1-2 introduction renewable energy

8/8/2019 1-2 Introduction Renewable Energy

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Module 1Module 1 -- General IntroductionGeneral Introduction

1.21.2 RenewableRenewable EEnergynergy -- IntroductionIntroduction

Osamu Iso

Workshop on Renewable EnergiesNovember 14-25, 2005

Nadi, Republic of the Fiji Islands


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e7/PPAWorkshoponRenewableEnergies

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2. Renewable energy2. Renewable energy -- introductionintroduction

2-1. Photovoltaic

2-2. Wind power

2-3. Micro hydro power

2-4. Biomass energy

2-5. City-Waste power generation

2-6. Other renewable technologies

2-6-1. Solar thermal power

2-6-2. Geothermal power

2-6-3. Ocean energy (Tidal, Tide-flow, Wave, OTEC)

2-7. Comparison of characteristics and cost of renewableenergy

Contents


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2-1. Photovoltaic


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4

+

+

++-

-

-

-

Photo Voltaic cell

Electrode

P-Type Semiconductor

N-Type Semiconductor

Reflect-Proof Film

Electrode

Solar Energy

LoadElectric Current

22--11--1. Principle and system configuration1. Principle and system configuration

Mechanism

Solar cell is composed of P-type semiconductor and N-type semiconductor.

Solar light hitting the cell produces two types of electrons, negatively andpositively charged electrons in the semiconductors.

Negatively charged (-) electrons gather around N-type semiconductorwhilepositively charged (+) electrons gather around P-type semiconductor.

When you connect loads such as light bulb, electric current occurs betweentwo electrodes.

I will introduce the principle to begin with.

Solar cell, invented in the USA in 1954, is a kind of semiconductor to convert energy

of light directly into electricity. Most semiconductor used for solar cell are siliconsemiconductors and it is composed of P-type semiconductor and N-typesemiconductor.

Sunlight hitting the cell produces two types of electrons, negatively charged and

positively charged electrons in the semiconductors. Negatively charged electrons

gather around N-type semiconductor while positively charged electrons gatheraround P-type semiconductor.

When youconnect loads such as a light bulb or motor, electric current occursbetween two electrodes.


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Advan

tages (1) Clean

Solar energy is a clean energy. It emits very smallamount of carbon gases or sulfur oxides.

(2) InfiniteSolar energy is infinite and permanent.

Disa

dvantages

(1) Volatile in outputThe amount of sunlight varies according to seasonsand weather. Therefore, generating electric powerto meet the demand anytime is impossible.

(2) Low in power densityRegardless of the vast solar energy coming down tothe earth, power density in sunlight can be as low as1,000 watts/m2. Acquisition of vast amount ofenergy needs vast surface area of the solar cell.


Characteristics of Photovoltaic

Characteristics of photovoltaic

Solar energy is a clean energy. It emits very small amount of carbon gases or sulfur

oxides. And it is infinite and permanent.On the other hand, the amount of sunlight varies according to seasons and weather

conditions. Regardless of the vast solar energy coming down to the earth, power

density in sunlight can be as low as 1,000 watts/m2. Acquisition of vast amount ofenergy require vast surface area of the solar cell.


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CrystallineCrystalline

Non-crystallineNon-crystalline

Single-crystalSingle-crystal

PolycristallinePolycristalline

AmorphousAmorphous

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Conversion Efficiencyof Module

Conversion Efficiencyof Module

10 - 17%10 - 17%

10 - 13%10 - 13%

7 - 10%7 - 10%

18 - 30%18 - 30%

Conversion Efficiency =Electric Energy Output

Falling Sunlight Energyx100%

Dye-sensitized TypeDye-sensitized Type

Organic Thin Layer TypeOrganic Thin Layer Type

7 - 8%7 - 8%

2 - 3%2 - 3%


Types and Conversion Efficiency of Solar Cell

Silicon

Semiconductor

Silicon

Semiconductor

Compound

Semiconductor

Compound

SemiconductorSolar

Cell

Solar

Cell

Organic

Semiconductor

Organic

Semiconductor

Variety of solar cell and conversion efficiency

There are 2 major types of solar cell: one using silicon semiconductor and one

using compound semiconductor. Solar cell using silicon semiconductor is furtherdivided into crystalline and non-crystalline or amorphous semiconductor.The

crystalline type silicon semiconductor is widely used for its high conversion rate and

reliability track record. The amorphous type semiconductor performs well even

under a fluorescent lamp, so, it is used as a source of power for calculators andwrist watches.

Compound semiconductors conversion rate is very high. But it is difficult to obtain.

Organic semiconductor is under development for further reducing cost.


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PV Cell (Single-crystal and Polycrystalline Silicon)

Single-crystal Polycrystalline



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Single Crystal Polycrystalline

120W

(25.7V ,4.7A)

1200mm

800mm800mm

1200mm


Solar Panels (Single-crystal and Polycrystalline Silicon)

(3.93ft)

2.62ft

3.93ft

(3.93ft)

128W

(26.5V ,

4.8A)

formed by melting high purity silicon,

then sliced very thinly and processed

into solar panel.

metal silicon pure enough to

manufacture solar cell

is poured into a mold and crystallized.

Solar Panels (Single-crystal and Polycrystalline Silicon)

On the left is a single-crystal silicon solar panel. Single-crystal is formed by

melting high purity silicon, then sliced very thinly and processed into solar panel.

On the right is a polycrystalline silicon solar panel. To reduce the cost of solar

panels, metal silicon pure enough to manufacture solar cell is poured into a moldand crystallized. Solar cell consists of many crystalline silicon.


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Glass-substrate type Film-substrate type


Amorphous (Non-Crystaline) Silicon Solar Panels

manufactured by applying thin layer manufacturing technology

for semiconductor

increases the possibility of reducing cost or of improving efficiency

Amorphous silicon Solar Panels

This solar panel is manufactured by applying thin layer manufacturing technology

for semiconductor to non-crystallized or amorphous silicon. It can be manufacturedin quantity.

It is said that this solar panel increases the possibility of reducing cost or ofimproving efficiency.

Moreover, there are 2 types of amorphous silicon solar pane: glass-substrate

type and film-substrate type.


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Pole

Indoor

wire

6,600V

Power companys devices Customers devices

100

/200V Wattmeter

For sale For purchase

Switch

for DC

Inverter

Water

Heater

Refrigerator

SwitchingBoard

Air

Conditioner

Legend

:DC:AC

Sensor(voltage, current)

DC/AC ConverterGrid Control Device

(Protection Relay)

Grid Connection ininverse flow case


Photovoltaic System for Residence (House)

Sensor(voltage, current)

DC

Solar Panel

Photovoltaic system for residence

Output from solar panel is in direct current. In order to use the output for usual

home appliances, direct current must be converted into alternating current throughan inverter. In the system shown in the figure, solar panel is connected with the

home electric circuit by way of inverter. In Japan, voltage in the home electric circuitis 100 or 200.

Moreover, when there is excess output, surplus may be sold to an electric

company. In the case, wattmeter for sale is installed in addition to wattmeter forpurchase.


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22--11--2. Installed Capacity in the World2. Installed Capacity in the World

Trends in Photovoltaic capacity in the world

0200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

1,600,000

1,800,000

2,000,000

92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03

Year

1,809,000kW

Installed capacityper yearAccumulated

capacity

Installed capacityper yearAccumulatedcapacityC

apacity(kW)

Other

8.2%

Australia

2.9%

Germany 22.7%

USA

15.2%

Netherlands

2.5%

Italy 1.4%

Accumulated capacity[MW]

at the end of 2003

JAPAN

47.5%

Trends in installed photovoltaic capacity in the world

This is a graph showing trends in installed photovoltaic capacity in the world. The

installation is accelerating year by year. It reached 1,327,000 kW in 2002.

