oils and fats can be categorized as:

- Mono unsaturated – has single double bond

- Poly unsaturated – has multiple double bonds

- Saturated – no double bonds.

The more unsaturated the fatty acids the more susceptible they are to rancidity or auto-

oxidation during storage. Peroxides are formed when fats or oils go through auto-

oxidation. The best test for autoxidation (oxidative rancidity) is by determining peroxide

value.

2.3 Iodine Value

Iodine is absorbed by fatty acids with double bonds. Thus the more double bonds

present the more Iodine is absorbed. Thus, iodine value indicates the degree of un-

saturation of the free fatty acids in the fat or oil. This in turn relates to the tendency for

the fat or oil to become rancid.

2.4 Total Polar Compounds / Materials (TPC/M)

Polar Compound are molecules which contain polar covalent bonds; they can ionize

when dissolved or fused; polar compounds include inorganic acids, bases, and salts.

The major fractions of TPC

are polymerised

triacylglycerols (PTG),

oxidised triacylglycerols

(OTG) and diacylglycerols

(DG). Small fractions of

monoglycerides (MGs), free

fatty acids (FFAs) and polar

unsaponifiable compounds

are also present as polar

compound.


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Source: http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2000/pdf/7208x1563.pdf

Determination of polar compounds in repeatedly used oils and fats is a well-accepted

method due to its accuracy and reproducibility. TPC’s are considered as a major oil

degradation indicator and many countries have set their limit to be 24–25% in used

frying oils for regulation purpose (Bansal et al., 2010; Firestone, Stier, & Blumenthal,

1991). The amount of TPC increases with the number of frying cycles under both

heating and frying conditions.

2.5 Smoke Point (ºC) of Cooking Oil

The smoke point generally refers to the temperature at which a cooking fat or oil begins

to break down to glycerol and free fatty acids, and produce bluish smoke. The smoke

point also marks the beginning of both flavor and nutritional degradation. Therefore, it is

a key consideration when selecting a fat for frying, with the smoke point of the specific

oil dictating its maximum usable temperature and therefore its possible applications. For

instance, since deep frying is a very high temperature process, it requires a fat with a

high smoke point.

The smoke point for oil varies widely depending on origin and refinement. Heating oil

produces free fatty acid and as heating time increases, more free fatty acids are

produced, thereby decreasing smoke point.

It is one reason not to use the same oil to deep fry more than twice. Smoke point

depends primarily on the content of free fatty acids as they are more volatile than their

corresponding triacylglycerols.

2.6 Colour of Cooking Oil

Most oils are yellow-red or amber liquids. The color is from the presence of chlorophylls

and carotenoids. The colored bodies are often removed during the bleaching process.

Often lighter color has been associated with better quality oils (Shahidi.f,2005 Quality

Assurance of fats and oils).

2.7 Specification of Fresh Cooking Oil

The specification for fresh Palm Olein is referred from the study on Frying Performance

of Palm Olein and High Oleic Sunflower Oil during Batch Frying of Potato Crisps by


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Malaysian Palm Oil Board. The characteristics of Fresh Palm Olein is shown in the table

below. The testing refers to this specification because all the samples tested originated

from palm olein.

Table 1: Specification of Fresh Cooking Oil

Parameter Palm olein

FFA (%) 0.065

Moisture and impurities (M&I) < 0.1

Iodine value (Wijs) 56.7

Peroxide value (PV) 1.26

Anisidine value (AV) 1.38

Totox (2 PV + AV) 3.9

Colour (Lovibond) 2.7R

Smoke point (°C) 212

Polymer compounds (%) 0.4

Polar compounds (%) 7.0

Total vitamin E (ppm) 610

Induction period (hr at 100°C) 43

2.8 Overheating Effect of Cooking Oil

Overheating or over-using the frying oil leads to formation of rancid-tasting products

of oxidation, polymerization, and other deleterious, unintended or even toxic

compounds such as acrylamide (from starchy foods).

Deep fat frying is an important method of food preparation, which immerses foods in hot

oil. As deep fat frying is normally carried out at high temperatures (between 160°C and

180°C) and in the presence of air and moisture, these frying oils and fats will undergo

physical and chemical deterioration which will affect their frying performance and the

storage stability of the fried products (Fauziah, Razali and Nor Aini, 2000).

The overuse of deep-frying oil causes adverse effects on flavour, stability, colour and

texture of fried product and may be harmful to human health.

