Seeing Double: The Covenant and the Tablet of Alunad .

Todd Lawson

For Bob lvlather in memo7)' of Kevin

The .Messenger if God stood up amongst the people and then praised and glorified God as He deserved and then he mentioned the Dajjal, so.:ying, '1 warn you if him, and there was no

prophet who did not warn his followers if him; but 1 will tell you something about him which no prophet has told hisfollowm: the Dqjjal is one-f!)led whereas God is not. 'I

The Tablet of Alfrnad has been identified as one of a number of prayers invested by BaM.'u'llah with a special potency.' Baha'is and others may reasonably ask what such a statement means. What is the potency referred to? How is a particular prayer charged with such a power? Upon what does such povver act and how can we tell if it has acted? And by what criteria are we able to determine that a partic­ular prayer has been so invested? Can we actually establish double-blind experiments by which to test the efficacy of particular prayers and incantations?

These questions quickly begin to sound a bit strange ... 'pre-scientific', if you will. Are we therefore meant simply to accept that the Tablet of Al).mad and the others identified by Shoghi Effendi (the Long Healing Prayer, the Fire Tablet) are especially efficacious and powerful and not trouble our brains about what such a statement means? It would appear that this attitude borders on the 'blind imitation' (originally taqlid) so vehemently denounced by Bah<'t'u'llah.3 Shoghi Effendi himself underscores the reasonableness of the God posited by this religion, a position fully consonant with one of the more well-known BaM.'i principles: the harmony of science and religion.4

The proposition here to be tested is that at the heart of the power of the Tablet of Al).mad is a concern with the Covenant (mitMq/'ahd). The Covenant here would be the metahistorical Greater Covenant identified by the BaM.'i teachings as having been enacted and invoked several times throughout history, most recently through the proclamation of Baha'u'llah's own mission.5 Each Covenant-taking depends for its meaning on the one immediately preceding it, as explained by 'Abdu'l-Baha:

. His Holiness Abraham, on Him be peace, made a covenant concerning His Holiness Moses and gave the glad-tidings of His coming. His Holiness Moses made a covenant concerning the Promised One; i.e. His Holiness Christ, and announced the good news of His Manifestation to the world. His Holiness Christ made a covenant concerning the Paraclete and gave the tidings of His coming. His Holiness tlle Prophet Mw,lanunad made a covenant concerning His Holiness the Bab and the Bab was the One promised by Mw,lammad, for MuI}ammad gave the

r

THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

tidings of His coming. The Bab made a Covenant concerning the Blessed Beauty of BaM'u'llah and gave the glad-tidings of His coming for the Blessed Beauty was the One promised by His Holiness the Bab. Baha'u'llah made a covenant concerning a promised One who will become manifest after one thousand or thousands of years. He likewise, with His Supreme Pen, entered into a great Covenant and Testament with all the Baha'is whereby they were all commanded to follow the Centre of the Covenant after His departure, and turn not away even to a hair's breadth from obeying Him.6

Thus, Covenant also includes the specific stipulations in the Baha'i writings indi­cating how divine authority is to be extended after the passing of BaM'u'llah. This authority (walayalvilayat) was vested first in 'Abdu'l-BaM (d. I92I), the Centre of the Covenant (markaz-i mithaq), then in Shoghi Effendi (d. I957), the Guardian of the Cause of God (wali amru Jlldh).7 Today, according to the teachings of the Baha'i Faith, authority is vested in the institution of the Universal House of Justice. We will begin our investigation of this topic with the Covenant in Islam. We will then proceed to the Covenant as it is referred to in the Tablet of Ar,tmad and close with some remarks on the literary qualities of the Tablet and the reading strategies used in order to access them. Throughout the discussion, the idea of 'seeing double' is used to try to convey the basic structure of the reading act so important in regis­tering the power which is the subject of this investigation. Basically, 'seeing double' refers to being able to see two things at once, a basic requirement of metaphorical thinking, which is in fact anagogical perception, a perspective whereby the world is seen as it truly is: an arena for the appearance of the divine.8 In order to register this reality, the observer must cultivate the ability to look at phenomena and at the same time look beyond phenomena. It is in this process that the world and all created things are discovered to be transparent while the sacred light of God shines through them.9 This same process, according to Baha'i teachings, is involved in reading holy scripture. In the case of scripture, 'seeing double' means both looking at the· words and looking in the direction beyond the words indicated by the context. Both the sacred writings of the Baha'i Faith (and sacred writings in general) and the phenomena of the world are 'sig11S' by means of which the reader Ibeliever may encounter holiness. 10

