06 tp6 waste management

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A Project Co- funded by European Union and the Government of Egypt Waste Management 1

Assistance to the Reform of the TVET System

ETP – Chemical Industries

Waste Management in context

Training package 6: Waste management in context

Group targeted: lab staff, quality control staff and

production engineers

Duration 5 days in 2 Modules

Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Heinz Muschik

Approved for Vocational Training in Polymer Technology

by LKT - Laboratorium für Kunststofftechnik GmbH.

Center of Competence in Polymer and Environmental Engineering

Wexstrasse 19-23 A-1200 Vienna / Austria

Training package 6 Waste Management

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Acknowledgment I gratefully thank the companies STARLINGER, NGR and EREMA and Mr. Matthew Lamb for their valuable contributions and Mr. Harald Vock for his friendly assistance in the design of this Training Package

Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr. Heinz Muschik

Module name

Module contents/aim of training

Reference to lecture

notes

Duration Total duration

Theoretical Practical

Module 1

According to the

content lecture notes

3 days 3 days

Module 2

According to the

content lecture notes

-- 2 days 5 days


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Content page 1. Introduction to waste management and environmental aspects .................... 4

2. Agenda 21- a proactive framework for handling public problems in waste

management and environmental issues ...................................................... 5

2.1. Local Agenda 21 (LA21) .............................................................. 5

2.2. Denmark a positive example for LA21 ........................................... 12

3. Waste collection ........................................................................... 15

3.1. Actual item status quo ............................................................. 15

3.2. Collecting systems .................................................................. 18

3.3. Austrian Recycling Agency (ARA) ................................................. 19

4. Polymer Recycling Technology .......................................................... 27

4.1. General remarks .................................................................... 27

4.2. How to identify different plastics ................................................ 30

4.2.1. Identification of plastics by fire performance and density/1st approach ................................................................................... 31

4.2.2. Solubility ........................................................................ 34

4.2.3. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy [2] ............................................... 35

4.2.4. Thermal analysis [2] ........................................................... 37

4.3. Sorting methods ..................................................................... 41

4.3.1. Sorting in companies .......................................................... 41

4.3.2. Sorting of polymers from public waste. .................................... 41

4.4. Machinery for plasticizing to granules ........................................... 44

4.4.1. PET to PET (PET2PET) ......................................................... 44

4.4.2. Machinery for edge trim and film on reels ................................. 54

5. Recycling- when do we see a financial benefit ? ..................................... 58

6. Application of recycled material ........................................................ 61

7. Literature ................................................................................... 62


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1. Introduction to waste management and environmental aspects

Industrial production serving cheap products has allowed millions of people to

improve their living compared to former times.

Nevertheless, in the meantime, the blessing of cheap mass production contributes to

the development of a global problem which is transforming this blessing into the

opposite.

Meanwhile the disposal costs (if properly disposed of) are dramatically higher than

the production costs themselves. Most products in the majority of countries are not

properly disposed of and have already caused environmental catastrophes (air,

water, districts) harming their inhabitants in numerous ways ranging from crippling

illnesses to death. There exist huge areas where normal human life will not be

possible for thousands of years (e.g. Seveso/Italy, Tschernobil/Ukraina, Bopal/India)

Because everybody is effected, everybody is also responsible to help overcome these problems. As we can read in the Holy Koran of the Muslims: (Kalif Sure 2, 30; 27, 62; 31, 20; Sure 21, 23) as well as in the Holy Testament of Jews and Christians (Genesis, 1 & 2) that the world is given to the people by God and they are responsible for this gift and he will call them to account. Public problems regarding waste management and environmental issues are - generally speaking – more often a problem of communication between the partners concerned rather than a technical problem.


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2. Agenda 21- a proactive framework for handling public problems in waste management and environmental issues

In 1987 sustainable development was put on the international agenda with the

Brundtland report using the slogan – “Think globally, act locally”.

The Agenda 21 is a document which was developed at the international conference

for environment and development in Rio de Janeiro 1992 and was signed by 187

states declaring their self commitment to the concept of sustainable development.

In 1992 world leaders recommended that local authorities work with citizens in

creating Local Agenda 21 as part of the world summit on environment and

development in Rio de Janeiro, and the need for local commitment was reinforced

at the second summit in Johannesburg in 2002. Each individual is responsible for

taking part in the solution to global problems – in our work and in our private lives,

not because of legal requirements but for moral reasons. We should not destroy the

world that our children shall live in. To solve present environmental problems calls

for actions in our everyday life.

2.1. Local Agenda 21 (LA21)

Overview of possible course on Local agenda 21 / Community development at a local

level

“Think globally, act locally” What is it? Basically Local Agenda 21 is about making a sensible plan for a way forward at a

local level. This plan should then form the basis for a region, municipality or

community to decide upon and implement a series of actions suited to its needs.

Local Agenda 21 can be seen as the making and carrying out of a plan at a local level

in order to achieve a development which is more sustainable. This usually involves a

process which is made up of a series of actions or projects. At both planning and

action level, the participation of all actors involved is essential. Agenda 21 is “the


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blueprint for Sustainability” and gives ordinary people, citizens, local people and

communities, the right to have a say in how our environment is managed and

protected. It gives meaning to the terms 'local democracy' and 'local government'. The

sustainable use of the planet’s resources will require a multitude of actions at the

different levels: global, regional and local. On the other hand, the environmental and

socio-economic impacts of human activities may happen at global, regional and local

scales. For instance, a soil pollution accident impacts the local level; unemployment is

generally a regional issue; as for climate change, it is a global phenomenon. Those

actions that are initiated at a higher level (e.g. governmental and intergovernmental

initiatives) and trigger actions at a lower level (e.g., municipal or business initiatives)

are known as top-down actions. On the other hand, those actions initiated at the

micro, local or regional level are designated as bottom-up actions. It is abundantly

clear that sustainable development requires both top-down and bottom-up actions

which must be integrated effectively or neither will work well. Local Agenda 21

consists of projects that aim at improving the quality of life of local communities. Such

projects can – and should – tackle local sustainable development issues, as well as

the global ones, such as climate change.

