08-14-01 slide 1 a national literacy panel to conduct a comprehensive evidence-based review of the...
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08-14-01 slide 1
A National Literacy Panel to Conduct a Comprehensive Evidence-Based Review ofthe Research Literature on the Development of Literacy Among Language Minority Children and Youth
National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth
Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Support for the PanelSupport for the Panel
Institute of Education Sciences
With additional support fromNational Institute for Child Health and
Development
Office of English Language Acquisition
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Overview of Presentation (and focus of the Overview of Presentation (and focus of the report)report)
Background information about the National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth
Highlights of the Panel report
Development of literacy
Relationship between English oral proficiency and English literacy
Relationship between first language literacy and second language literacy
Role of socio-cultural factors in literacy development
Assessment
Schooling: effective instructional practices
Questions
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Purpose of a National PanelPurpose of a National Panel
Develop an objective research review methodology
Search the research literature on the development of literacy for language minority students
Analyze the research literature
Develop a final report with recommendations for research and suggestions for practice
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Panelists and StaffPanelists and Staff
Panelists
Diane August, Principal Investigator
Timothy Shanahan, Chair
Fred Genesee
Esther Geva
Michael Kamil
Isabelle Beck
Linda Siegel
Keiko Koda
David Francis
Claude Goldenberg
Robert Rueda
Margarita Calderon
Gail McKoon
Georgia Garcia
Senior Research Associates
Cheryl Dressler
Nonie LeSaux
Senior Advisors
Donna Christian
Catherine Snow
Frederick Erickson
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
ProcessProcess
US Department of Education constitutes the panel
Five panel meetings, several subgroup meetings, and numerous, ongoing conference calls over the past four years
Five working groups each focused on a different domain
Seven electronic searches and hand searches of key journals
Criteria established for inclusion
Coding of all studies in a file-maker database
Writing
One internal round of review and 2 external rounds of review
Extensive editing and revisions
Report published in July by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Parameters for the Research SynthesisParameters for the Research Synthesis
Language minority children
Ages 3-18
Acquisition of literacy in their first language and the societal language
Empirical research
Peer-reviewed journals, dissertations, technical reports
Research published between 1980-2002
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Development of LiteracyDevelopment of Literacy
The word-level literacy skills of language minority students (e.g. decoding, spelling) are much more likely to be at levels equal to mono-lingual English speakers.
However, this is not the case for text level skills (e.g., reading comprehension, writing). These skills rarely reach levels equal to monolingual English speakers.
A crucial area of investigation is how to build the English proficiency skills of second language learners because these skills impede students’ ability to achieve to high levels in text level skills.
There are similar proportions of second language learners and monolingual speakers classified as poor readers.
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Relationship between Second Language Oral Relationship between Second Language Oral Proficiency and Second Language LiteracyProficiency and Second Language Literacy
Measures of oral language proficiency in English correlated positively with word and pseudo-word reading skills in English, but were not strong predictors of these skills. In contrast, various measures of phonological processing skills in English (e.g., phonological awareness) were much more robust predictors of word and pseudo-word reading skills.
In contrast, well developed oral proficiency in English is associated with well-developed reading comprehension skills and writing skills in English.
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Relationship between First Language Relationship between First Language Literacy and Second Language LiteracyLiteracy and Second Language Literacy
First language literacy is related in important ways to second language literacy
First language word and pseudo-word reading, vocabulary (cognates), reading strategies, reading comprehension, spelling, and writing are related to these skills in a second language
Thus, language minority children who are literate in their first language are likely to be advantaged in English
Important to take ‘transfer’ into consideration when planning instruction
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Socio-cultural Factors that Influence Socio-cultural Factors that Influence LiteracyLiteracy
• Little evidence that immigration circumstances influence literacy outcomes.
• Little evidence that discourse and interactional differences influence literacy outcomes.• However, instructional accommodations to
discourse differences improve engagement and participation (e.g. overlapping speech; co-narration; additional wait time) and thus may be related to literacy outcomes.