Top 3 countries in the installed capacity are Japan, Germany and the USA, whichcollectively accounts for over 80% of the world total.


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Capacity by Country(in the end of 2002)

Country Capacity (MW)

Japan 636.8 (48.0%)1

Germany 277.3 (20.9%)2

United States 212.2 (16.0%)3

Australia 39.1 (2.9%)4

Netherlands 26.3 (2.0%)5

Italy 22.0 (1.7%)6

Switzerland 19.5 (1.5%)7

France 17.2 (1.3%)8

Mexico 16.2 (1.2%)9

Spain 16.0 (1.2%)10

Canada 10.0 (0.8%)11


Austria 9.0 (0.7%)12

Norway 6.4 (0.5%)13

Korea 5.4 (0.4%)14

England 4.1 (0.3%)15

Sweden 3.3 (0.2%)16

Finland 3.1 (0.2%)17

Portugal 1.7 (0.1%)18

Denmark 1.6 (0.1%)19

Israel 0.5 (0.0%)20

TOTAL 1327.7 (100%)

Photovoltaic capacity by country

This chart shows the accumulated capacity by country. As shown in the previous

figure, the total of major countries is 1327.7 MW at the end of 2002. Japan has636.8MW(48.0%), followed by Germany of 277.3MW(20.9%), the USA of212.2MW(16.0%). These countries account for nearly 85% in total.


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Solar Cell Capacity: 4.35 kW Solar Cell Capacity: 3.48 kW

Solar Cell Capacity: 14.36kW Solar Cell Capacity: 3.92kW

22--11--3.3. ExampleExample

Roof-top type Solar Panels

installed in various forms according to the size, shape of the roof or capacity needed

Roof-top type solar panels

These pictures are examples of installed roof-top type solar panels.

Solar panels can be installed in various forms according to the size, shape of theroof or capacity needed.


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22--11--3. Example3. Example

School (Eco-School Program supported by MEXT)

Solar cell capacity:250 kW Solar cell capacity:20 kW

Solar cell capacity:10 kW Solar cell capacity:30 kW

Example of installation to schools (Eco-School Program supported by Ministry of

Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan)

These are examples of installed solar panel with relatively large capacity in schools.MEXT implements various measures to build environmentally friendly facilities.Under this initiative, MEXT subsidizes half of the installation cost.


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Site: Mongolia

Installation: May & June in 1999

Purpose: For lighting, refrigerator

and outlet in a hospital

Solar cell capacity: 3.4kWWind Power capacity: 1.8kW

Inverter capacity: 5kVA


Photovoltaic - Wind Power combined in Mongolia

Photovoltaic-wind power combined in Mongolia

This is the example of combined photovoltaic with wind power in Mongolia.

Capacity for solar cell and wind power is 3.4 kW and 1.8 kW respectively.Generated power is used for lighting, refrigerator and outlets in a hospital.


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Solar Home System (SHS50W-class)

Solar array

Solar arraySolar array

Solar array

Controller

Light

Storage battery

Solar Home System

This is the example of solar home system by which solar array supplies power for

lighting. The system consists of solar cell of 50 kW capacity and storage battery.


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The system supplies alternating currentelectricity to 240 residences in 3 villages.

*Solar cell capacity: 151kW (total of 3 villages)

*Type of solar cell: single-crystal

*Inverter capacity: 100kW*Battery:7,700kWh (total of 3 villages)

*Year of installation: 1986


Electrification of a village (in Thailand)

Electrification of a village in Thailand

This is the example of village electrification in Thailand. The system consists of

solar panel with 1a capacity of 51kW, 100kW inverter and storage battery with7,700kWh. It supplies alternating current electricity to 240 residences in 3 villages.


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2. Renewable energy - introduction

2-2. Wind power


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Conventional turbine

Speed-increasing gear

Variable

Pitch

Generator

Blade32

2

1VrP =

P : Power of wind

: Density of airr : Blade length

V : Wind speed

Let me explain how to electricity is generated by wind power. The power in the wind

turns propeller like blades around a rotor which spins the connected generator.

Power of wind is proportional to the function of the square of the blade length, andthe cube of wind speed. Therefore, the longer the blade length and higher the windspeed, we can get bigger power of wind.


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(Poul la Cour, Denmark)Year of 1897, Diameter 22.8m (74.8ft)


Ancient Wind Mill

The first use of windmill in human history is unknown. But, record tells us that

windmills were used for pumping water and irrigation in Egypt around 3600 BC.

Prototype of the current windmill was built by Poula la Cour who was a researcherand marketer or windmill. Starting the invention of wind power generation device in

Ascow in 1891, he introduced large scale wind power generation device withdiameter as large as 22.8 meters.


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Savonius type Darrieus type Hybrid type


Vertical-axis wind turbine

*efficiency is not so high

*high torque

*similar efficiency withpropeller type turbines(it gains spinning power

from the lift)*can not start up by itself

do not require controlling of the blades according to wind direction,gets a high torque with relatively slow spinning, and the noise level low.

Windmills are divided into two major categories: the vertical-axis turbines, and the

horizontal-axis turbines.

The pictures shows two major types of vertical-axis turbines. One on the left isSabonius turbine. One in the middle is the Darrieus turbine.

Savonius turbine spins by the air resistance when the wind pushes the blades. It

cannot spin faster than the wind speed. And thus its efficiency is not so high. But ithas an advantage of yielding a high torque.

Darrieus turbine is similar to the propeller type turbines in efficiency because it gains

spinning power from the lift. However, it can not start up by itself so it needs to becombined with other motors or windmills.

Shown on the right is the hybrid turbine which combines Savonius and Darrieus.

Vertical-axis wind turbines do not require controlling of the blades according to winddirection, yields a high torque with relatively slow spinning, and the noise level low.


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Dutch type

Propellertypesail wing typemulti-blade type


Horizontal-axis wind turbines

the most common type used today

(two or three blades)

used as powersource for

pumping water

Horizontal-axis wind turbines are the most common type used today. These are

wind turbines with an axis horizontal to the ground.

The upper left is a Dutch type which has been in use for a long time. It has beenused as power source for pumping water.

The lower left is a multi-blade type being used in the USA.

In the middle is a type of receiving wind by sails. These type can gain big powerfrom the wind.

On the right is the most typical type of wind turbine.

Most horizontal-axis turbines build today have two or three blades, although somehave fewer (I.e. one) or more blades.


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Size of wind turbine (1/2)

Wind turbines are available in various sizes.

Small turbines with a capacity of less than 10 kW is usually for household use.

Intermediate turbines with capacity between 10 kW and 250kW are for commercialuse such as a small scale power generation.

Large scale wind turbines (with a capacity of more than 250 kW) is used for largescale power generation.


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Size of wind turbine (2/2)

44m

(144feet)

80m

262feet

3.0MW

55m

(180feet)

4.2MW

These are the latest type of large scale wind turbine.

On the left is a wind turbine manufactured by Vestas in Denmark. The output is

3000kW. The length of blade is 44 meters. The height of the tower is 80 meters.

On the right is a wind turbine manufactured by NEG Micon in Denmark. Its output is4200kW. The length of blade is 55 meters.

In recent years, we see a growth in manufacturing of large wind turbine like these.


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Power output: 1,500 kW

Rotor: 34m 33,700 kg (made in Germany)


Transporting the rotor (1/2)

Rotor

Truck

This is a picture of a rotor of a large scale wind turbine, with a capacity of 1500kW,

being transported. The blade in the picture is made in Germany and is 34 meterslong.