Figure: the top-down, bottom-up interactions of Local Agenda 21

We can say that “Local Agenda 21” is the model approach towards the

implementation of Sustainable Development at a communal and regional level. While

not seeking to replace existing approaches, it is understood as an integration and


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networking tool. Agenda 21 is a global action plan for sustainable development and

Local Agenda 21 is local action plan for sustainable development. It aims to meet the

following 3 criteria:

• Action plan

• Citizen involvement

• Awareness about Sustainable development

Worldwide as of 2002, Local Agenda 21 has been implemented over 6,416 times in

113 countries; Europe-wide, there are so far 5,300 Agenda 21 municipalities and

regions (ICLEI, 2002).

History

Local Agenda 21 is first mentioned in Chapter 28 of Agenda 21, the United Nations'

document agreed by world leaders in 1992 to promote the principle of sustainable

development. It calls upon all local authorities/municipalities world-wide to draw up

and implement local plans of action for sustainable development, in partnership

with all stakeholders in the local community. Internationally over 2,000 local

authorities in 64 different countries are already engaged in the process, and of these

about 1,000 are in Europe.

Getting the idea

A local Agenda 21 process is designed to be holistic but, for the purposes of

illustration, possible activities as part of a local agenda 21 process might be

undertaken in areas like this (special seminars can be prepared):

Local infrastructure / transport

Waste management

Energy

Education on all levels

Public procurement

Housing

Parks

Culture

Youth activities

Older generations

Employment

Land use


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Why?

Too often there are hundreds of chances and possibilities which are missed that

could improve the standard of living and the sustainability of this standard of living

on a local level. As well as the need for

money and resources, these chances are

often missed due to lack of knowledge or

the lack of communication between people

who might be able to do something. Often

the most important first step is to find out

what already exists and make all the

relevant actors (stakeholders) aware of

this.

In many cases it is a local problem which generates enough pressure for a

municipality to start a local agenda process. A simple example would be that all the

young people are leaving a rural municipality to move to the large urban areas

where employment opportunities are apparently better. The municipality is then in

danger of becoming a “ghost town” with the older generation sinking into increased

isolation and unable to motivate itself to do anything. Starting a local agenda

process has proved itself to be one way to regenerate local pride, using the

collective energy to improve the status quo and provide incentives for the young

people to remain in the area.

Who?

Whatever the motivating factor behind the initiation of a local agenda 21 process is

it must have a critical mass of stakeholders willing to or interested in participating.

It must be based on a free and open dialogue between those involved.

%

Example: A farmer has a small incineration plant situated at the edge of his land for burning the waste from his crops. 300 metres away over the road there is the main headquarter of the local stone and gravel transport company. Once the information was shared it was very simple to use the heat generated from the incineration plant to heat the offices of the transport company simply by piping it under the road 300 metres. – Everybody wins!


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Agenda 21 recognises that local authorities/municipalities have a crucial role to play in sustainable development because they: • Represent and work on behalf of the local community; • Have a significant planning role; • Carry out, commission or influence many of the services on which local quality of life depends; • Manage/own large parts of the built and natural environment; • Can greatly influence others through education, advice, information and example; • Can catalyse partnerships with other organisations; • Have large direct impacts as substantial consumers, purchasers and employers. Most important of all, democratically accountable local government is the pivotal point where the community's views, values and aspirations can be translated into projects, policies, plans and programmes, and thus given practical effect. Local Agenda 21 is about realising sustainability and should not be seen as a distraction from „real‟ work - it is where „real‟ work should begin and end.

Source: CEMR Local Agenda Basic Guide

Local authorities principally form the

hub for the whole process and

political backing is vital to its success.

Once the decision is taken to

implement a local agenda 21 process

it is then important to win the local

community with a view to analysing

the status quo regarding:

What have WE got?

What do WE want?

How do WE get there?

With what?

Who does it?

Local Agenda 21 forms the framework for a community itself to undertake actions to

improve its own lot.

Actions will differ based on local resources and needs. The dialogue between the

local actors is the key to identifying the best local solutions. Openness, dialogue and

cooperation are the core means of developing a Local Agenda 21. Examples include

tenant associations initiating waste sorting and common composting, the school class

working on ways to reduce water and energy consumption at school, the

kindergarten converting to organic food and involving parents in mutual

procurement, local citizen groups getting support for restoring a local water stream,

small forest, or limiting through traffic, local industry working together in industrial

symbiosis using waste from one industry as raw material in the next etc.


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Another exemplary initiative involved a Danish island making the collective decision to convert totally to renewable energy within a period of 10 years. This initiative was designed to ensure the survival of the island‟s economy, create a wide range of new jobs, boost the local economy as well as achieve energy independence in way that is CO2 neutral. With an initial outlay of some € 45, the inhabitants of the island aimed at energy autonomy using a mixture of off-shore wind turbines and small scale biomass combustion units for remote heating. An inspirational combination of renewable energy solutions which was initiated by the citizens themselves. More can be read at

www.veo.dk

How? There is no set way in which to initiate

and carry out a local agenda 21. A lot

depends on political, cultural, social

and geographic conditions. Any local

agenda 21 initiative will obviously have

to fit local conditions, making it doubly

important that a wide spectrum of

stakeholders be included in the whole

process. There is no purpose in starting

something if it is neither needed nor

desired.

While individual project initiatives make it easy to get an idea of what local agenda

21 is, it has proved very important to build a “local agenda 21 organisation” to

support and ensure the continuity of the whole process. This organisation can form

an important interface between local government and the numerous other

stakeholders as well as creating employment opportunities. Not only can this

organisation contribute to the improvement of the local authority and its own

performance in terms of sustainability, act as a hub for the generation and

implementation of ideas, initiatives and activities, but it should also play a critical

role in the measuring, monitoring and review of the process as a whole with a view

to achieving continuous improvement.

The Process

The following list shows four main groups of tasks which are applicable when

starting out with a local agenda 21 process It should be quite clear that all tasks are

interlinked and that there is no particular order prescribed within each group.

Nevertheless, it was possible to say that, generally speaking, the four areas: PLAN,

IMPLEMENT, EVALUATE AND REVIEW comprise a cyclic process which, once started,

may or may not always continue “on the same road”. At a micro level, for example,

the stakeholders may decide that a project is completed and therefore there is no

http://www.veo.dk/


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continuation, nevertheless the process as a whole should always be subject to

continuous improvement.