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Socio-cultural Factors that Influence Socio-cultural Factors that Influence LiteracyLiteracy
• Familiarity with the content of reading materials has a positive effect on comprehension. Might not be related to culture per se but to background knowledge.
• Little other evidence for the impact of cultural factors (aside from language per se) or social group factors (aside from SES-related) on outcomes.
• Language-specific relationship between home language use and literacy outcomes
• Parents can have a positive effect on literacy outcomes. However, schools typically do not take advantage of this.
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
AssessmentAssessment
Most assessments cited in the research to gauge language-minority students’ language proficiency and content knowledge in English were inadequate.
However, the research reviewed occurred prior to the implementation of NCLB
There is current ongoing work to assess the development of second language proficiency in language-minority students
Monitor proficiency over time
Assess academic language
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Schooling: Teaching the ElementsSchooling: Teaching the Elements
Methodological ChallengesThe group of experimental studies focused on the elements of
literacy is heterogeneous, creating a challenge to summarize research results across these studies.
Classroom-level factors associated with outcomes for English language learners have received less attention than have other areas of research.
NRP located about 450 studies that examined development of the five components of literacy.
NLP located 17 such studies.
Few studies examine the development of literacy or effective literacy practices for non-Spanish background English language learners.
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Phonemic Awareness and Phonics: Phonemic Awareness and Phonics: ResearchResearch
Specific sounds and sound placement in words differ for different languages (e.g., short vowels in ‘pit’, ‘pet’ and ‘puf’ have no couterparts in Spanish).
Phonological tasks with unknown words are more difficult.
For ELLs, unfamiliar phonemes and graphemes make decoding and spelling difficult.
For literate ELLs, English graphemes have different sounds in L1 (i.e., jar).
Limited English proficiency prevents children from using word meaning to figure out how to read a word.
But need to keep these issues in perspective given the relative ease with which ELLs acquire accuracy in word-level skills compared with text-level skills
Note that word accuracy is not the same as word automaticity
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Phonemic Awareness and Phonics: Phonemic Awareness and Phonics: ResearchResearch
Findings are consistent with the very solid L1 research findings--both phonemic awareness and phonics instruction confer clear benefits on children’s reading development.• Stuart, 1999; Larsen, 1996; Gunn, Biglan, Smolkowski, & Ary,
2000; Gunn, Smolkowski, Biglan, & Black, 2002
There is no evidence that phonemic awareness and phonics instruction in English needs to be delayed until a certain threshold of English oral language proficiency is attained.• Important to keep in mind issues raised in previous slide• If children have phonological awareness in Spanish, do not need
PA training in English
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Phonemic Awareness and Phonics: Phonemic Awareness and Phonics: ResearchResearch
Helping students hear English sounds that don’t exist or are not salient in their home language is beneficial.
Examples include minimal pairs such as the initial consonant blends in cheat and sheet.
Kramer, Schell, & Rubison, 1983
Our work:
In testing, directions and practice given in both languages
create a transition curriculum where we emphasize sounds that are different/don’t exist in the first language
Before students read connected text, we use a “Watch & Listen”
technique
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Fluency: Issues for ELLsFluency: Issues for ELLs
Fluency embraces both word recognition and comprehension. That is fluency enables reading comprehension by freeing cognitive resources for interpretation, but also depends on comprehension, as it necessarily includes preliminary interpretive steps. Because of ELLs limited comprehension of second language texts, attaining fluency can be challenging
ELLs often have less opportunity to read aloud in English with feedback.
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Fluency: ResearchFluency: Research
There are too few studies of teaching oral reading fluency with ELLs to draw firm conclusions.
• Denton, 2000; De la Colina, Parker, Hasbrouck, & Lara-Alecio, 2001
Fluency training similarly benefits ELLs and English-speaking students.
• Existing studies have used good English models and paired ELLs with proficient English readers.
• Existing studies ensure students understand the text before they read it.