Transporting rotors of this size is no easy task. There are many issues to consider.


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Transporting the rotor (2/2)

Rotor

This is another picture. Many constraints such as width of roads, the height of

tunnels, should be considered.


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Feature

Wind energy is the function of the cube of the wind speed.

35 - 45 % of wind energy can be converted into electricity.Utility rate is around 30 % at best.

Advantages

Non-depletion

Clean

Disadvantages

Volatile output

Unable to respond when needed

Suitable construction sites are limited

due to wind conditions.


Features of Wind Power

Let me recap the features of wind power generation.

Energy of wind is the function of the cube of speed of wind.

35 to 45% of energy of wind can be transformed into electricity.

Utility rate is around 30% at best.

Advantages are:

Wind is a non-depleting power source and is also clean energy.

Disadvantages include:

Output volatility as it totally dependent on the wind.

Which also means that the plant is unable to respond when needed.

Limited suitable construction sites due to wind conditions.


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0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

0:00 12:00 24:00

Rating = 1

Output from

wind power fluctuates.

Wind Power generation is tough to the grid system.

Even in themid-night,

output fluctuates.

Wind Power

Photovoltaic


Fluctuations of wind power and photovoltaic

It is known that wind power can put a strain on the grid system.

For energy of wind is the function of the cube of wind speed, slate changes in wind

speed result in large fluctuations. Electricity is difficult to store. So, balance ofsupply and demand must be taken by power grid system as a whole. When wind

power is connected to the power grid in high volume, unpredictable fluctuations of

output makes the power grid difficult to keep the balance between supply anddemand.

In the figure, fluctuations of output are compared between wind power and

photovoltaic. Blue and red lines indicate output from wind power and photovoltaic

respectively.

As you see, output from wind power can fluctuate down to zero in a short cycle.

Making matters worse, it fluctuates even in off-peak mid-night when demand to the

grid is small. Fluctuations in the mid-night affect the grid more than daytime.


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Capacity changes of Wind Power Generation

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

81 82 83 8485 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03

Capacity(MW)

(at the end of December 2003)

Year

39,430,000kW

Accumulatedcapacity

Installed capacityper yearAccumulatedcapacity

Germany

37%

Japan

2%Others

Denmark

8%USA

16%Spain16%

India5%

France

2%

Netherlands

2%Italy2%

Accumulated capacity[MW]at the end of 2003

This graph shows the history of generating capacity by wind power in the world.

Since the second half of 1990s, capacity has been growing sharply. Compared to

the accumulated capacity of2000MW in1990, it reached 39430MW in 2003.

By country, Germany is ranked first, followed by USA, Spain, and Denmark.

In 2003, Germany had 15387 units of wind turbines which gave total nominal output

of14609MW. This accounts for more than one third of the world total, and almost ahalf of EU.


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Capacity by major country(at the end of December 2003)


Germany 14,609 (37.0%)1

United States 6,352 (16.1%)2

Spain 6,202 (15.7%)3

Denmark 3,115 (7.9%)4

India 2,120 (5.4%)5

Italy 912 (2.3%)6

Netherlands 891 (2.3%)7

England 704 (1.8%)8

Japan 644 (1.6%)9

China 566 (1.4%)10Austria 415 (1.1%)11


Sweden 399 (1.0%)12

Greek 398 (1.0%)13

Canada 326 (0.8%)14

Portugal 299 (0.8%)15

France 240 (0.6%)16

Ireland 225 (0.6%)17

Australia 198 (0.5%)18

Norway 112 (0.3%)19

Costa Rica 71 (0.2%)20

Others 636 (1.6%)Total 39,434 (100%)

Here is a list of installed capacity by country.

As you can see, capacity varies greatly by country although note that they are

concentrated in Europe.

Japan is now ranked 9th in the world. Japanese government set an indicative targetof installing as much as 3000MW by 2010.


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Unit Capacity movement of commercial wind turbine

UnitCapacity(kW)

Year

More and more big turbine !

3,000kW Unit is already

commercially constructed.

5,000kW Unit is under

testing foroff-shore site.

This graph shows the history and estimate of wind power generation up to 2020.

The vertical axis scales output. In the early 1980soutput hovered around 50kW.

As you can see, it reached 250kW in the early 1990s, then jumped from 750kW to1500kW in 2000.

Among currently introduced wind turbines, the largest has a capacity of 3000kW.Capacity is expected to increase even to 10MW in the future.


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Wind farms in California

Alta Monte Path 640,000kW

Tehachapi 630,000kWSan Golgonia 270,000kW

(Total) 1,540,000kW


Wind farms in California

Recently the number of wind farms are increasing. Wind farms are clusters of wind

turbines installed side by side.

This is a picture of one of the wind farms in California, USA.

Here, rather small size wind turbines are installed.


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Denmark in land

Denmark off-shoreGermany

Netherlands


Wind farms in Europe

Pictures show sites of wind power generation in various countries in Europe. In

recent years due to issues such as lack of suitable site, noise prevention, and

preserving the view, we are seeing more offshore wind farms, like that of Denmarkshown on the bottom right.


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(3 km off the shore of Copenhagen / 2000kW x 20 units)


Off-shore Wind Farm, Denmark (1/2)Middelgrunden Off-shore Wind Farm

Advantage of off-shore wind power generation includes gaining wind condition

better than inland, relief from issues of lack of site or prevention of noises.

Disadvantage is transmitting electricity to inland through submarine cable resulting

in high capital cost. Therefore, from the view point of cost, inland wind power issuperior to off-shore wind power.

The picture shows an offshore wind farm in Denmark. Three kilometers off the

coast of Copenhagen, 20 units of large wind turbine each with a capacity of2000kW were installed. Commercial operation started in May, 2001 and is going

well.


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2,000kW x 80 units = 160MW in total


Off-shore Wind Farm, Denmark (2/2)

Horns Reef Project, Denmark

This is another off-shore wind farm project in Denmark. InHorns reef, 80 2000kW

turbines were installed for a total of 160MW.

Denmark has five off-shore wind farm projects with a total output of around 750accounting forapproximately 8 % of Danish domestic demand. It is said to haveCO2 reduction effect as 2.1 million tons per year.


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2-3. Micro hydro power


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Basics of hydro power generation

Output(W)=ht x hg x r x g x Q x He

SourceNEDO, Micro hydropower guidebook

ht :Turbine efficiency

hg :Generator efficiency

r :Density of water (kg/m3)

g :Acceleration of gravity (m/s2)Q :Volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

He :Effective head (m)

pipe

verticaldistance

verticaldistance

(Small intake dam)

Basics of hydro power generation

Water runs from a high place to a low place due to gravity. By bringingthe flow into the water turbine, we can spin the generator directly

attached to the turbine.

Amount of electricity produced depend on 2 factors: (1) vertical distance

between the two points (the head) and (2) the flow rate. As such,

output of electricity can be calculated using the following formula:

OutputW x x g x Q x H

However not all of the hydro power derived from the head is exploited.

Some power is lost when water is channeled to the turbine through a

pipe called the headrace channel. In addition, some of hydro power are

lost in the process of the turbine turning the generator axis converting

the power of the spinning axis into electricity.


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Variety of micro hydro power generation

Water source

(a) Mountain stream ( Normal case )(b) Agricultural water (Apply to Irrigation system )

(c) City water ( Apply to City water or Waste water

system )

Turbine type

(a) Pelton turbine

(b) Cross flow turbine

(c) Francis turbine(d) Tube-type propeller turbine

Various type for

various flow

There is a variety of micro hydro power generation according to water sources or

turbine types.

