1 1 ba 445 lesson a.6 manipulating others readingsreadings baye 6 th edition or 7 th edition,...

1 1BA 445 Lesson A.6 Manipulating Others

Readings

Readings

Baye 6th edition or 7th edition, Chapter 4


Overview

Overview

3 3

Overview

BA 445 Lesson A.6 Manipulating Others

Consumer Optimum is when a consumer makes a rational choice (maximizes happiness) subject to a budget constraint on money or time. — So, customers optimize purchases and workers optimize leisure and work.

Gross Substitutes and Complements combine substitution and income effects of a price increase for one good on the demand for another good. — So, they explain the affect of higher-priced housing on cars.

Buy 1 Get 1 Free deals indirectly affect consumer optimum choices by manipulating their budget sets. — So, firms can manipulate customers to buy more.

Quantity Discounts manipulate customers’ budget sets. — So, firms can manipulate customers to spend more while receiving less quantity.

Overtime Wages manipulate workers’ budget sets. — So, firms can manipulate workers to receive less income while working more hours.


Consumer Optimum

Consumer Optimum


Consumer Optimum

Overview

Consumer Optimum is when a consumer makes a rational choice (maximizes happiness) subject to a budget constraint on money or time. — So, customers optimize purchases and workers optimize leisure and work.


Consider definitions for a simple budget constraint. Apples cost $3 each, oranges $4 each, and consumer income is $24. • Budget Set is the triangular set of

consumption bundles of apples and oranges that are affordable:

3X + 4Y 24

• Budget Line is the line of bundles that exhaust income:

3X + 4Y = 24 Or, Y = 6 – (3/4)X

• Market Rate of Substitution is the slope of the budget line: -3/4

Y

X

Budget Set

Budget Line

Y = 6 – (3/4)X6

8

Consumer Optimum


More generally, consider any two goods selling at positive prices Px and Py, and consumer income M.

• Budget Set is the triangular set of consumption bundles of goods X and Y that are affordable:

PxX + PyY M

• Budget Line is the line of bundles that exhaust income:

PxX + PyY = M Or, Y = M/PY – (PX/PY)X

• Market Rate of Substitution is the slope of the budget line: -Px / Py

Y

X

Budget Line

Y = M/PY – (PX/PY)XM/PY

M/PX

Consumer Optimum

Budget Set


Graph changes in budget lines as parameters change:• Changes in Income:

Increases lead to a parallel, outward shift in the budget line (M1 > M0).

Decreases lead to a parallel, inward shift (M2 < M0).

• Changes in Price: Decreases in the price of

good X rotates the budget line counter-clockwise (PX0

> PX1).

Increases in the price of good X rotates the budget line clockwise (not shown).

X

Y

X

Y

M0/PY

M0/PX

M2/PY

M2/PX

M1/PY

M1/PX

M0/PY

M0/PX0M0/PX1

Consumer Optimum


Consumer Optimum is when a consumer makes a rational choice (maximizes happiness) subject to a budget constraint.• Consumer optimum occurs

where the slope of the indifference curve equals the slope of the budget line.

• The Consumer would be happier with more consumption than the optimum, but that is unaffordable (it violates the budget constraint). X

Y

Consumer Optimum

M/PY

M/PX

Consumer Optimum

Sad

Happy

Happier


Y0

X0

Y

0

A

B

X

M0/PY

M0/PX

M1/PY

M1/PXX1

Y1

Consumer Optimum

Normal Goods have increased consumption caused by an income increase.• Examples include steak,

cars…• The movement from A

to B is caused by an income increase.

• Since the consumption of both goods increases, both goods are normal.


Y0

X0

Y

0

A

B

X

M1/Y

M1/PX

Consumer Optimum

Inferior Goods have decreased consumption caused by an income increase. • Examples include hot

dogs, economy cars, …• The movement from A

to B is caused by an income increase.

• Since the consumption of good X decreases and good Y increases, good X is inferior and good Y is normal.

M0/Y

M0/PX


Gross Substitutes and Complements



Overview

Gross Substitutes and Complements combine substitution and income effects of a price increase for one good on the demand for another good. — So, they explain the affect of higher-priced housing on cars.



Definitions for the effects of a price change• Gross Substitutes

An increase in the price of good X leads to an increase in the consumption of good Y.• Examples:

– Coke and Pepsi.– Verizon Wireless or AT&T.– Beer and wine.

• Gross Complements An increase in the price of good X leads to a

decrease in the consumption of good Y.• Examples:

– DVD and DVD players.– Computer CPUs and monitors.– Beer and pretzels.