PLAN Review the status quo

Create awareness, motivation & commitment

Generate funding

Build an organisational structure

Define stakeholders

Develop vision, mission & strategy

Define priority issues, objectives & success criteria

Define targets & projects

Decision making

IMPLEMENT Manage funding

Marketing

Encourage participation

Communication internally and externally

Implement projects & actions

Disseminate experiences & outcomes

EVALUATE Monitoring results of processes and projects

Assessing qualitative result (objectives)

Assessing quantitative results (targets)

Reporting on results

REVIEW Revising vision

Mission & strategy

Redesign of structure & organisation

Communication of results of review

A valuable and already experienced method to improve the situation is to make use

of “LA21 problem solving methods and activities”: “Training the facilitators for

Local Agenda 21 Implementation” (see www.traintola21.org).

This LA21 method has been developed in a common project achieved by 8 European

countries (Austria, Denmark, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, UK and The

Basque County. The positive results encouraged already many communities to

improve their burdensome situation.

http://www.traintola21.org/


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2.2. Denmark a positive example for LA21

Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.

The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations. [Rio Declaration on Environment and Development]

In spring 2000 the Danish parliament approved a legal requirement in the Law of

Planning for municipalities and counties to develop and revise an Agenda 21 strategy

every fourth year focusing on 5 specific overall issues – and to publish the strategy.

The results of this can be found below under the heading "Statistics".

Every fourth year, the Minister of Environment is obliged to report to the parliament

on the status of Agenda 21. The report has to be prepared in cooperation with the

local and regional authority organisations according to the Law of Planning. The

latest report in Danish can be found on here.

The national framework for Local Agenda 21 is depicted by Denmark's National

Strategy for Sustainable Development. A shared future – Balanced development

(2002), which introduces the overall goals in eight objectives and principles:

The welfare society must be developed and economic growth must be

decoupled from environmental impacts.

There must be a safe and healthy environment for everyone, and we must

maintain a high level of protection.

We must secure a high degree of biodiversity and protect the ecosystems.

Resources must be used more efficiently.

We must take action at an international level.

Environmental considerations must be taken into account in all sectors.

The market must support sustainable development.

Sustainable development is a shared responsibility, and we must measure its

progress.


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Running implementations

In this chapter some examples of Local Agenda 21 processes in Denmark can

be found. More examples can be found in the Danish here and Norwegian

idea banks on Local Agenda 21. Unfortunately, the data is not available in

English.

Dogme 2000

Dogme 2000 is an instance of cooperation, currently between six Danish

municipalities having set up a number of common targets for their work

towards a better environment and sustainability. The six Dogme

municipalities are Albertslund, Ballerup, Fredericia, Herning, Kolding and

Copenhagen; also Malmø municipality in Sweden joined the network in

January 2006. The cooperation is led by a steering committee consisting of

politicians and officials from the Dogme municipalities. With all

municipalities cooperating, the officials work to implement the targets of

the Dogme. The example of cooperation is based on 3 "dogmas" (objectives

and means):

Human environmental impacts shall be measured – green accounts

An environmental improvement plan shall be developed - Agenda 21 plan

The environmental work shall be anchored – Business and housing areas shall

be involved and in time the whole municipality shall get environmental

management certification.

Within each "dogma" more specific targets and actions are developed and

these are part of the auditing. An external independent environmental

management systems auditor audits the performance of the municipality

every year.

During a three-year period the Dogme municipalities in Denmark will

develop a Dogme manual that is to serve as an inspiration and ”getting-

started-guide” for Danish and foreign municipalities with an interest in

making an extra effort for the environment as part of a LIFE project. The

manual will, among others, contain a number of concrete tools and methods

that may be used in the efforts for environmental improvements in the


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municipalities.

The four focal points of the Dogme manual are:

Common model for municipal green accounts.

Chemicals plan.

Anchoring of environmental work.

New audit model for the Dogme.

In addition a project group is working with dissemination of the project.

The LIFE project is to sustain and further develop the Danish Dogme 2000

model for environmental management at municipal level. Work is supported

by funds from the EU Life programme.

In addition to the five Danish municipalities, two external partners are

involved in all the sub-projects: Siualai of Lithuania and Neumünster of

Germany. These two municipalities are to ensure that the Dogme manual is

also applicable outside Denmark.

Eu life project under Dogma 2000

As part of the Dogme 2000 cooperation several working groups have been

established e.g. focusing on environmental work of industry, organic food,

sustainable building, environmental certification of municipalities and

environmental certification of schools.


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3. Waste collection

3.1. Actual item status quo

An important part of the pollution problems comes from plastics applications and

especially from the short life time of consumer plastics e.g. packaging (see next

fig.).

Short life time of plastics in packaging

The European Union now increasingly demands that in all countries they assist the

environmental aspect has to taken into account and result in education programs

and sustainable solutions for the people in those countries.

To get an impression of the small recycled quantity see the next table from the

American Plastics council 2004).

Plastic bottle type

Resin sold (Million lb)

Recycled plastic Recycling rate (%)

PET soft drink PET custom

1.722 2.915

579,4 424,0

33,7 14,5

Total PET bottles

4.637 1.003,4 21,6

PE-HD natural PE-HD pigmented

1.621 1.865

450,3 453,9

27,8 24,3

Total PE-HD bottles

3.486 904,2 25,9

PVC PE-LD/PE-LLD PP

113 63 190

0,9 0,3 6,0

0,7 0,5 3,2

Total 8.489 1.914,8 22,6


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The numbers presented in the table had remained fairly constant until 2003, when

the rate of recycled resins increased due to the high costs of the virgin material.

This increase continues, and it is expected that this trend will continue in the years

to come.

Approximately 80% of these short life time plastics like bottles, films and ropes for

fishing do not get disposed properly and thereby become a world wide problem.

In many countries the quantities of waste has increased dramatically and exceeded

the feasible public or private disposal management capacity.

Problems arise from lack of organised locations to deposit the waste and increasing

air pollution damages the health of the residents (see next Fig.).

Unorganised “wild” disposal of litter

Many local and small companies collect mono-fractions of polymers for special

customers (see fig.) but this is only a small proportion of the total plastic volume.

By a common EU / Egypt project a new effort in Recycling of Plastics is planned in

Egypt.