• With good instruction, ELLs make significant progress
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Fluency: ResearchFluency: Research
Our work
Younger students: after explicit instruction in letter-sound relationships, and ‘watch & listen’ we use echo reading, whisper reading, cloze reading, and partner reading
Older students: model fluent reading and have students practice in pairs with text aligned to core content
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Vocabulary: Issues/StrengthsVocabulary: Issues/Strengths
ELLS arrive at school with a much more limited English vocabulary than English-speaking students.• A total of about 5,000-7,000 words that monolinguals know when
they arrive in school
• Words that English-speaking students know that ELLs do not (adjectives such as hardly, several; adverbs such as nearly, sometimes, often, always; cohesion markers such as but, thus, however; idioms such as near and far, just the one)
ELLs may lack background knowledge as well as labels for English vocabulary.
ELLs and English speakers may have different concepts for the same label.
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Vocabulary: Issues/StrengthsVocabulary: Issues/Strengths
Words with multiple meanings can be a source of confusion. These tend to be high frequency words in English (e.g., bug)
ELLs literate in a first language that has many cognates with English (e.g., perfecto) have an important resource
1/2 to 1/3 of words in a language are cognates (of 10,000-15,000 words in all)
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Vocabulary: ResearchVocabulary: Research
Four empirical studies
Incidental learning improves vocabulary when the oral discourse is aligned with the visual images. However, students needed to have some English proficiency to take advantage of this intervention (Neuman and Koskinen, 1992)
Intentional learning improves vocabulary:
• Teach words (Perez, 1991; Carlo et al., 2002)
• Teach strategies (Carlo et al., 2002)
• Build word consciousness (Carlo et al, 2002)
• Immerse students in a language rich environment (Carlo et al. 2002)
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Vocabulary: Research (Carlo et al., 2004; Vocabulary: Research (Carlo et al., 2004; August et al, 2006)August et al, 2006)
• Teach words: focused on a small number of words that students are likely to encounter often (e.g. heritage, values, obtain, periodically); help students make semantic links to other words and concepts related to the target word)
• Teach strategies: infer meaning from context, use roots and affixes, cognates, morphological relationships, comprehension monitoring
• Build word consciousness: word wizard
• Immerse students in a language rich environment: appealing themes, variety of genres, games, cooperative groups
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Comprehension: Issues for ELLsComprehension: Issues for ELLs
Limited word recognition skills and fluency impede comprehension
Limited vocabulary impedes comprehension
Structural differences between languages can mislead ELLs
Text structures vary across cultures and this may influence comprehension
Culture influences, but does not completely determine, background knowledge
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Comprehension: ResearchComprehension: Research
Only three few empirical studies focus exclusively on comprehension and ELLs.• Simplify text by omitting trivial elements (Bean, 1982)
Too few studies to determine best way to facilitate comprehension in ELLs.
Unlike first language research, strategy instruction did not always help reading comprehension.• Shames, 1998• Swicegood, 1990
Might learn more about promising practices from studies that examine more than one literacy component at a time and from the qualitative research.
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Examples of modifications to interventions Examples of modifications to interventions based on researchbased on research
Identify and clarify difficult words and passages within text to facilitate comprehension• Pre-teach vocabulary (different kinds of words and texts)• Paraphrase text to make it more comprehensible• Use children’s first language
Constantly monitor and build students’ comprehension• Ask lots of questions to build comprehension• Ask different levels of questions
Provide lots of opportunities for students to practice their second language• Story retells• Written responses
Respond to students in ways that build oral proficiency and comprehension
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Results of Teaching the ElementsResults of Teaching the Elements
• Studies suggest that overall the types of instruction that help monolingual English-speaking students are are advantageous for second-language learners as well
•Effect sizes are lower
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Results of Teaching the ElementsResults of Teaching the Elements
• Phonics/PA 4 .54 (.36) n=446 longest study= 5 mos.