The Covenant in IslaD1

The idea, if not the word, of Covenant is one of the oldest and most enduring in reli­gious history. II It denotes a promise from God to continue to guide, bless and reward humanity as long as humanity conforms to God's plan, law and will. There is space here only to discuss, very sketchily, the Covenant in Islam with particwar concentra­tion on the Covenant in Shi'i Islam. 12 Further, we will focus on those aspects of the Covenant in Shi'i Islam that are seen to be directly related to the spirit and form of tlle Baha'i teachings here represented by the Tablet of Ar,tmad, a relatively short prayer revealed by Baha'u'llah for an Iranian follower sometime in I865.13

SEEING DOUBLE: Tl

The purpose of spiritual strength t medium with an ir failures and disap1 Covenant says to us and to obey the laY' the agreement or cc and reward you for the reward is consb them or even many Shi'i Islam this esc worldly way. In Isle that when, em the (yawm al-qrydma), th before the throne ( they were unaware been told of it - nl the Covenant and" Qur'an at 7=I72-4) runs as follows:

Remember From the c: From their I Their desce Testify conc 'Am I not yc (Who cherii They said: ' We do testif Ye should s, Of Judgem, Were never Or lest ye sl 'Our father: May have t

But we are· After them: Destroy us 1 Of men wb Thus do W, The Signs i And percha (Unto Us). (

I )RLD'S RELIGIONS

the Blessed Beauty Blessed Beauty was made a covenant

:r one thousand or J.tered into a great e all commanded to rn not away even to

aha'i writings indi­f Baha'u'llah. This ), the Centre of the le Guardian of the ings of the Baha'i )use of Justice. We [slam. We will then mad and close with ding strategies used ,f 'seeing double' is important in regis­ally, 'seeing double' :nt of metaphorical Thereby the world is In order to register :nomena and at the : the world and all light of God shines Lings, is involved in means both looking ls indicated by the sacred writings in

.eans of which the

lOst enduring in reli­de, bless and reward . will. There is space ,articUlar concentra­those aspects of the le spirit and form of .d, a relatively short ~ in 1865.'3

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF Af:IMAD/Lawson

The purpose of the Covenant may be thought, in the fIrst instance, to provide spiritual strength to human beings who, while communicating through some medium with an invisible God, suffer the various challenges, tests, reversals and failures and disappointments that occur during the earthly experience. The Covenant says to us: if things go contrary to your plans here, continue to have faith and to obey the law of God because by doing so you will be fulfilling your part of the agreement or contract and God, who never reneges, will honour this agreement and reward you for your diligence, perseverance and faith. Of course the nature of the reward is construed in a number of ways and there is no space to discuss all of them or even many of them. Reward 'in the next world' is the most familiar. But in Shi'i Islam this eschatology is understood in both a this-worldly and an other­worldly way In Islam in general, the Covenant is seen to have been instituted so that when, em the Day of Judgement 01awm aI-din), or the Day of Resurrection (yawm al-qiyama), the children of Adam (that is to say all humanity) are gathered before the throne of God to receive His judgement, none will be able to say that they were unaware of God's command to obedience and faith because they had not been told of it ~ none can claim ignorance of the law - because God had sealed the Covenant and all humanity's assent to it on a special occasion (recounted in the Qur'an at tI72-4) 'before' the actual creation of the world. The Quranic passage runs as follows:

Remember when thy Lord drew forth From the Children of Adam-From their loins -Their descendants, and made them TestifY concerning themselves, (saying): 'Am I not your Lord (Who cherishes and sustains you)?' They said: 'Yea! We do testifY!' (This), lest Ye should say on the Day Of Judgement: 'Of this we Were never mindful': Or lest ye should say: 'Our fathers before us May have taken false gods, But we are (their) descendants After them: wilt Thou then Destroy us because of the deeds Of men who were futile.' Thus do We explain The Signs in detail; And perchance they may turn (Unto Us). (Adapted Yusuf Ali translation)

THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

This passage touches on a basic Islamic philosophy of history: communities and nations have flourished or failed according to their obedience to God's command and faithfulness to His Covenant. Not only will observance of the Covenant benefit one on the Day of Judgement ::md in the next world, it will also benefit the commu­nity here in the world: in history. If humanity is faithful to the Covenant, God will continue to send guidance. Nations that have prospered may be seen to have kept the law of God and His Messengers while those that have failed or become extinct have only their own heedlessness to blame. Just as the creation story in Genesis begins time for theJudaeo-Christian tradition, it is of utmost importance to note that this verse locates the beginning of 'Islamic time', and therefore the institution of reli­gious authority, in an event that taKes place in a primordial realm of pre-existence. I4

To the degree that the primordial founding event referred to in the Qur'an is thus incalculably more ancient than the time depicted in the biblical creation story, it may therefore also be thought to be, by virtue of this more venerable provenance, just that much more pure, accurate and incumbent or imperative. The event as recounted in the Islamic scripture may be seen to be persuasive of the proposition of the divine sanction and authority for the Islamic dispensation on the historical plane. The Islamic dispensation began functionally with the birth of the prophet Muhammad (c. 570 CE) and his call to the prophetic office (c. 6ro CE). The official date for the reckoning of the Islamic period is the year 622 CE, the year of the Hijra. Muslims were able to demonstrate the truth of Islam to the followers of other reli­gions in part by referring to this passage in the Qur'an and the various supplemental teachings contained in the Hadith. The emerging image of the Covenant is that together with its other functions it also puts the truth claims of Islam on a much more unassailable basis than, say, the Hebrew narrative telling of the world beginning, as the latter deals only with mundane creation. This view is exemplified in the following two Traditions from the Sixtll ImamJa'far al-$adiq:

One of the Quraysh said to the Messenger of God: 'By what thing do you claim precedence (al-sabiqa) over all the other prophets inasmuch as you came after them?' The Prophet said: 'I was the fIrst to affrrm faith (amana "to believe") in my Lord and the frrst to answer when God took ,Covenant with the prophets and made them testify against themselves ('ala arifusilzim) with the words '1\m I not your Lor~l?" They said "Yea verily" I was the frrst prophet to say "yea verily"! (bala'). In this way I outstripped the others in offering allegiance to God.'

The fIrst to say 'Yea verily' was the Apostle of God and that was because he, of all creation, was closest to God. He was in the place where Gabriel spoke to him during the NightJourney saying: 'Approach, 0 Muhammad and walk the path no other has walked, neither angel nor sent prophet.' And were it not that his spirit and his soul were in that place, he would never have been able to attain. He was near God as He has indicated 'The distance of two bows, or closer still' [Qur'im 53:9], that is he was 'closer still'. IS

SEEING DOUBLE: T

With the Quranic E

truth of Islam (and has taken it upon i transcends - 'outstJ In addition, this ne' vidual and the con emphases on what a private piety whc

In addition to considerations, the life in that it establ' life in the world spi Quranic parable 0:

agreements among early Islamic histOI of the Prophet wh to Abu Bakr. It is obedience to Islarr. specific act of allt Caliph or the Shi' performative recit:: offer allegiance to referred to as tawa important words ;: friend, 'saint'; pI. u

of God', e.g. ro:63: is the sacred par; someone makes an primordial Coven<

One of the m( the Prophet's retUl Shi'i authorities r Muhammad is ur: (klzalfja) and the Irr. of the Cause (wali lishes ~'s special authority to gover ance. One of the Sunnis is precisely established by the during this histori return from the F:: ered to have 'turnl is known as the E

liD'S RELIGIONS

communities and God's command Covenant benefit :nefit the commu­)venant, God will seen to have kept )r become extinct , story in Genesis rtance to note that institution of reli­of pre-existence.14