Water source includes mountain stream, agricultural water, city water and sewerage.

Configurations of power plant varies accordingly.Among equipments of the configuration, turbine is the most important. The type of

turbine to install is decided based on the head and flow rate on the sites. This is anexample of turbine types.


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Penstock (pipe)

Power plant

Settling tank

Water channel ( long channel )Weir (dam)


Mountain stream utilization ( Normal application case )

Power plant

Penstock (pipe)Settling tank

If the slopes surrounding the

stream is too steep or when

open channel construction is

difficult, laying long penstockalong the steam (with no open

channel) may be an alternative

method.

Portion of a mountain stream is

taken in from the intake with a weir

(dam).

The water runs toward a powerplant through the open channel,

settling tank, and penstock. After

power generation, water goes back

into the stream.

Portion of a mountain stream is taken in from the intake with a weir.

The water runs toward a power plant through the open channel, settling

tank, and penstock. After power generation, water goes back into the

stream.

The level difference between the water tank at the end of the open

channel and the power plant is used for power generation. This system

is suitable on sites with a gentle landscape. If the slopes surrounding

the stream is too steep or when open channel construction is difficult,

laying long penstock along the steam (with no open channel) may be an

alternative method.

If the slopes surrounding the stream is too steep or when open channel

construction is difficult, laying long penstock along the steam (with no

open channel) may be an alternative method.


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Agricultural water utilization ( Apply to Irrigation system)

Simple power generating facility is set near step structure

on the existing waterway for agricultural use.

Turbine

Generator

Draft tube

Open

Channel

Small Head

Pen-stock(pipe)

Power plant

Stepstructure

Excess water

channel

Large Head

Settlingtank

Simple power generating facility is set near the step structure

of the existing waterway for agricultural use. A submerged turbinegenerator is used for a site with small head. On the site with large head, water may

be taken bypassing step structure and generator may be installed by the mainstream.


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41


Apply to City water or Waste water system

The vertical difference between the

drawing point and supply point is used

for power generation.

In this system using city water supply, the

valve which reduces pressure is installed at

the end of the penstock (pipe) allowing forthe use of water pressure to generate

electricity, before depressurization.

Water treatmentprocess

WaterReserve

This example shows the power generation using water supply.

The vertical difference between the drawing point and supply point is used for power

generation.

In this system using city water supply, the valve which reduces pressure is installed

at the end of the penstock allowing for the use of water pressure to generateelectricity, before depressurization.


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42


Water turbines for micro hydro power

Tube-type propeller turbineCross flow turbine

Pelton turbine Francis turbine

These are the typical turbine types for micro hydro power generation.

Blue arrow indicates the flow of water.

Pelton turbine and cross flow turbine rotate in the air. On the other hand,in Francisturbine and tube-type propeller turbine, turbines are encapsulated and runningwater is pressurized.


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Head-flow ranges of micro hydro turbines

Pelton

Propeller

Francis

Cross flowHead(m)

Flow rate (m3/sec)

Francis turbine

Pelton wheel

or Turgo Wheel

Crossflow turbine

Propeller turbine

or Kaplan

(widely applicable)

(Head is Large)

Flow is Largebut Head is Small

(both Flow and Headare in Middle)

(verticaldistance(m))

This is a figure showing applicability of 4 types of turbine. Flow rate is on the

horizontal axis. Head is on the vertical axis. Cross flow turbine is widely applicable,

even under the condition of small flow rate and small head. Pelton turbine is most

recommendable where large head is secured. In contrast to Pelton turbine, propeller

turbine is recommendable on sites where flow rate is large but head is small.Francis turbine is applicable where both of flow rate and head are in the middle.


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44


Example of mountain stream utilization ( High head case )

Overview of the power plant Water turbine generator

Taking advantage of the 45 m

natural head of waterfall, poweris generated by the water

brought into the power plantdown the waterfall.

Synchronous generatorGenerator

Cross flow turbineTurbine

36.8 m(12.7ft)Effective head

0.57 m3/s(20.1ft3 /s)Flow rate

93 kWMaximum output

1998Start of operationKotawei power plant (Indonesia)

The project is located in Waikanan prefecture, Sumatra, Indonesia.

Taking advantage of the waterfall (approximately 45m), power is

generated by the water brought into the power plant down the waterfall.

So there was no need to set a man-made weir.

All the generated power is consumed at Kotawei village.


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45


Example for mountain stream utilization ( Low head case )

Kaplan turbineTurbine

Synchronous generatorGenerator

2.82 m(9.25ft)Effective head

1.5 m3/s(21.1ft3/S)Max. flow rate

40 kW x 4 unitsMax Output

1998Start of operation

Downstream side

Upstream side

Turbine generator

Birkelwehr power plant (Germany)

The power plant was built to re-utilize a dam once used in an abolished

plant.

On the flood control gate, 4 siphon style Kaplan water turbines and 4

synchronous generators are installed for generation.

Therefore, this power plant needs no water channel or penstock.


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46


Nanaga-Yohsui power plant (Japan)

http://www.pref.ishikawa.jp/nouson/suiri/sitihatu1.htm

Tubler propeller turbineTurbine type

Syncronus generatorGenerator type

5.45m(17.9ft) (max)6.25m(20.3ft) (usual)

Effective head

15.0 m3/s (530ft3) (max)2.94 m3/s (104ft3) (usual)

Flow rate (m3/s)

630 (max) 110 (usual)Output (kW)

2004Start of operation

Example for agricultural water utilization (1)

Upstream side

Downstream side Sectional drawing

This is an example of micro hydro power plant using agricultural water in Japan. The

generator is installed in the hatch by the water channel. Although the Head is 5 m

or so, usual output is 110 kW and the maximum output is 630 kW thanks to the

high flow rate. The adopted turbine installed in the water of the channel is of

propeller type which is recommendable under the condition of high flow rate andsmall head.


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47


Example for agricultural water utilization (Submarine style)

HEPG-1.5HEGP-3.0Model

2.8 kW

300 rpm

0.6 m3/s(21ft3/s)

1 m(3.28ft)

1.3 kWOutput

1,200 rpmRotation

frequency

0.1 m3/s(3.5ft3/s)Flow rate

3 m(9.84ft)Head

Turbine Generator

Output cable

(to DC/AC converter

Weir

(Head)

(Stream of Water)

784mm

460mm

Submarinegenerator

This is another plant utilizing agricultural water.

As shown in the figure, if we create head as large as 1 to 3 meters by a simple weir

on the water channel, small-output power generation is possible. Turbine, speed-increasing gear and generator are in one package. Installation work is easy.


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48


micro hydro powers (world)

-4.60.134Schltach23

19982.821.50404BirkelwehrGermany

22

Construction232.00.03876NiederrannaAustria21

200125.20.4565MahagnaoPhilippines20200054.20.30120Na ChaVietnam19

199918.10.5570Nam MongLaos18

199836.80.5793KotawayIndonesia17

199251.00.29*1002Zhemgang16199257.30.25*1002Damphu15199222.00.66*1002Darachhu14198650.00.20*70Surey13

198630.00.10*20Kekhar12

198650.00.09*30Yadi11

198620.00.36*50Ura10

198650.00.09*30Tamshing9

198650.00.1030Bubja8

198640.00.2150Trongsa7

198640.00.11*30Tangsibji6

198640.00.1740Rukubji5198640.00.1330Thinleygang4

198656.00.05*20Lhuentshi3

196976.00.19*1003Wangdi21967100.50.13904Thimphu

Bhutan

Mountain

stream

1

InstallationHead (m)Max waterflow(m3/s)

Max output

(kW)SiteCountry

Watersource

No

* Calculated with the max output, the head and a turbine generator efficiency (assumed to be 0.7)

The table lists micro hydro power plants around the world.