An important measure to handle polymers with low life time was to reduce the types

of polymers and the demand to declare the products with international accepted

label (see Fig. / SPI resin identification codes).


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Recycling number

Image Abbreviation Polymer name

1

PETE or PET Polyethylene terephthalate

2

HDPE High density polyethylene

3

PVC or V Polyvinyl chloride

4

LDPE Low density polyethylene

5

PP Polypropylene

6

PS Polystyrene

7

OTHER 7or O Other plastics

Recycling number (SPI resin identification code) for Polymer characterization

The collection of mono-fraction plastics allows the production of various goods in sufficient quality (see next Fig.)

Recycling number

Image Abbreviation Uses once recycled

1

PETE or PET Soft drink bottles, strapping Polyester fibres, thermoformed sheet; See also: Recycling of PET Bottles

2

HDPE Bottles, grocery bags, recycling bins, agricultural pipe, base cups, car stops, playground equipment and plastic lumber

3

PVC or V Pipe , fencing and non-food bottles

4

LDPE

Plastic bags, 6 pack rings, various containers, dispensing bottles, wash bottles, tubing and various moulded laboratory equipment

5

PP car parts, industrial fibres, food containers and dishware

6

PS

Desk accessories, cafeteria trays, plastic utensils, toys, video cassettes and cases, insulation board and other expanded PS- products (e.g. Styrofoam)

7

OTHER 7or O

Application of recycled polymers


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3.2. Collecting systems

The following example is taken from Austria and shows a comprehensive public

collecting system for various goods like glass, metal, paper, plastics and the

domestic waste. For the public this system involves containers for collection and

subsequent disposal in special incineration facilities for household litter and public

locations for industrial and hazardous goods.

As mentioned in Chapter 2 it took time for public discussion and decisions to start a

common collecting and subsequent processing system of the various goods organized

by the Austrian Recycling Agency (ARA).

Now there are collecting bins in all districts collecting pins (see below) for special

products like glass, metal, paper, plastic bottles which are regularly emptied and

constantly monitored to ensure that they are in a proper condition.

Educate people how to collect


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The domestic waste (a mixture of biodegradable, inflammable and non inflammable

products) gets burned in newly built incineration facilities (see fig. below).

Incineration facility for household litter

In Europe new incineration facilities are only accepted with defined air pollution

criteria.

An important aspect was and is to motivate people to use these bins so reducing the

effort of the municipalities to keep the public clean. This is done by regularly

actions like public advertisements, inserts in newspapers, TV-spots, school actions,

information for households where to find the next collecting point for various

materials (fridges, furniture, old batteries, chemicals etc.). The fact that all the

people collect and separate reduces the further costs involved.

3.3. Austrian Recycling Agency (ARA)

The ARA is heads the organisation for collecting, storing and delivering of plastics,

metal, paper et al. to the recycling institutions under contract (see fig.).

These contractors are partially public communities or private enterprises like cities,

villages or specialized companies (see fig.).


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ARA System - contractual partners

The cooperation scheme between individual companies dealing with special polymers and products is to be seen in the following fig.

How the ARA system works

An overview of the Austrian waste volume is to be seen in the following table (see

tab. below)

3 Service-offices 457 Municipal

partners

app. 100

Regional partners

250 „Waste

consultants“

app. 140 Regional

collection centers

25 Plastic-recycling

companies

app. 1,100

recycling plants

10 Paper-recycling

companies

3 Glass-recycling

companies

4 Metal-recycling

companies

29 Wood-recycling

companies

4 Aluminium- recycling

companies


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• Capital: Vienna • Area: 84.000 km² • Population: 8,3 mio. • GNP 20081): 282,2 billion € • GNP per inhabitant1): 33.820 € • Household waste (MSW)2): 3,7 mio. tons 29,3 mio. m³

Packaging waste3): 1,1 mio. tons

1) per April 2009; Statistics Austria 2) Federal Ministry of Environment, 2008 3) Federal Ministry of Environment, 2007

Austria: Facts & Figures

The Waste management is classified in a hierarchy (see fig.) starting from

prevention until final treatment of the goods collected.

Hierarchy in Waste Management

The previous Austrian waste management system (next fig. left side)was only

designed to collect the household waste and to deposit it while the current one

selects the type and quality of waste products and separates into stream lines (next

fig. right side).


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Previous system Actual System


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Collection by the population requires motivation; it is a social item depending on mentality, public awareness and education-

- All the people collecting and separating reduces the further costs,

- It needs education (school, TV-spots, inserts in newspapers, actions) and the possibility to collect and separate (e.g. public containers available and regularly emptied).

An important factor is the question: “How to finance the collecting and recycling” management.

There exist three main lines:

Costs calculated by the public community:

The community receives from all households & communities a monthly fee to deal

with (see overview next Fig.) the –

-Residual waste,

-Organic waste

-Hazardous waste,

-Bulky waste,

-Non packaging waste like paper & metals

or

Costs calculated as a part of the product:

The merchant has to add the costs for recycling to the product costs paid by

the customer and submit the sum to the public recycler

or

The merchant is obliged to collect the packaging reliably himself


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How to finance the collecting and recycling


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All products which get imported into or produced in Austria need a waste

certificate. There exist 2 different types of certificates:

- if the community is asked to deal with the disposals of the product (e. g.

packaging of a product, collection and treatment of old electronics,

household machines etc.) for each product the supplier or the producer has to

pay a certain amount of money in advance to the ARA system or,

- if the supplier or the producer himself collects and takes care of the further

treatment no money has to be paid to the ARA system but he gets fined if he

does not fulfil the agreement (see next fig.)

Due to the increasing shortage of areas for deposit in Europe a strong trend has

developed to reduce materials with low life time, to separate, reuse and use the

energy in charges where the separation of fractions is not economically viable. The

recycling rate from public collection – mostly from packaging – differs strongly

between different countries (see next figure).


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Recovery of packaging in EU: Austria among leading countries


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4. Polymer Recycling Technology

4.1. General remarks

We can divide plastics recycling into two major categories: industrial and used

product plastic scrap recycling. Industrial scrap is easy to recycle and re-introduce

into the manufacturing stream, either within the same company as a regrind or sold

to third parties as a homogeneous, reliable and uncontaminated source of resin.