) in the Qur'an is ical creation story, :rable provenance, :ive. The event as of the proposition :1 on the historical th of the prophet o CE). The official : year of the Hijra. ,wers of other reli-and the various

ing image of the he truth claims of narrative telling of ation. This view is lja'far al-$adiq:

thing do you claim as you came after "to believe") in my prophets and made :n I not your Lord?" "! (bala'). In this way

as because he, of all ibriel spoke to him nd walk the path no it not that his spirit Ie to attain. He was closer still' [Qur'itn

' .. i ,'r

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF Al':HvIAD/Lawson

v\lith the Quranic story of the Day of the Covenant we have the assertion that the truth of Islam (and by possible association whatever government or worldly power has taken it upon itself to defend and expand its territories in the name of Islam) tTanscends - 'outstrips' - the truth heretofore eA'})ressed in other earlier scriptures. In addition, this new expression of the truth has implications for the life of the indi­vidual and the community which will produce new modes of religiosity and new emphases on what it means to be religious. For it was not only the practitioners of a private piety who saw in it nourishment for the individual spiritual quest.

In addition to having implications for eschatology and other purely religious considerations, the parable of the Covenant also has implications for community life in that it establishes a standard for agreements between human beings. Thus is life in the world spiritualized by a 'literary' connection with the spiritual world. The Quranic pm'able or myth of the Covenant (mithdql'ahd) is seen as the model for all agreements amongst and between Muslims. 16 Such agreements playa large role in early Islamic history: 'Aqaba, al-Hudaybiyah, Ghadir Khumm and after the death of the Prophet when the majority of the community gave their oath of allegiance to Abu Bah. It is this act of allegiance or oath-taking (bay'a)17 that is symbolic of obedience to Islam and God through allegiance to God's earthly representative. A specific act of allegiance, whether it be primarily to a Sufi Shaykh, the Sunni Caliph or the Shi'i Imam is felt as symbolic and reiterative - perhaps even as a performative recital- of the primordial act of allegiance of Qur'an 7=172. Thus to offer allegiance to or recognize the spiritual authority of one of these figures is referred to as tawalla, a word based on the root w-l-y from which are derived such important words as mawla ~ord, master, protector, friend, client), wali (guardian, friend, 'saint'; pl. awljya 'friends' frequently construed in the Qur'an as the 'friends of God', e.g. io:63) and wal4JIa (guardianship, authority, 'sainthood').18 This passage is the sacred paradigm for such oath-giving and taking. In a sense, any tinle someone makes an agreement and swears to honour it, they are participating in this primordial Covenant told in the Our'an.

One of the most important of these occasions is the one that occurred during the Prophet's return to Medina after his last pilgrimage to Mecca. Both Sunni and Shi'i authorities record the fmnous episode of Ghadir Khumm during which Muhammad is understood by the Shi'a to have nominated 'Ali as his successor (khalifa) and the Imam of the Muslim community (umma) with the rank of Gum"dian of the Cause (waH al-aim). According to Sunni Muslims, this episode merely estab­lishes 'Ali's special status in the community without bestowing upon him any special autllority to govern in a religio-political sense as the embodiment of divine guid­ance. One of the more frequent derogatory slurs used by the Shi'a against the Sunnis is precisely the Qurmlic term naqirj: 'breaker', that is to say, of the Covenant established by the Prophet between himself, his community and 'Ali as his successor during tllis historic gathering at the famous Pool of Khumm during the Prophet's return from the Farewell pilgrimage.19 These brealcers of the Covenant are consid­ered to have 'turned away from' (tabarra, the opposite of tawallaj divine guidance. It is known as the Event of Ghadir Khumm and its anniversary is one of tlle main

43

44 THE BAHA'I FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

holy days in the Shi'i liturgical calendar20 where it is referred to as either the Day of al-Ghaclir or, more pertinently, the Day of the Covenant (precisely: yawm al­mitluiq). Here the all-important distinctions between the Sunnis and Shi'is are focussed not on a disagreement over the facts of the event but rather on the more 'scholastic' question of the proper meaning of one of the key words in the sermon, namely mawla: 'master'. A brief excerpt from the relevant Arabic source is offered here:

The travellers all gathered before [lV[uhammad] ... When they had gathered, he climbed above the,travellers so that he was high above them and he summoned tl1e Commander of the Faithful [i.e. 'Ali, see below], peace be upon him. He made him come up with him so that he stood on his right. He then began to address the people. He. praised and glorified God, and preached most eloquently. He gave the community news of his own death, saying: 'I have been summoned and it is nearly the moment for me to answer. The time has come for me to depart from you. I leave behind me among you two all-important things [i.e. al-thaqalqyn, see below] which, if you cleave to them, you will never go astray - that is the Book of God and my offspring from my family [ahl al-bqytJ. They will never abandon you until they lead you to me at the (sacred) waters (of Heaven).'

Then he called out at the top of his voice: 'Am I not more appropriate (to rule) you than yourselves?'

'By God, yes!' they answered [or 'Yea verily!' Arabic: bald, as in Qur'an P72 quoted above] .

He went on speaking continuously without any interruption and taking both arms of the Commander of the Faithful, peace be upon him, and raising them so that the white of his armpits could be seen, he said: 'Whoever I am the master (mawla,) of, this man, 'Ali, is his master. 0 God, befriend whoever befriends him, be hostile to whoever opposes him, support whoever supports him and desert whoever deserts him."!

Then he, peace be on him, went down. It was the time of the mid-morning heat ... He led them in the midday prayer. Then he, peace be on him (went to) sit in his tent. He ordered 'Ali, peace be on him, to sit in his tent opposite him, and he ordered the Muslims to go in group after group to congratulate him on h{s poshion and to acknowledge his command over the faithful. All the people did that. Then he ordered his wives and the rest of the wives of the faithful who were with him to go to him and acknowledge his command over the faitl1ful. They did that.

Among tl10se who were profuse in their congratulations on his position was 'Umar b. al-Khattab. He gave a public appearance of great joy at it, saying: 'Bravo, bravo, 'Ali, you have become my master and the master of every believing man and woman.'"

Because the Shi'a clearly seem to have failed in history and frequently suffered persecution as a dissenting minority (that is, until the time of the Safavids, 1501-1724, and for a while during the time of the Fatimids in the roth-lIth

SEEING DOUBLE: n

centuries), the focus return of the Hidde (yawm al-qiyrimal din) which had vanished perfidious followers brother, cousin, fad God, died in 632 wi (mithriql'ahdJ. All the Qur'an would be t Hidden Imam retur

A very strong th passage as referril Muhammad and 'A course of explainin~ the following Tradit

MuJ::tammad al-Baq did the Amir al-Mu this name?' al-Baq "Remember when ( not your Lord? (Qu not Muhammad M·

In the next Traditi< Imam Mul:tammad acquired their authl

When God wanl and said to therr of God, the COl 'Thou art our L( said to the ange: they are My trm

Then He s, (rubub~)a) and ~

responded: '0 0

Then God, future (sic: not al· false gods. And \ because of the d

[The fifth In was made incu Covenant (mithdl

RLD'S RELIGIONS

as either the Day recisely: yawm al­.is and Shi'is are tther on the more cds in the sermon,

! :; source is offered

y had gathered, he l he summoned the him. He made him gan to address the lently. He gave the ned and it is nearly depart from you. I wqalayn, see below] e Book of God and ldon you ~til they

Lppropriate (to rule)

as in Qur'an 7:172

::m and taking both :md raising them so er I am the master ~r befriends him, be and desert whoever

If the mid-morning on him (went to) sit pposite him, and he • him on his position ople did that. Then ho were with him to ley did tllat. on his position was at it, saying: 'Bravo,

y believing man and

frequently suffered e of the Safavids, ls in the lOth-lIth

( ."

'.