• Fluency 2 n=167 longest study=12 weeks
• Vocabulary 2 1.20 n=105 longest study=13 weeks
• Reading comp 2 .11 n=153 longest study=1 year
• Writing 4 .54 n=238 longest study=1 year
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Results of Teaching the ElementsResults of Teaching the Elements
Adjustments are needed, but these were rarely described in detail
•Emphasizing phonemes not available in home language
•Building on students’ first language strengths•Efforts to make word meaning clear through picture cues and other techniques•Identifying and clarifying difficult passages•Ample opportunities for students to practice oral language aligned with the curriculum•Providing extra practice reading words, sentences and stories
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Results: Teaching the ElementsResults: Teaching the Elements
Levels of English proficiency and student capability influence how well a particular intervention works, thus the need for differentiated instruction
Some students do not benefit from instruction because they have learning difficulties or social problems
Second-language learners below a certain level of proficiency are less able to take advantage of some of the interventions (e.g., collaborative strategic teaching)
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Less Targeted ApproachesLess Targeted Approaches
• Some approaches to teaching literacy emphasize teaching of several of the elements
• Many complex or less targeted methods have been successful in teaching monolingual English speakers
• But what about second language learners?
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Less Targeted ApproachesLess Targeted Approaches
• Too fractionated a picture to allow large claims to be made for any single approach
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Less Targeted ApproachesLess Targeted Approaches
• Encouraging reading and writing (6)• Reading to children (3)• Tutoring and remediation (2)• Success for All (3) • Instructional conversations (2)• Cooperative grouping (1)• Mastery learning (1)• Captioned TV (1)• Parent involvement (1) • Other (2)
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Less Targeted ApproachesLess Targeted Approaches
Encouraging reading
English reading
3 studies with positive significant effects
2 studies; n=1238; .56 effect size
Longest study = 2 years
Home language reading on second language outcomes
3 studies with non-significant effects
2 studies; n= 672; effect size -.15
Longest study = 1 year
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Less Targeted ApproachesLess Targeted Approaches
Reading to Children
2 of 3 studies with positive significant effects
1 study n=77 .66
Longest study = 57 weeks
Tutoring and Remediation
1 of 2 studies with positive significant effects
1 study n=46 1.15
Longest study = 16 weeks
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Less Targeted ApproachesLess Targeted Approaches
Success for All
2 of 3 studies with positive significant effects
only 1 with English language outcomes
1 study n = 50 .20
Longest study = 2 years
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Results of Less Targeted ApproachesResults of Less Targeted Approaches
• Results were generally positive—meaning that it is clear that we can improve the literacy teaching of second language learners
• 20 studies had English language literacy measures and 12 of those 20 showed significant positive effects
• Across those 20 studies the average effect was .46
• Larger impacts tended to be on decoding measures and smaller impacts on comprehension
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Schooling: Language of InstructionSchooling: Language of Instruction
20 = Total Studies Reviewed (96 were identified)
16 = Studies with Language Minority Students (14 Elementary and 2 Secondary; 15 in Meta-Analysis)
5 = Studies with Language Minority Students used random assignment
26 = Total number of independent study samples in meta-analysis (Total N = 4,567; BE = 2,665; EO = 1,902)
71 = Total number of effect sizes on English literacy outcomes (Study samples by measures)
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Schooling: Language of InstructionSchooling: Language of Instruction
From the analyses conducted, it seems safe to conclude that bilingual education has a positive effect on children’s literacy in English.
The magnitude of this effect is small to moderate in size, but is apparent both in the complete collection of studies, and in the subset of studies that involved random assignment.
There is substantial variability in the magnitude of the effect size across different studies, and within subsets of studies, including the subset of randomized studies.
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Overall ConclusionsOverall Conclusions
• Teaching the literacy elements to second-language learners is a good idea
• Efforts to improve second language literacy in more complex ways are helpful, too
• Instructional innovations have smaller impacts on ELL learning (need to do these things and more)
• Need more experimental research on how to improve the literacy of second language learners
• Need new research-reporting that provides explicit details about how reading instruction was adjusted
• Bilingual schooling has a positive effect on literacy development compared with English-only instruction
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National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth Copyright © 2006 Center for Applied Linguistics
Additional InformationAdditional Information
www.cal.org