All use mountain streams as its water source, many of which having heads

measuring several tens of meters.Of these streams, some have small flow rate but have large heads, and others havelarge flow rate but small heads.


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49


micro hydro powers (Japan)

200042-480.0061.0Nagano11

200114.030.668.0Shizuoka23

200031.00.059.9Ooita22

200265.00.18585.0HyohgoWater supply and

sewerage

2119842.242.4618.0NiigataAgriculture water20

200111.00.042.1Niigata19

200110.50.106.0Nagano18

199390.980.1898.0Nara17

200240.00.0173.2Hyohgo16

200249.00.0143.6Kagoshima15

200145.00.0319.9Nagano14

200027.00.05*9.9Mie13

200049.00.0051.3Kagoshima12

199930.00.09*18.0Yamagata10

199827.840.25951.0Gumma9

199812.20.8168.0Fukuoka8

199723.00.09518.2Ooita7

199622.60.3350.0Iwate6

19962.50.10*1.8Kagoshima5

199522.00.17*25.0Gifu4199512.00.8975.0Okinawa3

199265.70.1360.0Kohchi2

199016.00.11*12.5Ooita

Mountainstream

1

InstallationHead (m)Max. water flow

(m3/s)Max. output

(kW)LocationWater sourceNo

* Calculated with the max output, the head and a turbine generator efficiency (assumed to be 0.7)

This is a list of micro hydro plants in Japan.

Many use mountain streams, but some use agricultural water or city water supplies.

Their heads usually measure around several dozen meters.


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50

22--33--3. Characteristics3. Characteristics

Features of micro hydro power

Only small changes made to selected sites

Using small amount of water Environmentally friendly

Emit no CO2 when generating power

Can be constructed in a short period of time

Easy maintenance

Easy to install (i.e. piggy back) on existing facilities

(e.g. facilities for agriculture water or city water

supply) and reduce maintenance cost Stable power supply

(managed base on data of available mount of water)

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

Features of micro hydro power generation are summarized as follows:

(1) Due to its size, micro hydro power require only small changes to be made to the

selected sites. For the amount of water required is also small, adverse impacton water quality and eco-system is small. So, micro hydro power isenvironmentally friendly.

(2) Micro hydro power is a clean energy emitting no CO2, and contributes tomitigate global warming.

(3) Micro hydro power has a simple structure and thus can be constructed over ashort period of time. Maintenance and management are also easy.

(4) It is possible to piggy-back on existing facilities such as the facilities for

agricultural water or city water works. This contributes to reducing maintenancecost.

(5) Since generation of power can be managed based on the data of available

amount of water year around. As such, unlike other renewable energies, such

as photovoltaic or wind power, hydro power is a stable power supply.


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51

2. Renewable energy2. Renewable energy introductionintroduction

2-4. Biomass energy


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52

22--44--1. What is Biomass1. What is Biomass energyenergy

What is Biomass

Organic materials originated from plants or animalswhich can be used as a source of energy.

(excluding fossil fuels and materials originated fromfossil fuels)

B i o m a s sB i o m a s s

Examples:

Trees, Grasses, Sea weeds, Phytoplankton

Residues from agriculture, forestry and livestock Municipal wastes (from biological materials)

ld like to start with what is biomass.

ass is a concept referring to organic matters originated from plants or animals which can be userce of energy. This excludes fossil fuels and materials originated from fossil fuels.

ples of biomass include: trees; grasses; sea weeds; phytoplankton; residues from agriculture,ry and livestock; and municipal wastes originated from biological materials.


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Why Biomass is good.

(1) Carbon neutral

(2) Renewable

ForestTimber Farm

TimberIndustry House Building

&Removing

Biomass Generation(By waste timber)

CO2

If Lumbering = Burning = Re-Planting

Re-planting afterLumbering is

very important

Carbon Cycle

EmissionAbsorption





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54


Why Biomass is good.

(3) Reduce Fossil fuel consumption

Methane

Methane free to the air.

(powerful Greenhouse gas)

Livestock Waste

GenerationBio Gas

Fossil Fuel

CO2

(Greenhouse gas)

Reduceconsumption





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55

SourceGuidebook for biomass energy introduction

2-4-1. What is Biomass energy

Classification of biomass and recyclable materials

Used Products

plastics for packages

used tires

Byproducts

plastics, waste

used Cooking Oil

used Paper

Food waste

Wood waste

Building waste

Animal waste

Rise straw, chaff

Energy plants( Copra for diesel oil,

Sweet Potatoes for

fuel alcohol

Recycledresources

Biomassresources

Organic originOrganic origin

Classification of biomass and recyclable materials.

In Japan, we distinguish between biomass ( or renewable) and recyclable materials.

However, within biomass or renewable materials, used cooking oil, paper, foodwaste and wood waste can also be considered recyclable materials.

On the other hand, used plastics and fossil fuel byproducts are consideredrecyclable but are not renewable.


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56

woodenbiomass

Residues fromforestry

Bagasse

food industrydrainage

food waste

processedfishery residue

black liquor,woody waste

cellulose(used paper)

agricultural residue

rice straw, corn,chaff, wheat straw

Bagasse

Animal waste

of cows, pigs

and chickens

fishery waste

sugar,starch

sweet potato

rapeseed, palm oil,copra oil (coconut)

construction

wood waste

sewage sludge

sewage

used cocking oil

Directcombustion

Biochemicalconversion

Thermo-chemicalconversion

After processedinto chips or pellets,they are burnt inboiler.

Applied technologylike fermentation,methane, ethanol,hydrogen, etc. areproduced.

Fuels are producedthrough gasification,making in a hightemperature and highpressure process.

Wooden

Food Industry

Paper mill

Agriculture,Livestock,

Fishery

Constructionwaste

Household

kitchen waste

Source: Ministry of economy, industry and trade

2-4-1. What is Biomass energy

Application and classification of biomass resources

Roughly, there are three applications of biomass resources: namely,direct

combustion, biochemical conversion and thermo-chemical conversion.

In a direct combustion, biomass is burned directly in the boiler to produce steam.The steam is used to spin the turbine.

In a biochemical conversion, biomass produces methane, ethanol, and hydrogen

through fermentation technology at ordinary temperature, which will then be used tofuel energy.

In a thermo-chemical conversion, gasification and etherification are performed in

high temperatures and an oxygen-free environment, to convert biomass to a gas.The gas fuels the turbine.

Residues from forestry, livestock and agricultural and construction waste are

generally processed through direct combustion.

Biomass from the food industry, animal waste produced by the agricultural and

livestock farming industries, and kitchen food waste are processed throughbiochemical combustion.

Another type of biomass from agriculture and livestock farming, such as Palm Oil,and used cooking oil from daily activities are used through thermo-chemicalconversion.


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Conversion Technologies for biomass

biomass

Direct

combustion

Electricity,heating

Thermo-

chemicalconversion

Gasification(indirect liquefaction)

Pyrolysis

Directliquefaction

Syntheticgas

Liquid fuel

Chemicalmaterial

Biochemicalconversion

Anaerobic

digestion

Aerobicfermentation

Alcoholicfermentation

Methane,

Hydrogen

Fertilizer

Ethanol

Various types of biomass exist on earth. They have different properties in calories,specific gravity and water content rate. Occurrence patterns and volume are alsodifferent among them. Accordingly, various conversion technologies for energy usehave been developed and commercialized.

As mentioned in the previous side, there are 3 ways to convert biomass: Directcombustion; Thermo-chemical conversion (such as gasification and carbonization);and Biochemical conversion (such as methane fermentation).