The degradation products formed during deep frying include both volatile and non-

volatile compounds, although most of the volatiles are lost during the frying process.

The non-volatile decompositional products are produced primarily by thermal oxidation

and polymerization of unsaturated fatty acids (Chang, Peterson and HO, 1978; Fritsch,

1981).


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These compounds are of concern because they accumulate in the frying oil, promote

further degradation, absorbed by the fried food, enter the diet and potentially affect

human health. In addition, highly oxidized oils may also produce polyaromatic

hydrocarbons that are thought to have a carcinogenic effect (FAO/WHO, 1988).

2.9 Regulations of Frying Fats and Oils

General quality standards for edible oils and fats have been incorporated in the laws of

many countries, but items specific to frying oils are less common. Not many countries

around the world have national regulations controlling the level of PCs in frying oils. In

the European Union, however member countries have national food laws which cap the

Polar Compound level at 25%; Austria and Switzerland permit a slightly higher

limit of 27%.

Currently, few countries have adopted legislation but where it exists it is often based on

the pioneering studies carried out by the German Society for Fat Research (DGF). In

1973, DGF defined frying oils as deteriorated if:

1) The taste or flavor is unacceptable; or

2) If the smoke point is below 170ºC and the petroleum ether insoluble oxidized

fatty acids are above 0.75%; or

3) If the oxidized fatty acids are above 1%.

Table 2: Legislation on analytical limits for used oils, based on D.Firestone.

COUNTRY MINIMUM MAXIMUM

Smoke

Point ºC

Acid Value

%

Free Fatty

Acid %

Oxidized Fatty

Acid %

TPM

(TPC)

%

Polymers

%

Austria 170 2.5 1 27

Belgium 170 25 10

Chile 170 2.5 1 25

France 25

Italy 25

Natherlands 16

S.Africa 25 16

Spain 25


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In the local scenario, Malaysian Food Regulations 1985, has no provision yet for frying

oil quality. Food safety, which includes aspects of food handling and food processing,

are addressed by specific food safety programmes such as GMP (Good Manufacturing

Practices) and HACCP (Food Safety based on Hazard Analysis of Critical Control

Point).

In the area on international trade, member countries look towards Codex Alimentarius to

set food standards or guidelines for fried oil quality but at the moment Codex has not yet

developed guidelines for fried oil quality.

3. Testing Cooking Oil for Total Polar Compound, Smoke Point and Colour

3.1 Methodology

The samples were identified based on the brands available in most of hypermarkets and grocery shops. Three (3) samples each of different brands were purchased from Pahang, Kelantan, Selangor, Melaka, Kedah, Negeri Sembilan, and Terengganu. All the samples were purchased in plastic pouch weighing 1 kg. During the purchase period , cooking oils in plastic pouches weighing 1kg was rarely available in major hypermarkets.

Labs which were identified for testing are chosen from the list of STANDARDS MALAYSIA accredited laboratories.

3.2 Limitation

Accurate sampling methods were not applied to represent the entire samples in the market due to budget constraint.


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3.3 Samples Purchased

Table 3: List of Products Purchased for Testing and their descriptions

No BRAND PRODUCT

NAME BARCODE & EXPIRY DATE

PLACE OF PURCHASE

PARAMETER TO BE TESTED

1 A1 Minyak Masak Tanpa Kolestrol

9555403100501 31/12/2014

Pahang Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point

2 A2 Minyak Masak

9555014604016 31/12/2012


3 A3 Minyak Masak Berkhasiat Tanpa Kolestrol

9557561400110 31/12/2012


4 A4 Minyak Masak

31/12/2013 Kelantan Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point

5 A5 Minyak Masak Kelapa Sawit Tanpa Kolestrol

9555391803033 31/12/2012

Kelantan Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point


9555391800001 31/12/2013

Kelantan Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point


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No BRAND PRODUCT NAME

BARCODE & EXPIRY DATE

PLACE OF PURCHASE


7 A7 Minyak Kelapa Sawit Asli

9555333600010 31/12/2012

Selangor Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point

8 A8 Minyak Masak

9555325700018 16/08/2013


9 A9 Minyak Masak

9555086808015 31/12/2014


10 A10 Minyak Masak

31/12/2013 Melaka Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point


9555328803112 31/12/2013

Melaka Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point

12 A12 Minyak Masak

9555508700019 01/01/2014

Melaka Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point

13 A13 Minyak Masak

9555163500412 31/12/2012

Kedah Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point


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No BRAND

PRODUCT NAME


MANUFACTURER OR DISTRIBUTER & TEL

PLACE OF PURCHASE


14 A14 Minyak Masak yang Bermutu Tinggi

9557304182228 31/12/2014

Ban Chai Huat Sdn Bhd 2558, MK 2, Jalan Sama Gagah 13500 Permatang Pauh, S.Perai Tel:04-3900558