, I

1 " t

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AI:IMAD/Lawson

centuries), the focus in Shi'i piety vis-it-vis the Covenant was on a future date: the return of tlle Hidden Imam who would, on the Day of Resurrection/Judgement 01awm al-qi),amal din) rise up (qa'im) to restore justice to an unjust world - a justice which had vanished with the most recent breaking of the divine Covenant by the perfidious followers of Muhammad who usurped ~'s authority when his foster brother, cousin, father-in-law, protector and friend, Muhammad, the Prophet of God, died in 632 without leaving a clearly written will and testament or Covenant (mitlzaql'ahd). All those who assented to the primordial Covenant mentioned in the Qur'an would be tested once again as to the sincerity of their oath when the Hidden Imam returned.

A very strong tlleme in Shi'i religious works, tllerefore, sees the above Quranic passage as referring precisely to the special Covenant between God and Muhammad and ~. I will quote only a few passages from this material.23 In the course of explaining how ~ acquired the nickname 'Commander of the Faithful', the following Tradition takes form:

Mu}:lammad al-Baqir [the fifth Imam] answered the question from Jabir: 'When did the Amir al-Mu'minin [literally "Commander of the Believers or Faithful"] get this name?' al-Baqir said: 'God named him when He first revealed the verse "Remember when God took a covenant: [The part of this verse which says] 'Am I not your Lord? (Qur'an P72) [was originally extended with the following:] and is not Muhammad My Apostle and is not ~ the Commander of the Faithful?'" ,

In the next Tradition, on the authority of Da'ud al-Raqqi, a disciple of the fIfth Imam Mul).ammad al-Baqir (d. 735), we have a narrative explaining how tlle Imams acquired their authority:

When God wanted to create creation he scattered [their seeds, dharr24] before Him and said to them: 'Who is your Lord?' The first to speak (nataqa) were the Apostle of God, the Commander of the Faithful and the [rest of the] Imams. They said: 'Thou art our Lord.' So, He charged them with knowledge and religion. Then He said to the angels: 'These are the bearers of My religion and My lmowledge and tlley are 11y trustees (umana') among My creation.'

Then He said to the Children of Adam: 'Testify (iqrar) to God's lordship (tubub~'a) and submit to their guardianship (wallrya) and obedience.' They responded: '0 our Lord we do submit!'

Then God said to the angels: 'This 0IVe imposed) lest you should say in tlle future (sic: not al-qiyama) "Of this we were never mindful. Our fathers before us took false gods. And we are but their descendants after them. Wilt Thou then destroy us because of the deeds of men who followed falsehood?'" (c£ Qur'anP73)

[The flitll Imam MU~lammad] al-Baqir said: '0 Da'ud! Our autllority (walcrya) was made incumbent upon [lmmanity] during the [primordial day of the] Covenant (mitlujq). "5

45

THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

In sum, the Cove~ant in Shi'i Islam guarantees the Guardianship (walfrya) of the Imams as the rightful successors of Muhammad as well as guaranteeing Muhammad's role as the renewer of the divine and eternal Covenant for his time and place. As we saw, in one Tradition the assertion of the Prophet Muhammad's authority entailed also establishing his superiority over all other prophets and messengers. It is hoped that the following exploration of the theme of the Covenant in the Tablet of Al:;mad will help us better to appreciate the intimate relationship between Islam and the Baha'i Faith by highlighting essential similarities and distinctions.

The Covenant in the Baha'i Faith

We have noted how religious and spiritual authority (walfrya) is seen to be preserved by the Covenant so that it is really quite impossible to think of the one without the other. They are inseparable in Islam and inseparable in the Baha'i Faith. As everyone knows, the BaM.'i Faith was born in an Islamic enVironment. The signif­icance of this fact has been expressed on behalf of Shoghi Effendi in the following words:

The Baha'i view on [the position and significance of Islam in the history of civilization] is that the Dispensation of MuJ::tammad, like all other Divine Dis­pensations, has been fore-ordained, and that as such forms an integral part of the Divine plan for the spiritual, moral and social development of mankind. It is not an isolated religious phenomenon, but is closely and historically related to the Dispensation of Christ, and those of the Rib and Baha'u'llah. It was intended by God to succeed Christianity, and it was therefore the duty of the Christians to accept it as fIrmly as they had adhered to the religion of Christ.