I would like to explain in detail, each of these conversion processes.


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58

Combustion

22--44--2. Direct combustion of wood and2. Direct combustion of wood andagricultural biomassagricultural biomass

Proven technology using wood waste, unutilized lumber orbagasse. However,energy utilization rate are low because the

plants are generally for self-use to meet minimum demand.

Although it depends on the size of the plant, in most cases,

conversion rate to electricity is from 10% to 20%.

Direct combustionDirect combustion

A technology which combines biomass with fossil fuels like

coal and are fired in a coal-fired power plant. With the help of

coal, it aims at preventing efficiency decrease in caused bybiomass.

Co-firingCo-firing

First, lets talk about Combustion. There are 2 types of combustion: (1) Direct

combustion and (2) Co-firing.

Direct combustion is a technology utilizing steam from burning biomass. No otherfuel source are combined.

This is proven technology which has already been in commercial operation using

wood waste, unutilized lumber or bagasse. However,energy utilization rate in most

existing facilities are low because the plants are generally for self-use to meet

minimum demand. Although it depends on the size of the plant, in most cases,

conversion rate to electricity is from 10% to 20%.

Co-firing is a technology which combines biomass with fossil fuels like coal and arefired in a coal-fired power plant. With the help of coal, it aims at preventing efficiencydecrease in caused by biomass.


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59

Utilizing thinned wood alone seems to difficult due to high water content, collecting cost and disposal cost.

(Broken line shows other countries

case)SourceGuidebook for biomass energy introduction

Image of facility size and application (wooden biomass)

(Solid line shows Japanese cases)

kind of forestry biomass

forestry

biomass

factory edge

lumber

construction

waste

direct combustion

power generation,

heat utilization

(mainly for self-use)

direct combustion powergeneration, heat utilization,

gasification, generation, co-

firing with coal generationself-use andsupply to

outside

1 t/day 10 t/day 100 t/day 300 t/day 1000 t/day

thinned

wood Pellet chip


(Locally Make

chip only)

Energy from wood biomass can be used in many different ways. Heat and electricitycan be obtained by burning factory and construction waste (wood chips, bark), orthey can be used to make pellets. Such waste can also be changed into a gas togenerate electricity. The table shows the classification of wood biomass by type andamount within the framework of the applied technology. The area indicated with asolid line shows domestic applications, and the area marked by dotted linesindicates overseas applications.

Roughly divided, wood biomass are comprised from wood waste from thinning,waste from factory operation, and waste from construction. In terms of the amountof use, wood waste from thinning is the least used, followed by factory waste, andconstruction waste. As for wood waste from thinning, its independent use is difficultconsidering the amount of water content and the cost of gathering and processing.Accordingly, it is used together with factory waste wood.

In the case of small scale operations, the wood biomass is used to make pellets andchips for boilers. Some of them are changed into a gas for use in power generation.As for medium to large scale operations, it is directly used for thermal power andheat generation. In Japan, some facilities can process up to several hundred tons ofwood biomass per day. Generated electricity and heat are mainly for privateconsumption.


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60

Chip dustsmaller than

7mm

Bark(longer than tens cm)

Shredded bark(5cm long)

Back board Thin board

Edge lumber

Sawdust(smaller than 0.5mm)

SawdustShavings(shorter than 1cm)

Shavings(in some factories)

Chip13cmEdge lumber


Timber industrys biomass fuels

As you can see, wood biomass varies from bark to sawdust.


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61

Direct Combustion power plant using wood biomass


This figure shows an example of direct combustion using a steam turbine. Steam is

produced by directly firing wood biomass after being aligned in the same size orshape for efficient burning.

In this example, biomass is burned to generate steam in the boiler. The steam thenspins the turbine. Exhaust steam from the generator is supplied to the factory.

Exhaust steam, in this case, is used by the factory in the preliminary drying ofbiomass fuel.


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62

Wood biomass Direct-Combustion power generation(1/2)

Timber Industrys biomass generation. (Noshiro Japan)

External view

GeneratorOutput: 3000kW

This plant uses cryptomeria (Japanese cedar) barks or trees as its fuel

source to generate electricity. Steam is sent to the lumber factory (located

near to the power plant). Steam is used by the factory for drying timbers.


This is a wood biomass power plant in Noshiro, Akita Prefecture, Japan.

This plant uses cryptomeria barks or trees as its fuel source to generate electricity.

Steam is sent to the lumber factory (located adjacent to the power plant). Steam isused by the factory for drying timbers.


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63

Wood biomass Direct-Combustion power generation (2/2)

Specification for Noshiro Biomass Power Plant

24 hour in week days, no operation

on Saturdays and SundaysOperation

54360 ton/year

(carrying-in by members: 80%,purchase from non-members: 20%)

->200 ton/day

Consumption of

wood waste

24 ton/hour Akimoku Board Co., Ltd. accepts20 ton/hour

Volume of steam

3000 kW

Akimoku Board Co., Ltd. accepts2350kWEfficiency:10 - 12Output


This chart shows the technical specification of the plant.


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64


Wood biomass Gasification power generation

Low-temperaturefluidizedbed gasifier

650degreeC,

0.4 MPa

Ash andchar Gas

Turbine

G

air

Heatexchanger

CO, H2, Tar

O2, H2O, Heat

Electricity

HeatUtilization

Woodenbiomass

combustor

Generator

Dustcollector

Exhaust gas

This system is suited to small-scale operation andis highly efficient in power generation (targeted to surpass 20%).

Gas

Like CharcoalRoaster

This is the flow of a power generation system firing gas produced through gasifying

wood biomass.

Wood biomass is gasified in the furnace at relatively low temperatures (about650) and the generated tar-containing gas is directly combusted in the gas

turbine. This system is suited to small-scale operation and is highly efficient inpower generation.

In addition to generated electricity, recovered heat is utilized. The power generation

efficiency is targeted to surpass 20%.


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65

22--44--3. Conversion to secondary fuel3. Conversion to secondary fuelby fermentation etc.by fermentation etc.

Livestock

waste

Processed

food waste

sewage,

sludge

Bio gas

power

generation

district

heating

compost

collection,

transporta

tion

organic

matter

decompo

sition

Methane

Fermentation

subsequent

treatment

Source:Biomass, Hideaki Yukawa, The Chemical Daily Co., Ltd.

Biochemical conversion

Flow of methane fermentation

Biomass is converted into secondary fuel by fermentation.

-> Gas is used for power generation.

This shows the methane fermentation process. This system aims at gaining

methane gas through methane fermentation with the help of microorganisms.


66/130


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67SourceGuidebook for biomass energy introduction


Example of biomass application (livestock waste)

Yagi Bio-ecology Center (Japan)Start of operation 1998

Raw materials animal waste (cows 40 t/d, pigs 8.8 t/d, bean-curd

refuse 10 t/d )System power generation by methane fermentation.

(wet method, medium/high temperature fermentation)

Generator 70kW2 units, 80kW1 unituse for sewage treatment facility next to the power plant

Fermenting tank

2100m3, 37, 2200m3/d

600m3, 55, 820m3/d

Gas holder : 850m3

Composting facility

44.4 t/d

Fermenting tank

2100m3, 37, 2200m3/d

600m3, 55, 820m3/d

Gas holder : 850m3

Composting facility

44.4 t/d

At Yagi Bio-ecology Center, electric power is generated using biogas derived from

animal waste.