15 A15 Minyak Masak

9555070600175 31/08/2013

Khong Guan Veg. Oil Refinery Sdn Bhd 4825,Jalan Permatang Pauh, 13400 Butterworth Tel:04-3235001


16 A16 Minyak Masak

31/12/2013 TG Karang Kilang Minyak Sdn Bhd Lot 16331, Batu 7, Jalan Bernam,45500 Tg.Karang, Selangor Tel:03-32698433

Negeri Sembilan

Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point

17 A17 Minyak Masak Sayuran

31/12/2013 GIBCA Holding Sdn Bhd No.27, Jalan PJU 3/44, Sunway Damansara, 47810 Petaling Jaya Tel:03-78807533

Negeri Sembilan


18 A18 Minyak Masak

31/12/2012 Kinsan Brothers Oil Mills Sdn Bhd No 129, Jalan Usaha 12, Kawasan Perindustrian Ayer Keroh 75450 Melaka Tel:06-2324967

Negeri Sembilan


19 A19 Minyak Masak

31/12/2013 AMCEE Food Industry Sdn Bhd No.A1-A5 & Aii, Jalan Seri Setali 1, Taman Tunas Manja, 25300 Kuantan, Pahang Tel:09-5677088

Terengganu Total Polar Compound, Colour & Smoking Point


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No BRAND

PRODUCT NAME


PLACE OF PURCHASE


20 BC01 Minyak Masak Sebatian Tanpa Kolestrol

9556046100019 07/02/2012

My Mydin Jalan Ipoh


21 BC02 Minyak Masak Bertapis

9556046111084 12/11/2012

Giant Kelana Jaya


22 BC03 Minyak Masak Kacang Soya Tulen

9556271011012 20/04/2012

Giant Kelana Jaya


3.4 The samples were tested according to the following test methods in Unipeq Sdn Bhd

Table 4: Testing Parameters

Lab

Test Test Methods

Unipeq Sdn Bhd Total Polar Compound Pure Applied Chemistry, Vol. 72, No. 8, pp 1563-1575, 2000

Colour MPOB p4.1

Smoke Point AOCS Method CC9A-48


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4. Results Below are the test reports from Unipeq Sdn. Bhd.