Graphing Gross Substitute Goods

When the price of good X falls

(PX1 > PX2

) and the

consumption of Y falls, then X and Y are gross substitute goods.

Wine (Y)

Beer (X)

III0

Y2

Y1

X1

AB

M/PX1M/PX2

M/PY1


X2


Graphing Gross Complement Goods

When the price of good X falls

(PX1 > PX2

) and the

consumption of Y rises, then X and Y are gross complement goods.

Pretzels (Y)

Beer (X)

II

I0

Y2

Y1

X1 X2

A

B

M/PX1M/PX2

M/PY1


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Decomposition into Substitution and Income Effects• An increase in the price of Good X causes both a substitution effect

and an income effect.• The substitution effect concerns finding the cheapest way to meet

your needs (happiness, nutrition, …). Goods are• substitutes if an increase in price of X increases demand for Y• complements if an increase in price of X decreases demand for Y

• The income effect concerns adjusting consumption to what you can afford. An increase in the price of Good X first causes a decrease in purchasing power. That is a decrease in your ability to purchase any good.• If Good Y is normal, then an increase in the price of Good X first

causes a decrease in purchasing power, which then decreases demand for Y.

• If Good Y is inferior, then an increase in the price of Good X first causes a decrease in purchasing power, which then increases demand for Y.

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Why not use the simplified definition of Substitutes and Complements?• Recall the simplified definition from an Introduction to

Microeconomics is Good X and Good Y are• substitutes if an increase in price of X increases demand for Y• complements if an increase in price of X decreases demand for Y

• There are examples when that definition makes sense:• Apples and oranges: An increase in price of apples increases demand

for oranges since consumers switch from one fruit to the cheaper fruit.• Sometimes that definition makes no sense:

• Pepperdine and oranges: An increase in tuition at Pepperdine decreases demand for oranges since consumers can no longer afford fruit. Would you say Pepperdine and oranges are complements?

• Pepperdine and Raman noodles: An increase in tuition at Pepperdine increases demand for noodles since consumers can no longer afford other food. Would you say Pepperdine and noodles are substitutes?


The Gross definition always makes sense• Example: Apples and oranges. An increase in price of

apples increases demand for oranges in the substitution effect since consumers switch from one fruit to the cheaper fruit. But the increase in the price of apples causes only a small income effect. So the substitution effect dominates. Apples and oranges are substitutes and gross substitutes.



The Gross definition always makes sense• Example: Pepperdine and oranges.

• An increase in tuition at Pepperdine causes only a small substitution effect on oranges since the two goods do not substitute or complement each other (not like Pepperdine and books, or Pepperdine and computers).

• An increase in tuition at Pepperdine causes a large decrease in purchasing power. That is a decrease in your ability to purchase any good, including oranges.

• So increase in tuition at Pepperdine decreases demand for oranges. Call the Pepperdine and oranges gross complements since the demand decrease for the second good is the combination of both the substitution effect and the income effect.



The Gross definition always makes sense• Example: Pepperdine and Raman noodles.

• An increase in tuition at Pepperdine causes only a small substitution effect on Raman noodles since the two goods do not substitute or complement each other (not like Pepperdine and books, or Pepperdine and computers).

• An increase in tuition at Pepperdine causes a large decrease in purchasing power. That is a decrease in your ability to purchase any good and the need to buy cheaper goods, like Raman noodles.

• So increase in tuition at Pepperdine increases demand for Raman noodles. Call the Pepperdine and Raman noodles gross substitutes since the demand increase for the second good is the combination of both the substitution effect and the income effect.



The Gross definition always makes sense• Example: SoCal housing and cars:

• An increase in SoCal housing causes only a small substitution effect on cars since the two goods do not substitute or complement each other (not like SoCal housing and furniture, or SoCal housing and Arizona housing).

• An increase in price for SoCal housing causes a large decrease in purchasing power. That is a decrease in your ability to purchase any good, including cars.

• So increase in price for SoCal housing decreases demand for cars. Call the SoCal housing and cars gross complements since the demand decrease for the second good is the combination of both the substitution effect and the income effect.



Buy 1 Get 1 Free

Buy 1 Get 1 Free


Overview

Buy 1 Get 1 Free deals indirectly affect consumer optimum choices by manipulating their budget sets. — So, firms can manipulate customers to buy more.

Buy 1 Get 1 Free


Buy 1 Get 1 Free

• Why does Little Caesars Pizza offer two pizzas for the price of one? For example, buy one pizza for $10, get one pizza free.