Post-consumer plastic scrap recycling requires the material to go through a full life

cycle prior to being reclaimed. This life cycle can be from a few days for packaging

material to several years for electronic equipment housing material. The post-

consumer plastic scrap can come from commercial, agricultural, and municipal

waste. Municipal plastic scrap primarily consists of packaging waste, but also

plastics from disassembled retired appliances and electronic equipment.

Post consumer plastic recycling requires collecting, handling, cleaning, sorting and

grinding (see next fig.).

Availability and collection of post consumer plastic scrap is perhaps one of the most

critical aspects. Today, the demand for recycled plastics is higher than the

availability of these materials. Although the availability of HDPE from bottles has

seen a slight increase, the availability of recycled PET bottles has decreased in the

past 2 years.


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Cycle of plastic packaging

One of the main reasons for the decrease of PET is the fact that single PET bottles

are primarily consumed outside of the home, making recycling and collection more

difficult. On the other hand, HDPE bottles, which come from milk containers, soap-

and cleaning- bottles, are consumed in the home and are therefore thrown into the

recycling bin by the consumer. A crucial issue when collecting plastic waste is

identifying the type of plastic used to manufacture the product. Packaging is often

identified with the standard SPI identification symbol, which contains the triangular-

shaped recycling arrows and a number between 1 and 7. Often, this is accompanied

by the abbreviated name of the plastic. The next Fig. and next Tab. present the

seven commonly recycled plastics along with the characteristics of each plastic, the

main sources or packaging applications and the common applications for the

recycled materials.


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Plastics, Characteristics, Applications and Use after Recycling


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Electronic housings are often identified with a moulded-in name of the polymer

used, such as ABS, as well as an identifier that reveals if a flame retardant was

used, such as ABS-FR. When a product is not identified, various simple techniques

exist, such as the water or burning tests. The water test simply consists of

determining if a piece of plastic floats or sinks after having added a drop of soap to

the container filled with water. If a part floats, it is either a polyethylene, a

polypropylene, or an expanded or foamed plastic. Most of the remaining polymers

will likely sink. The 2nd table of chapter 4.2.1 in this handbook summarizes various

tests that can be performed to quickly recognize a type of plastic material. Through

simple observation, a burn test and practice of the demonstrator, an engineer is

often able to identify most plastics.

To achieve this, equipment that performs differential scanning calorimetry, infrared

spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and dynamic mechanical analysis,

to name a few, is available. Most process and design engineers do not have these

measuring devices at hand, nor do they have the analytical experience to operate

them and interpret the resulting data. Once properly identified, either before or

after cleaning, the plastic part is chopped down in size or ground. The ground clean

plastic scrap is often directly used for processing. For some applications, where

additives are needed or homogenization is required, the ground flakes are extruded

and pelletized. However, this step adds to the cost of the recycled plastic.

The reprocessing of plastics has an effect on the flow and mechanical properties of

the material, as the molecular weight is reduced each time the material is heated

and exposed to shear stress during the pelletizing and manufacturing processes. The

reduction in the molecular weight is accompanied by increases in the melt flow

index, a common technique used to detect degradation. If the recycled polymer was

in contact with a corrosive environment in its previous use, infrared spectroscopy is

used to reveal the impact of the environment on the polymer`s molecular structure.

4.2. How to identify different plastics

To make use of material collected and in particular polymer material it is essential to know the composition of components. The better we can separate into pure fractions the easier it is possible to process the polymer at defined high quality.


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In companies it is rather simple to know the polymers saved from production lines. Polymers from companies specialized in collection and especially public collecting organisations supply contaminated or mixed polymer fractions. To regain high quality polymers from recycled material (e.g. construction applications) there exist limits of contamination by other polymers (see following fig.).

compatible compatibility limited

compatible for low amounts

not compatible

Miscibility from different types of polymers for construction application There exist lots of analysis methods but unfortunately there does not exist a single method for all cases. The less I know about the examined polymer the more difficult it can be to analyse the material especially if it is a compound of several components (polymers or additives). The following chapter gives methods for analysing ranging from more simple to more advanced methods.

4.2.1. Identification of plastics by fire performance and density/1st approach

To identify plastics very often it is helpful to check if the polymer swims in a water pot or not; additionally the burning behaviour (gas pollution, colour of flame, burning or not burning drops) in combination with the following tables gives an answer.

• for comparison density: Steel 7,85 [g/cm³]; Al 2,70 [g/cm³]


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Abbreviation Plastic Density (g/cm3)

SI Silicon resin 0,80

PP Polypropylene (PP): PPH, PPR, PPB 0,85 - 0,92

PE-LD Polyethylene low density 0,89 – 0,93

PB Poly-1-butene 0,91 – 0,92

PIB Polyisobutylene 0,91 – 0,93

NR Natural rubber 0,92 – 1,00

PE-HD Polyethylene high density 0,94 – 0,98

PA 12 Polyamide 12 1,01 – 1,04

PA 11 Polyamide 11 1,03 – 1,05

ABS Acrylonitrile -butadiene- styrene-Copolymer 1,04 – 1,06

PS Polystyrene 1,04 – 1,08

PPO Polyphenylene oxide 1,05 – 1,07

SAN Styrene-acrylonitrile-Copolymere 1,06 – 1,10

PA 6.10 Polyamide 6.10 1,07 – 1,09

EP, UP Epoxy resin (EP), Unsaturated polyester resin (UP) 1,10 – 1,40

PA 6 Polyamide 6 1,12 – 1,15

PA 6.6 Polyamide 6.6 1,13 – 1,16

PAN Polyacrylnitril 1,14 – 1,17

CAB Cellulose acetobutyrate 1,15 – 1,25

PMMA Polymethylmethacrylate 1,16 – 1,20

PVAC Polyvinylacetate (adhesives, coatings, paints) 1,17 – 1,20

CP Cellulose propionate 1,18 – 1,24

PVC-P PVC – plasticized 1,19 – 1,35

PC Polycarbonate (basis Bisphenole A) 1,20 – 1,22

PUR Polyurethane 1,20 – 1,26

PVAL, PVOH Polyvinylalcohol 1,21 – 1,31

CA Cellulose acetate (cigarettes) 1,25 – 1,35

PF Phenolic -formaldehyde-resin, without filler 1,26 – 1,28

PF Phenolic-formaldehyde-resin, With organic fillers (e.g. paper, fabric)