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68

Occurrence and power output of animal waste

1.86.50.92.0667010460chicken100

5.319.02.65.9868857450pigs10

3.412.21.76.8878865250cows

output

kWh/d

average

d lower

heatvalue

kWh/d

produce

d gas

m3

/d

volume

of

organicmatter

kgVS/d

rate of

organi

cmatter

wate

r

volum

e of

excretion

kg/d

produc

ed gas

l/kgVS

kind

Source:On gasification of kitchen garbage, Juzou MATSUDA, Gekkan Hikibutsu Journal (Monthly Waste),October2000

SourceGuidebook for biomass energy introduction


This chart shows the volume of animal waste and its corresponding power output.


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69

(Broken line shows other countries case)SourceGuidebook for biomass energy introduction

Facility size and application (food; waste, Bio Diesel fuel)

(Solid line shows Japanese cases)


kind of foodbiomass

Food

waste

Food sewage

BDF(Bio Diesel Fuel)

1 t/d 10 t/d 100 t/d 300 t/d

Restaurantgarbage

Householdskitchengarbage

food factoriessewage

1 t/d 10 t/d 100 t/d 300 t/d 1,000 t/dfoods

BDF

(mainly for self-use)

1,000 t/d

Methane fermentation powergeneration, heat utilization

(mainly for self-use) (self-use, supply to outside)

Methane fermentation powergeneration,heat utilization

(for businesses)

BDF manufacturing(for

public)

(promoters)

Cooking oil

Copra oil

Energy can be extracted from food waste in a number of ways. Food waste can be

burned to recover heat as an intermediate treatment of industrial waste; electricity

can be generated by fermenting kitchen garbage and food waste water; or waste

cooking oil can be refined as an automobile fuel (BDF). The table shows the image

of facility size and application of food waste. The area inside the solid lines indicates

domestic applications, while the zone inside the dotted lines is for overseasapplications.

Generally speaking food biomass energy can be generated by methane

fermentation of food garbage (businesses and household), methane fermentation of

food waste water (waste water from food processing plant), and BDF productionand application.

The amount that can be processed by fermenting food garbage is small (max.

several tons/day). Methane fermentation from plant waste water reaches severalhundred to several thousand tons per day as it contains much more water.

As for BDF, the amount is 100 L/day to 200 L/day if the emphasis is on environment

and energy conservation. For business use, the amount can be as large as 10,000L/day.

In some other countries, the amount of food waste is much greater than in Japan. It

is often treated along with livestock waste, urine, and sewage. Where BDF is sold,

much larger facilities seem to be operating (several thousand L/day to hundreds ofthousands L/day in Germany). Considering this, it is possible to foresee such largefacilities operating in Japan sometime in the future.


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70

http://www.nedo.go.jp/nedo_kansai/jireisyoukai/kobebiogasu.htm

Site: The 2nd stage construction site,Port Island, Kobe

Pretreatment facility: Kitchen waste (6 ton/day)Fermenting tank: biogas produced (1200m3/day)Fuel cell: 100 kW Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

(2400kWh/day)

Site: The 2nd stage construction site,Port Island, Kobe

Pretreatment facility: Kitchen waste (6 ton/day)Fermenting tank: biogas produced (1200m3/day)Fuel cell: 100 kW Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

(2400kWh/day)

Demonstration project by Department of the

Environment: 3 years from June,2001

In cooperation with hotels in Kobe, kitchen waste is collected and

converted into methane gas through fermentation process in thefacility. The gas is used as fuel forfuel cells to generate electricity.

Kitchen waste bio-gasification fuel cell system(1/2)


In cooperation with hotels in Kobe, kitchen waste is collected and converted into

methane gas through fermentation process in the facility. The gas is used as fuel forfuel cells to generate electricity.

It is in the 2nd stage construction site, Port Island, City of Kobe.

At the pretreatment facility, 6 tons of kitchen wasted is treated per day.

In the fermenting tank, 1200 m3 of biogas is produced per day.

They adopted 100 kW Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell with capacity of 2400kWh per day.

Demonstration project was commissioned by the Department of Environmentbetween June 2001 and June 2004.


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71

Kitchen waste bio-gasification fuel cell system (2/2)

System outline

Kitchen waste collected from hotels in Kobe is supplied into the facility.

Methane gas obtained through fermentation is used for fuel cell.

Raw material: Kitchen waste from industry

(hotels)

Processing capacity: 6t/day

Fermentation system: Fixed Bed High TemperatureMethane Fermentation

Power generation 100 kW Phosphoric Acidsystem: Fuel Cell

Raw material: Kitchen waste from industry

(hotels)

Processing capacity: 6t/day

Fermentation system: Fixed Bed High TemperatureMethane Fermentation

Power generation 100 kW Phosphoric Acidsystem: Fuel Cell


Future

plan

In this system, material for methane fermentation is kitchen waste from hotels.

Produced Biogas is used for fuel cell to generate power.


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72SourceGuidebook for biomass energy introduction

Bio Diesel Fuel (Waste cooking oil biomass application)

Raw material procurement: collecting withno charge

Storage tanks: BDF:200L/Used

cocking oil:1000L

Discharged liquor disposal: 5 garbage trucks,5 vacuum trucks

Discharged Glycerin: disposed by plant

manufacturer

The Environment Clean Center

Project entity : city of Itami, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan

Start of operation :1999

Raw materials : used cocking oil from households, public facilities likecenter for meal supply, local government offices,nursery homes

System : methyl ester exchange

Capacity : BDF(Bio Diesel Fuel) 100L/day

BDF application : fuel for cars(not mixed with light oil)

The Environment Clean Center

Project entity : city of Itami, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan

Start of operation :1999

Raw materials : used cocking oil from households, public facilities likecenter for meal supply, local government offices,nursery homes

System : methyl ester exchange

Capacity : BDF(Bio Diesel Fuel) 100L/day

BDF application : fuel for cars(not mixed with light oil)


At the Environment Clean Center in the City of Itami, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan, Bio

Diesel Fuel is manufactured through methyl-ester exchange using food biomass.


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22--44--4. Introduction of Biomass to small islands4. Introduction of Biomass to small islands(Example:(Example: Coconuts etc.))

Example of Copra Oil

Diesel Oil

Copra Oil

Waste Oil(3) Bio Diesel

(2) Modify Engine:

Adapt Fuel pump,

filters, injectors

(1) Modify Engine

Dual Fuel System

CompressionEngine

(dieselEngine)

Overview of Biofuel Choices for Compression (Diesel) Engine

In the Pacific, opportunities exist to utilize copra oil and other vegetableoils as a fuel for transport and electricity generation.

Technologies exist to combust crude copra oil

In modified compression engines (1) , (2) Use of Bio-Diesel fuel in unmodified engines (3)

( by means of etherification into Bio-Diesel-Fuel )

SourceSOPAC Copra Oil as a biofuel Charanges and Opportunity Jan Cloin

In the Pacific, opportunities exist to utilize copra oil and other vegetable oils as a

fuel for transport and electricity generation.

Technologies exist to combust crude copra oil in adapted compression engines or

by means of esterification into biodiesel, using standard compression engines.

This figure shows Overview of Bio Fuel Choices for Compression (Diesel) Engine


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(1) Dual Fuel system (Pure Copra Oil in Modified Engines )

To avoid carbon deposit

1. Start up by mineral diesel oil.

2. Normal running by vegetable copra oil.

3. Shut down by mineral diesel oil.

Diesel oil is ready for a cold start and to avoid residues in the

fuel system. A fuel heater is required in ambient temperatures below

25 degree-C.


( time )(Power)

Normal operating temp.Diesel oil

Diesel oil

Copra oil

Start up Shut down

Installed at Welagi , Taveuni in Fiji Island.