• Might some consumers be attracted by the idea of free pizza and buy more pizza on impulse? (An impulse buy is an unplanned decision to buy a product or service, made just before the purchase.)• Have you ever enjoyed making a carefree impulse

buy? • Or, do you always satisfy economic assumptions and

consider how a deal affects your budget set?• Is “buy one pizza for $10 get one pizza free” the same as

buying pizza for $5 each?


All other goods

I

0

30

3 4

A

Pizzas (in continuous units)

1 2

Buy 1 Get 1 Free

B II

Buy one, get one free analysis: This deal can get customers to buy more pizza than cutting price in half. Consider budget lines and choices when Pizzas cost $10, all other goods cost $1 each, customer income is $30, and sample indifference curves I (sad) and II (happy). With no deal (Pizza cost remains $10),• Budget line connects (3,0) and (0,30)With buy one, get one free (Pizza cost $10)• Budget line segments connect (0,30),

(1,20), (2,20), and (4,0)• Consumption A, with 2 Pizzas• Happiness level I.With half price (Pizza cost $5),• Budget line has connects (6,0) and (0,30).• Consumption bundle B, with 1 pizza.• Happiness level II.

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Quantity Discounts

Quantity Discounts


Overview

Quantity Discounts manipulate customers’ budget sets. — So, firms can manipulate customers to spend more while receiving less quantity.

Quantity Discounts


Quantity Discounts

• We considered buy one get one free, and showed how consumers can choose to consume more but be less happy than if price were reduced.

• Buy X get Y free can likewise cause consumers to consume more but be less happy. Consider a frequent-flyer program of buy 8 flights get 1 flight free.


Quantity Discounts

Buy one get the rest at half price can be even more effective for producers. When compared with reducing the price by half for all units, “buy one get the rest at half price” can cause consumers to• Consume less of the good• Spend more on the good


All other goods

I

0

30

3 4

A

Pizzas (in continuous units)

1

Quantity Discounts

B

II

Buy one, get rest at half price analysis: This deal can get customers to spend more on less pizza than cutting the price for all units. Consider Pizza cost $10, all other goods cost $1 each, customer income is $30, and sample indifference curves I (sad) and II (happy). With no deal (Pizza cost $10),• Budget line connects (0,30) and (3,0) With buy one, get rest at half (Pizza cost $10 for first, then $5 for rest)• Budget line segments connect (0,30),

(1,20), and (5,0)• Consumption A, with 2 Pizzas• Consumer spends $15 With half price (Pizza cost $5 for each),• Budget line has intercepts (0,30) and (6,0).• Consumption bundle B, with 2.5 pizzas.• Consumer spends $12.5

2

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Overtime Wages

Overtime Wages


Overview

Overtime Wages manipulate workers’ budget sets. — So, firms can manipulate workers to receive less income while working more hours.

Overtime Wages


Overtime Wages

Buy one get the rest at half price or buy X get the rest at half price can be adapted to employees as overtime wages. The program is to offer work 8 hours a day at the normal wage rate and work hours beyond 8 at double the normal wage. The results of those overtime wages are similar to buy one get the rest at half price. When compared with doubling the wage for all hours worked, “work 8 hours at the normal wage and work the rest at double wages” can cause employees to• Work more hours• Receive less income


Overtime wage analysis: Employees have 24 hours per day to divide between leisure and work. Employees consume leisure and “all other goods”. Consider normal wage $10, all other goods cost $1 each, and sample indifference curves I (sad) and II (happy). With no deal (wages $10),• Budget line connects (0,240) and (24,0) Work 8, work rest at double wage (wages $10 for first 8 hours, then $20 for rest)• Budget line segments connect (0,400),

(16,80), and (24,0)• Consumption A, with leisure 11 and work

13• Consumer earns $180 = $10x8 + $20x5 With double wage (wages $20),• Budget line has intercepts (0,480) and (24,0)• Consumption B, with leisure 13 and work 11• Consumer earns $220 = $20x11

All goods other than leisure

I

0

480

24

A

Leisure hours (in continuous units)

11 13 16

Overtime Wages

BII

400

240

80

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Review Questions


Review Questions You should try to answer some of the review questions

(see the online syllabus) before the next class. You will not turn in your answers, but students may

request to discuss their answers to begin the next class. Your upcoming Exam 1 and cumulative Final Exam will

contain some similar questions, so you should eventually consider every review question before taking your exams.

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End of Lesson A.6

BA 445 Managerial Economics


1 1 ba 445 lesson a.6 manipulating others readingsreadings baye 6 th edition or 7 th edition,...

Documents

x y x y

p x p y y x budget line

n p x x

y x budget set budget

mp y p x p y x mp y

consumption of good

price of good x

good y increases