1,30 – 1,41

Celluloid Celluloid 1,34 – 1,40

PET Polyethylenterephthalate 1,38 – 1,41

PVC-U PVC - unplasticized 1,38 – 1,42

POM Polyoxymethylene 1,41 – 1,43

UF, MF Urea - formaldehyde and Melamine - formaldehyde resin, with organic fillers

1,47 – 1,52

PVCC Polyvinylchloride, additional chlorinated 1,47 – 1,55

PF, UF, MF Phenolic-, formaldehyde resin, with organic fillers 1,50 – 2,00

Polyester-and Epoxy-resin,

filled with glass fibres

Polyester- and Epoxy-resin, filled with glass fibres 1,80 – 2,30

PVDC Polyvinylidene chloride 1,86 – 1,88

PCTFE Polychlortrifluoro ethylene 2,10 – 2,20

PTFE Polytetrafluorethylene 2,10 – 2,30


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Fire performance Flame Smell of vapour Plastic

Not burning

- - Silicone (SI)

- Fluoric acid (pungent) Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), Polychlortrifluorethylene (PCTFE)

- - Polyimide (PI)

Hardly inflammable, self extinguishing

light, producing soot Phenol, Formaldehyde Phenolic formaldehyde (PF)

light yellow Ammonia, Amine (like fish); Formaldehyde

Aminoplastics

green edges Hydrogen chloride

(pungent)

Chlorinated rubber, Polyvinylchloride (PVC), Polyvinylidenchloride (PVDC), (without burnable plasticizer)

Burns in flame, self extinguishing or not

luminous, producing soot

- Polycarbonate (PC)

yellow, gray smoke - Silicon rubber (SI)

yellow-orange, blue smoke

Burned horn Polyamide (PA)

dark yellow, producing soot

Acetic acid Cellulose acetate (CA)

yellow Phenol Phenolic formaldehyde (PF)

luminous, decomposition

scratching the throat Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)

yellow-orange Burned rubber Poly chloroprene

yellow-orange, producing soot

cloying, aromatic Polyethylene therephtalate (PET)

yellow, blue seam Isocyanate (pungent) Polyurethane (PU)

yellow, blue core Paraffin Polyolefin (PE, PP)


Acrid smell Polyester resin (UP) (glass fibre restrained)

Easy inflammable, continuous flaring up


Styrene (cloying) Polystyrene (PS), EPS

dark-yellow, weak producing soot

Acetic acid Polyvinyl acetate (PVAC)

dark-yellow, producing soot

Burned rubber Natural rubber (NR)

luminous, blue core, sizzling

cloying-fruity Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), Plexiglass

light blue Formaldehyde Polyoxymethylene (POM)

dark-yellow, weak producing soot

Acetic acid, Butter acid Cellulose acetobutyrate (CAB)

light-yellow, sparking Acetic acid Cellulose acetate (CA)

yellow-orange Burned paper Cellulose

light, fierce Nitric oxide Cellulose nitrate


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4.2.2. Solubility

A further method to identify selected thermoplastic polymers is their solubility in liquids (see following table- [1]). Elastomers (partially crosslinked molecular chains) exposed to selected liquids show expansion and limited solubility; thermosets (high degree of crosslinked polymer chains) show no expansion and no solubility.

Recycling number

Abbreviation Dissolving

agents No solubility

1 PET

m-cresol, o-chlorene-phenole

nitrobenzene, trichloroacetic acid

methanol, acetone, aliphatic hydrocarbons

2 HDPE xylene,

trichlorobenzene, decaline, tetraline

acetone, diethyl ether, low level alcohol

3 PVC or V

tetrahydrofuran, cyclohexanone,

methylethylcetone, dimethylformamide

methanol, acetone, heptane

4 LDPE xylene,



5 PP xylene,



6 PS

Benzole, toluene, chloroform,

cyclohexanone, butylacetate,

carbon disulfide

Low level alcohol, diethyl ether, acetone

7 OTHER 7or O

PAN

Polyacrlonitrilics

Dimethylformamide, dimethylsulfoxide, conc. Sulfuracid

alcohol, diethyl ether, water, hydrocarbon

PA

Polyamides

Ants acid, conc. sulphur acid,

Dimethylformamide, m- cresol

Methanol, diethyl ether, hydrocarbon

Recycling number (SPI resin identification code) for Polymer characterization

http://dict.leo.org/ende?lp=ende&p=Ci4HO3kMAA&search=trichloroacetic&trestr=0x2001

http://dict.leo.org/ende?lp=ende&p=Ci4HO3kMAA&search=acid&trestr=0x2001

http://dict.leo.org/ende?lp=ende&p=Ci4HO3kMAA&search=trichlorobenzene&trestr=0x2001

http://dict.leo.org/ende?lp=ende&p=Ci4HO3kMAA&search=diethyl&trestr=0x2001

http://dict.leo.org/ende?lp=ende&p=Ci4HO3kMAA&search=ether&trestr=0x2001










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4.2.3. nfrared (IR) spectroscopy [2]

Infrared spectroscopy has developed into one of the most important techniques used to

identify polymeric materials. It is based on the interaction between matter and

electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths between 1 and 50 µm. The atoms in a molecule

vibrate in a characteristic mode, which is usually called a fundamental frequency. Thus,

each molecule has a set group of characteristic frequencies which can be used as a diagnosis

tool to detect the presence of distinct group. The next table presents the absorption

wavelength for several chemical groups.

Group Wavelength [µm] Wave number [cm-1] Ann.

O-H 2,74 3650

N-H 3,00 3333

C-H 3,36 2976 stretching CH2-, CH3- groups

C=O 5,80 1724 stretching

C=N 5,94 1684

C=C 6,07 1647 stretching

C=S 6,57 1522

C-H 6,90 1449 bending

C-O 9,67 1034

C-C 11,49 870

Absorption Wavelengths for Various Groups

The range for most commercially available infrared spectroscopes is between 2 and 25 µm.