Table 5: Test Results

NO

BRAND

PRODUCT NAME

Price RM / kg


RESULTS

COLOUR Smoke Point (ºC) 212 ºC

Polar Compound (%) 25% R Y B

1 A1 Minyak Masak Tanpa Kolestrol

2.50/1 kg 9555403100501 31/12/2014

1 7 0 197.5 28.6

2 A2 Minyak Masak 2.50/1 kg 9555014604016 31/12/2012

1 7 0 191.0 31.0


2.50/1 kg 9557561400110 31/12/2012

1 7 0 198.0 35.1

4 A4 Minyak Masak 2.50/1 kg 31/12/2013 1 6 0 193.5 36.7


2.50/1 kg 9555391803033 31/12/2012

1 7 0 189.5 41.6


2.50/1 kg 9555391800001 31/12/2013

1 7 0 188.5 29.8

7 A7 Minyak Kelapa Sawit Asli

2.50/1 kg 9555333600010 31/12/2012

1 7 0 192.5 32.4

8 A8 Minyak Masak 2.50/1 kg 9555325700018 16/08/2013

1 8 0 187.2 48.6


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NO

BRAND

PRODUCT NAME

Price RM / kg


RESULTS

COLOUR R Y B

Smoke Point (ºC) 212 ºC

Polar Compound (%) 25%

9 A9 Minyak Masak 2.50/1 kg 9555086808015 31/12/2014

1 7 0 192.0 42.7

10 A10 Minyak Masak 2.50/1 kg 31/12/2013 1 7 0 190.0 29.3


2.50/1 kg 9555328803112 31/12/2013

1 7 0 198.5 70.8

12 A12 Minyak Masak 2.50/1 kg 9555508700019 01/01/2014

1 7 0 189.0 49.7

13 A13 Minyak Masak 2.50/1 kg 9555163500412 31/12/2012

1 7 0 189.0 33.6

14 A14 Minyak Masak yang Bermutu Tinggi

2.30/1 kg 9557304182228 31/12/2014

1 7 0 188.5 39.3

15 A15 Minyak Masak 2.30/1 kg 9555070600175 31/08/2013

1 8 0 180.0 32.8

16 A16 Minyak Masak 2.50/1 kg 31/12/2013 1 7 0 198.5 31.6

17 A17 Minyak Masak Sayuran

2.50/1 kg 31/12/2013 1 7 0 192.0 33.0

18 A18 Minyak Masak 2.50/1 kg 31/12/2012 1 7 0 191.0 28.4

19 A19

Minyak Masak 2.50/1 kg 31/12/2013 1 7 0 190.5 51.3

20 BC01 Minyak Masak Sebatian Tanpa Kolestrol

3.20/1kg 9556046100019 07/02/2012

0.8

8 0 203.5 24.5

21 BC02 Minyak Masak Bertapis

9.00/2.2kg 9556046111084 12/11/2012

0.7

8 0 199.5 24.36

22 BC03 Minyak Masak Kacang Soya Tulen

10.90/1kg 9556271011012 20/04/2012

0.4

2 0 182.5 24.57

R- Red, Y- yellow and B- Blue


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28

.6

31 3

5.1

36

.7 41

.6

29

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32

.4

48

.6

42

.7

29

.3

70

.8

49

.7

33

.6 39

.3

32

.8

31

.6

33

28

.4

51

.3

24

.5

24

.36

24

.57

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80A

1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A9

A1

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A1

1

A1

2

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4

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To

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om

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ds

Brands

Total Polar Compound % (22 samples) - September 2011limit is 25%

160

170

180

190

200

210

220

A1

A2

A3

A4

A5

A6

A7

A8

A9

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Brand

Smoke Point °C for 22 samples - September 2011(limit for Palm Olein is 212 degC)


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Additional survey

Standards Users surveyed stalls and restaurants around Petaling Jaya and Kuala Lumpur to observe the extent of the usage of the cooking oil in plastic pouches or their bulk version which is packed in large tins. We discovered several stalls, night market vendors and restaurants use the cooking oil packed in plastic pouches. These were located in SS 9 and SS 3, Petaling Jaya and along Jalan Ipoh. Food products involved

are fried noodles, 'kuihs' and vadais.

5. Discussion and Recommendations

According to FAO Statistical Yearbook 2010, Malaysians are reported to consume 84g of oil / fat (in various forms) / person / per day compared to Thailand (56 g / person / per day) and Philippines (49kg / person / perday).

Our delicacies and meals are characterized as high in carbohydrate and fats. A combination of sedentary lifestyle and diet high in carbohydrate and fat is lethal to the health and is evident from the epidemic proportion of people with diabetes and coronary heart diseases. This is aggravated by occasional presence of toxic or unsafe

byproducts, chemicals or additives in food.

In this study we have tested 22 brands of cooking oil and 3 of which are popular brands i.e Knife, Labour and SoyLite. The other 19 brands are cooking oil sold to consumers in 1kg plastic packet or pouch. The brands vary according to the state where they were

purchased.

The determination of TPC in the cooking oil indicated that all 19 brands of cooking oil in plastic pouch are degraded most likely due to exposure to high temperatures which is normally result of repeatedly use for frying.

Again, TPC’s are considered as a major oil degradation indicator and many countries have set their limit to be 24–25% in used frying oils for regulation purposes especially in

Europe (Bansal et al., 2010; Firestone, Stier, & Blumenthal, 1991).

Knife, Cap Buruh and Soya contained total polar compounds below the limit of 25%.

The smoke point of the tested samples was compared with specification of fresh palm olein since all the 19 samples in plastics pouches are palm olein. The limit for smoke point for palm olein is 212deg C. The samples had smoking point of less than 212deg C

which means they start to give off smoke at temperatures less than 212 degC.

Standards Users suspects that degraded oil from major restaurants (after repeated frying) or even factories are diverted to be re-processed and packed for sales as cooking oil to consumers. As the study finds, these oils are sold for a fraction of the

price of the popular brands of palm olein, blended cooking oil or soya oil (RM/per kg).


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From location of purchase these type of cooking oils are found in both local grocery shops (sundry shops). We also noticed that these are fast moving products compared to their bottled / popular counterparts. Since the oil packed in plastics are cheaper, many

consumers purchase these type of cooking oil for household use as well.