Dual Fuel systems

These systems start and stop on mineral diesel. As soon as the engine is at normal

operating temperature, the fuel supply is switched to vegetable oil and just before

shutting down, the supply is switched back to diesel to ensure that the fuel systemhas diesel ready for a cold start and to avoid residues in the fuel system. Often a

fuel system heater is incorporated so that the vegetable oil remains liquid, even inambient temperatures below 25 degree-C.

A good example of such a system is the village electrification system in Welagi,

Taveuni, Fiji Islands, that uses a dual-fuel system for both diesel and copra oil fed

into a diesel generator. As part of the French funded project, the village obtained a

small copra oil press enabling the local small-scale oil production by means of dried

copra from the Mataqalis pastures. Technically this system has proven to operatewith no problems.


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To run without fossil fuels

1. Modify fuel injector

2. Use extra fuel filter(enough stages of filtering )

Especially if the crude copra oil is manufactured on a smalllocal facility, the quality is not always stable.

Quality control and enough stages of filtering are necessary. Fuel heating system is necessary for ambient temperatures

below 25 degree-C.


(2) Adapted Fuel system (Pure Copra Oil in Modified Engines )

Installed at Ouvea in New Caledonia, Espirito Santo in Vanuatu.

Modified Injector

Pure Copra Oil

Filter

Fuel Heater(if needed)


Adapted Fuel System

These systems run on pure copra oil and use no fossil fuels. Mostly, these systems

feature adapted fuel injectors and extra filters. Especially if the crude copra oil is

manufactured on a small scale locally, the quality is not always stable. Thereforeregular quality control and a number of filtering stages are essential to a long

service of this type of system. Often an electrical operated fuel heating system isagain incorporated for ambient temperatures below 25oC.

A good example of this is the pilot plant in Ouvea implemented by SPC and CIRADin the 1990s. Further feasibility studies have shown a favorable

opportunity for the Lory Co-operation on Espirito Santo in Vanuatu. This study also

describes the incorporation of the use of raw copra oil in a small number of modified

taxi engines.


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(3) Use of Bio-Diesel fuel in unmodified engines

Already applied in USA and EU.

Bio-Diesel fuel is a kind ofVegetable oil Methyl Ester.

Standards are already established and produced.USA : ASTM-D 6751 , EU : EN 14214

Already selling. Hawaii : 1.2 Million litter / YearB1(1%) , B20(20%) , B100(100%)

Need chemical process.Not suitable for small island. ( cost decreases with volume)Additional cost for chemical process is about 0.2 USD.


Chemical ProcessBDF

( Bio Diesel

Fuel )Filter

MethanolCatalyst

(NaOH etc.)

Copra Oil,Waste Oil,

etc.

Esterification process#1: Waste Cooking oil

etc.

Glycerin

Soap

Copra Oil

Waste Oil

etc.

#1

Methyl Ester



The use of Biodiesel in unmodified engines.

Biodiesel is a standardized fuel that consists of vegetable oil Methyl Ester. It is a

product of crude vegetable oil that reacts with alcohol and a catalyst, such as

sodium hydroxide. This process generates two products: glycerin, which can beused for soap production, and methyl ester, or bio-diesel-fuel.

There are two fully developed standards of biodiesel, ASTM-D 6751 in the United

States and EN14214 in the European Union. If these standards are followed, the

validity of the manufacturers guarantee remains. Positive impacts on engines

include increased lubricity; some older machines need replacement of rubber hoses

and O-rings, as the biodiesel is slightly reactive.

The use of biodiesel is becoming more mainstream practice in the U.S. and the E.U.

In 2002 in France only, 310,000 tones of biodiesel has been produced as a

transport fuel. In Germany, there are already 800 biodiesel refueling stations. In

Hawaii, 1,2 Ml of biodiesel is produced annually from used vegetable oil and sold asB1 (1%) B20 (20%) or B100, 100 % biodiesel.


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Advantages and disadvantages

Low cost of fuel

No modification costs

Crude Copra Oil

in Normal Engine

advantages disadvantages

Works only in certain cases

Need high Quality Copra Oil

BDF(Bio Diesel Fuel)

Lowest cost fuel can bechosen:

Dual Fuel

system

Continued diesel imports

Extra components risk, extrafailure

100% Renewable

Low cost of fuelCopraOilin

ModifiedEngine

Dependence on quality oflocal oil production

Non-standard components

Standardized, Guarantee

remainsOpportunity to co-source

used oil

Chemical Facility required

Some rubber parts needreplacement

AdaptedFuel

system


This Table below gives an overview of the advantages and disadvantages of the

options discussed above.


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Assumed amount of biomass used as energy source in Fiji

Volume of supply


Fuelwood

SawDust

WoodChips

Bagasse

(tons /year

CoconutResidue

(1)Example of biomass supply

This figure shows the supply of the five types of biomass surveyed in cooperation with FDOE. Thelargest supply is bagasse (sugar cane waste) produced when sugar cane is squeezed to obtain sugar,which is the main product of Fiji. The amount of biomass, which is the sum of production at four

refinery plants (run by Fiji Sugar Corporation), reaches 755,000 tons/year (average amount per plant:500 tons/day).

The next largest are coconut shells (407,000 tons/year). According to FDOE, local families arealready using them as a heat source for cooking. As this source is family based, it is necessary toestablish a collection route in order to gather it in large amounts. This and other problems must becleared for the use of coconut shells.

Wood chip supplies are relatively large, totaling 239,000 tons a year. As the data obtained fromlumber mills within Fiji shows, wood chips, like bagasse, are a lucrative energy source, since they aregenerated in a concentrated manner.

Fuel wood, like coconut shells, representing a supply of 187,000 tons/year (distribution data) is

already being used by families for cooking. It is therefore difficult to use as an energy source.Mangrove forests, from which fuel wood is obtained, are attracting much attention these days, andare being protected from reckless gathering. It is therefore politically wise to avoid its use as anenergy source.

Sawdust supplies are small (40,000 tons/year). As some of it is used to produce briquette, it isdifficult to secure stable supplies.

Biomass selection

As a stable supply of energy, promising resources are bagasse (sugar cane waste) and wood chips(waste wood). The reason is that they are produced in large amounts and in a concentrated manner,

so that stable supply and easy collection are possible.


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Examples of Biomass in Fiji

Shell of coconuts

ood chipFuel wood (Mangrove)Sawdust

Bagasse


I think that you are very familiar with these. They are some of biomass resources in

Fiji.

In the upper left is bagasse. Upper right is shells of coconuts. Lower left is fuelwood from Mangrove. In the middle is sawdust. and, finally, Lower right is wood chipmade from South Seas Pine Tree.


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Sites for Biomass Power Generation in Fiji

factories in Lautoka,. Rakiraki, Ba and LabasaBagasse

Hari Ram Rakan dairy farm in Tairebu, Waidarisu

plant in Waira (Nausori) and Natabua (Lautoka)

Biogas

(livestockbiomass)

Taveuni islandCoconut

Sites in FijiBiomass

source: Renewable Energy on Small Islands, Research Institute for Subtropics

source: NEDO


In 1997, DOE Fuji, in association with the pacific community, started the coconut

energy project in Taveuni island. In April 1999, feasibility study was done by

CIRADCentre de Cooperation Internationale en Recherche), South Pacific

Committee(SPC), Fiji Coconuts Conference and DOE Fuji. In September 1997, aproject started

In 1996, DOE Fiji, in the cooperation with MAFF, started the Biogas experiment

project at Hari Ram Rakan dairy farm in Tairebu, Waidaris. They succeeded inconstruction of 15.8 biogas plant from the end of 1996 to 1997. In the plant bio

digester treats cow waste. In 1996, two additional plants

1-2 introduction renewable energy

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