Hence, the spectrum taken between 2 and 25 µm serves as a fingerprint for that specific

polymer, as shown in the next figure for polycarbonate

Structure of a branched PE molecule

Infrared spectrum of a PE film


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Structure of a PET molecule

Infrared spectrum of a PET film

Structure of a PC molecule

Infrared spectrum of a polycarbonate film

An infrared spectrometer to measure the absorption spectrum of a material is schematically represented the reference at the end of this lecture notes [8]. Using infrared spectroscopy can also help in quantitatively evaluating the effects of

weathering (e.g., by measuring the increase of the absorption band of the COOK group, or


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by monitoring the water intake over time). One can also use the technique to follow

reaction kinetics during polymerization.

In the wave length range 0,8 to 2,5 µm (IR) it is possible after calibration to separate

complex fractions of polymers destined for recycling consisting of e.g. PE, PP, PS, PET, PVC.

For “inline analysis” of polymer reactions in polymer melts (e.g. in extruders) IR-analysis

can be applied.

4.2.4. Thermal analysis [2]

Thanks to modern analytical instruments it is possible to measure thermal data with a

considerable degree of accuracy. This data allows a good insight into chemical and

manufacturing processes. Accurate thermal data or properties are necessary for everyday

calculations and computer simulations of thermal processes. Such analyses are used to

design polymer processing installations and to determine and optimize processing

conditions. In the last twenty years, several physical thermal measuring devices have been

developed to determine thermal data used to analyze processing and polymer component

behaviour.

Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) The differential thermal analysis test serves to

examine transitions and reactions which occur within a range of seconds and minutes, and

involve a measurable energy differential of less than 0,04 J/g. Usually, the measuring is

done dynamically (i.e., with linear temperature variations in time). However, in some cases

isothermal measurements are also done. DTA is mainly used to determine the transition

temperatures. The principle is shown in next figure. Here the sample. S, and an inert

substance, I, are placed in an oven that it has the capacity to raise its temperature linearly.


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Schematic of a differential thermal analysis test

Two thermocouples that monitor the samples are connected opposite to one another in that

way that no voltage is measured as long as S and I are at the same temperature:

∆T = TS – TI = 0

However, if a transition or a reaction occurs in the sample at a temperature, TC, then a heat

is consumed or released, in which case ∆T ≠ 0. This thermal disturbance in the time can be

recorded and used to interpret possible information about the reaction temperature, TC, the

heat of transition or reaction, ∆H, or simply about the existence of a transition or reaction.

Next figure shows the temperature history in a sample with an endothermic melting point

(i.e., such as the one that occurs during melting of semi-crystalline polymers like PE, PP, PA

etc.). The next figure also shows the functions ∆T (TI ) and ∆T (TS) which result from such a

test. A comparison between a, b, c in the next figure demonstrates that it is very important

to record the sample temperature, TS, to determine a transition temperature, such as the

melting or glass transition temperature.


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Temperature and temperature differences measured during melting of a semi-crystalline polymer sample

Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) The differential scanning calorimeter permits

us to determine the thermal transition of polymers over a range of temperatures between -

180 and + 600 °C. Unlike the DTA cell, in a DSC device, thermocouples are not placed

directly inside the sample or the reference substance. Instead, they are embedded in the

specimen holder or stage on which the sample and reference pans are placed; the

thermocouples make contact with the containers from the outside. A schematic diagram of

a differential scanning calorimeter is very similar to the one shown in the previous figure

above. Materials that do not show or undergo transition or react in the measuring range

(e.g., air, glass powder, etc.) are placed inside the reference container. For

standardization, one generally uses mercury, tin, or zinc, the properties of which are known

exactly. In contrast to the DTA test, where samples larger than 10g are needed, the DSC

test requires samples that are in the mg range (< 10mg).

DSC tests are the most widely used tests for thermal analysis. In fact, DTA tests are rarely

used in the polymer industry.

The next figure shows a typical DSC curve measured using a partly crystalline polymer

sample. In the figure, the area that is enclosed between the trend line and the base line is a

measurement for the amount of heat, ∆H, needed for transition. In this case , the transition

is melting and the area corresponds to the heat of fusion.


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The degree of crystallinity, X, is determined from the ration of the heat of fusion of a

polymer sample. ∆HSC, and the enthalpy of fusion of a 100% crystalline sample ∆HC .

X = {∆HSC / ∆HC} x 100 [%]

In a DSC analysis of a semi-crystalline polymer, a jump in the specific heat curve, as shown

in the next figure, becomes visible. The glass transition temperature, Tg, is determined at

the inflection point of the specific heat curve. The release of residual stresses as a

material`s temperature is raised above the glass transition temperature is often observed in

a DSC analysis.

Specific heat, Cp, is one of the many material properties that can be measured with DSC.

During a DSC temperature run, the sample pan and the reference pan are maintained at the

same temperature. This allows the measurement of the differential energy required to

maintain identical temperatures. The sample with the higher heat capacity will absorb a

larger amount of heat, which is proportional to the difference between the heat capacity of

the measuring sample and the reference sample. It is also possible to determine the purity

of a polymer sample when additional peaks or curve shifts are detected in a DSC

measurement.

Typical DSC heat flow for a semi-crystalline polymer


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Thermal degradation is generally accompanied by an exothermic reaction which may result

from oxidation. Such a reaction can easily be detected in a DSC output. By further warming

of the test sample, cross-linking may take place and, finally, chain breakage, as shown in

the figure above.

The differential scanning calorimeter is used to measure the melting, Tm, and the glass

transition temperatures of polymers using ISO 11357 and ASTM 3418 tests.

4.3. Sorting methods

4.3.1. Sorting in companies

Post industrial recycling in companies is rather simple. The identity of the material

is clear. Left over/recovered from processing the material gets collected then cut

and reused at a certain concentration in addition to the virgin material. There exist

only few products where the use of regrind is prohibited according to laws or

according standards prohibited or strongly restricted like in applications in - medical

devices, - packaging of food stuff, - pressure pipes for gas etc.

4.3.2. Sorting of polymers from public waste.

The recycling of publicly collected light packaging for further recycling process

needs to be preselected by separating it from glass, paper and metal (see next fig.).

The results are fractions of various polymers which have to be selected for further

useful application (see next fig.).