The Food Regulations 1985 does not specify limit for the total polar compound and smoke point of cooking oil. In order to address sales of re-cycled cooking oil for human consumption, the Food Safety and Quality Division (FSQD) need to amend the regulations to include limits for TPC and smoking point. The Malaysian Association of Standards Users was informed by FSQD which is under the Ministry of Health that at the moment there is no regulations related to use of recycled cooking oil. We were informed that the Ministry is in the midst of identifying the usage of recycled cooking oil

and developing guideline for repeatedly-used frying oil.

Another area for concern, is that recycled oil are possibly used in animal feed, which then end up on our table for human consumption. Both FSQD and Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industries need to ensure that the limits to TPC and smoke

point also applies to recycled cooking oil used in animal feed.

Standards Users urges the Ministry of Health Malaysia to revise the existing regulation as soon as possible in order to ensure that animal feed and cooking oil is not tainted by

used cooking oil or recycled cooking oil.

In the meantime we also urge FSQD to carry out extensive market surveillance to address food safety problems associated with the use of recycled / used cooking oil. The department should also consider issuing notice to the public to discourage them

from purchasing cooking oil which are packed in 1kg plastic pouches.

We foresee traders may increase price of more popular brands and call on the Ministry of Domestic Trade, Cooperatives and Consumerism (KPDNKK) to ensure profiteering by traders does not happen.

We also urge both the Ministry of Health and KPDNKK to promote the sales of cooking oil certified by the relevant Malaysian Standards (MS) which MUST be revised to

include specifications on TPC, smoking point, PV, and FFA contents among others.

Standards Users will submit proposal to the Department of Standards Malaysia (STANDARDS MALAYSIA) to:

1. Revise the MS 682:2004 Cooking Oils Specification ( First Revision) accordingly

2. Develop Malaysian Standard on test method to determine total polar compound in cooking oil.

MBPJ's initiatives to collect used / recycled cooking oil whilst highly commendable should seek to ensure that only authorized vendors collect waste cooking oil and that the oils collected are actually used for bio-diesel production. Perhaps the regulations on


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bio-fuel Industry 2008 and the Bio-Fuel Industry Act 2007 under the purview of Ministry of Plantation Industry and Commodities Malaysia should be revised accordingly to support the green initiatives to convert waste cooking oil to bio-diesel.

6. Reference

1) Codex Standards for edible Fats and oils not covered by individual standards Codex

Stan 19-1981

2) Fauziah A, Razali I, Nor Aini S. Frying performance of palm olein and high oleic

sunflower oil during batch frying of potato crisps. Palm. Oil Developments 2000;

No.33: 1-7.

3) Local Repeatedly-Used Deep Frying Oils Are Generally Safe-Dr Tony Ng Kock Wai,

Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, International Medical University, Bukit Jalil,

57000 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA

4) Firestone,D. (2004) in Frying Technology and Practices edited by Gupta,M.K. and

white,P.J.pub.AOCS Press Campaign,206

5) MS 682:2004 Cooking Oils-Specification(First Revision) Kajian ke atas life-span of

repeted used cooking oil-Prof. Madya Dr.Tan Chin Ping-Faculty of food science &

technology ,UPM

6) Phiri G, Mumba P, Mangwera A. The quality of cooking oil used in informal food

processing in Malawi: a preliminary study. Int JConsumer Studies 2006; 30: 527-

532.Totani N, Ohno C, Yamaguchi A. Is the frying oil in deep-fried foods safe? J

Oleo Sci 2006; 55: 449-456.

7) Malaysian Food Act 1983 and Food Regulations 1985

8) http://www.americanpalmoil.com/publications/Palm%20Oil%20in%20Frying.pdf

9) http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue.htm

10) http://www.msonline.gov.my/default.php

11) http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/frying/c-refining/index.htm

12) http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2000/pdf/7208x1563.pdf

13) http://www.codexalimentarius.net/


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14) http://www.europarl.europa.eu/stoa/publications/studies/1999_envi_01_en.pdf

15) http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/21885/1/748.pdf

16) http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/01/world/asia/01shanghai.html

17) http://uqu.edu.sa/files2/tiny_mce/plugins/filemanager/files/4281709/84607_14.pdf

18) http://openagricola.nal.usda.gov/Record/IND44332345

19) http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/frying/c-refining/index.htm

20) http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/frying/a-polar/index.htm

21) http://whatscookingamerica.net/Information/CookingOilTypes.htm

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