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Publicly Collected light packaging (all without glass, paper and metal) The further separation into selected fractions might be done either manually by small enterprises or by public sorting in fully automated sorting facilities (see next figures)

Small private collecting enterprises


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Manual and fully automated sorting


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4.4. Machinery for plasticizing to granules

There already exist specialized companies for separation of polymers as well as for

the processing of granules from selected polymer fractions.

e. g. companies

STARLINGER

EREMA

NGR

4.4.1. PET to PET (PET2PET)

Because PET is used in a lot of applications like beverage bottles, carpets, clothing

60-70%), cars, etc. is a very valuable and versatile material with excellent

performance. Unfortunately in many countries there is no disposal system and the

people are not aware of the environmental impacts they are creating for

themselves.

In the last years the environmental concerns in combination with a developing

market for PET from beverages has developed inducing communities and private

enterprises to erect recycling plants. For the reuse of PET again for beverage bottles

and containers the content of acetaldehyde (a decomposition product of PET in the

recycling process) limited the reuse in an important sector. Now there exist new

procedures to reduce the content of acetaldehyde to the range of limits imposed by

law for food packaging.

In the following the recycling of PET from beverage to PET for food packaging again

PET2PET as well as other applications will be given.

A state of the art modern plant for PET2PET is shown in the following picture. All

figures and graphs in this chapter have been provided by courtesy of the company

Starlinger.


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Overview PET2PET bottle recycling plant (company Starlinger)

recoSTAR PET iV+ (company Starlinger)

Left: recoSTAR SSP right: viscoSTAR 75


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There follows a detailed explanation of the plant: 1st pre treatment:

Starting the process the bottles –

-PVC bottles are separated by an infared detection unit,

- get squeezed and the majority of the labels (paper, etc.) loose their adhesion

and are separated in an air separator,

- now the bottles pass a metal detector and a final hand sorting process

(remove green and white bottles and remaining non bottle products),

- then the bottle get cut into small flakes,

- the flakes get washed, then dried,

- a subsequent air separator removes dust, glue and any remaining labels

(mostly paper),

In the remaining flakes remain only fractions of PET from the bottles and PE-HD

from the caps.

The next process starts with a-

- Washing and separating of the PET from the PE-HD in a water based flotation

process. The lighter PE-HD floats at the water surface while the heavier PET

flakes sink down thus enabling the separation between these two

components.

- The washed flakes get colour sorted and optionally additional PVC is sorted

out by an infrared unit.

2nd pre treatment:

The flakes prepared in the 1st pre treatment now undergo a 2nd pre treatment

described in the following procedure (see below):


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2nd pre treatment (company Starlinger)

The extruder 4 is described in the next figure:


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Extruder (company Starlinger)

In the downstream direction the polymer melt gets filtrated, thus removing the last inherent particles. Modern filtration works

with back flushing systems so enabling an extension of service lie of the screens (see next figure).


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Melt filtration (company Starlinger)

Downstream the polymer strands are lead into a water bath followed by the Strand Pelletizing Unit (SPU). This might be a

standard layout with dry cut or an automatic system with a waterslide (see following pictures)


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Strand Pelletizing Unit (SPU) / standard (company Starlinger)

Standard layout with dry cut up to 700 kg/h


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Automatic Strand Pelletizing Unit (SPU) with water slide and under water pelletizing last > 800 kg/h (see next figure)

Under water pelletizing (company Starlinger)


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The next step describes various pelletizing procedures see next figure from standard pelletizing 8 to advanced pelletizing 9 to

optimized pelletizing procedure 10:

Pelletizing (company Starlinger)


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1: Crystallizer and stirrer prevent pellets from sticking and continue the crystallizing process (160°C / 1,5h) 2: Vacuum transport line 3: Pre heater of the reactor (4), batches of ca. 150kg are heated up from 160 to ca. 190-200 °C

4: Reactor vessel under vacuum; Solid State Polycondensation continues; volatiles and non volatiles are removed and captured in the condenser for proper disposal 5: Cooling vessel (pellets get transported by vacuum into 6) 6: Final storage silo


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4.4.2. Machinery for edge trim and film on reels

Companies which produce sheets or films made of PE, PP, PE/PA etc. for various

applications often have to trim the sheets or films to a defined size; The trimmings

can amount to a large quantity of material and because it is specified it makes sense

to recycle it. These rather thin products are not possible to cut it and add it directly

to the normal extrusion process because of feeding problems with flakes. Therefore

after cutting a new plastification and re granulation process is required.

For such application special machinery has been developed and is shown in the

figure below.

recoSTAR compact (company Starlinger)

Cutting technology:

A sensitive and important factor is the cutting technology (especially of films)

because it needs special design of the cutting chamber to achieve a constant feeding

rate for films and sheets (see next figure).


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Cutting chamber (company Starlinger)

The next figure shows the process line in more detail.


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Process description (company Starlinger)


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After extrusion the melt is fed into a melt filtration to keep non homogeneous

components back (paper, aluminium flakes, non- plasticized components from other

fractions). There exist standard double piston filter and double piston backflushing

filter which allows a longer use of the filter screen (see next figure).

Melt filtration (company Starlinger)


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5. Recycling- when do we see a financial benefit ? The following calculations and graphs have been provided courtesy of the company

NGR [6].


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6. Application of recycled material


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7. Literature [1] Braun D.: “Erkennen von Kunststoffen”, Hanser Publisher, 1978

[2] Oswald, Baur, Brinkmann, Oberbach, Schmachtenberg:

„International Plastics Handbook“, Hanser Publisher, 2006

[3] Wunderlich B., „Macromolecular Physics“, Vol 1;

Academic Press Inc., 1973

[4] Ritchie P.D.: “Physics of Plastics”, D. Van Nostrand Comp. Inc.; 1965

[5] Company Starlinger, A-2564 Weissenbach/ Austria: Information sheets

[6] Company NGR, A-4101 Feldkirchen a.d.Donau/Austria: Information sheets

[7] Austrian Regulations concerning collection of packaging waste (enclosed

below)

[8] IR-Spectroscopy method


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[7]: Austrian Regulations


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[8] IR-Spectroscopy method

It consists of an infrared light source that can sweep through a certain wavelength range,

and that splits into two beams:

- One that serves as a reference and

- The other that passed through the test specimen. The comparison of the two gives

the absorption spectrum, shown in figure below.

Schematic diagram of an infrared spectrometer