... Islam constitutes a fuller revelation of God's purpose for mankind. The so­called Christian civilization of which the Renaissance is one of the most striking manifestations is essentially Muslim in its origins and foundations. When medieval Europe was plunged in darkest barbarism, the Arabs, regenerated and transformed by the spirit released by the religion of Muh.ammad, were busily engaged in establishing a civilization the like of which their contemporary Christians in Europe had never witnessed before. It was eventually through Arabs that civilization was introduced to the West. It was through them that the philosophy, science and culture which the old Greeks had developed found their way to Europe ... It is wholly unfair to attribute the effiorescence of European culture during the Renaissance period to the influence of Christianity. It was mainly the product of the forces released by the Mu1;.ammadan Dispensation,

From the standpoint of institutionalism Islam far surpasses true Christianity as we know it in the Gospels. There are infmitely more laws and institutions in the Qur'an than in the GospeL While the latter's emphasis is mainly, not to say wholly, on individual and personal conduct, the Qur'an stresses the importance of society. This social emphasis acquires added importance and significance in the Baha'i

SEEING DOUBLE: n

Revelation. WheJ advancement on progress.

... The B investigations frrs1

And Shoghi Effendi

[The Baha'is] n unbiased, a soun background of tl pre-conceived idl of the Babi an( regarded as an ; must devote sp circumstances th with the station Author.27

One of the ways in writings is through t Holy Traditions. SI displays. As suggest where the word at­Imams) occurs, the: language of divine, :Abdu'l-Baha appea taken from the 01 authority and deme already demonstratl in the Abrahamic a an affrrmation, apI reprise and enactir according to the Ba: For example, such breaking of the Isla words of 'Vmar ibr. have ultimately reje God is sufficient un guidance.' Adib Ta;

... these few w

became the pri Islamic Dispem

I rlLD'S RELIGIONS

.ip (walqya) of the as guaranteell1.g ~nant for his time het Muhammad's 1.er prophets and e of the Covenant

~ imate relationship 1 similarities and

en to be preserved le one without the

Baha'i Faith. As J.ment. The signif­,di in the following

i 1 ill the history of other Divine Dis­

integral part of the , mankind. It is not cally related to the . It was illtended by )f the Christians to ,to

)1' mankind. The so­of the most striking )ns. When medieval ted and transformed : busily engaged ill orary Christians in hrough Arabs that that the philosophy, their way to Europe

m culture durillg the lainly the product of

s true Christianity as· . ld lllstitutions in the J.ly, not to say wholly, nportance of society icance ill the Baha'i

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AI:IMAD/Lawson

Revelation. WIlen carefully and impartially compared, the Qur'im marks a defmite advancement on the Gospel, from the standpoillt of spiritual and humanitarian progress.

. . . The Balla'is should try to study history anew, and to base all their illvestigations fIrst and foremost on the vvritten Scriptures of Islam and Christianity.26

And Shoghi Effendi himself wrote the following:

[The Baha'is] must strive to obtaill, from sources that are authoritative and unbiased, a sound knowledge of the history and tenets of Islam - the source and background of their Faith - and approach reverently and with a mind purged from pre-conceived ideas the study of the Qur'an which, apart from the sacred scriptures of the Babi and Baha'i Revelations, constitutes the only Book which can be regarded as an absolutely autllenticated Repository of the Word of God. They must devote special attention to the investigation of those institutions and circumstances that are directly connected with the origin and birth of their Faith, with the station claimed by its Forerunner, and with the laws revealed by its Author.27

One of the ways in which the institution of the Covenant is reinforced ill Baha'i writings is through the many references to and quotations from the Qur'an and the Holy Traditions. Such references are far from bell1g merely learned gestures or displays. As suggested above in the citation of the Tradition of Ghadir Khumm where the word al-tlzaqalayn (the 'two precious tl1ingS' viz., the Qur'an and the Imams) occurs, these two 'literary' sources represent the condensation ill human language of diville authority and guidance.28 Thus, when Baha'u'llah or the Bab or 'Abdu'l-Baha appear to us to 'quote' from them by using phrases, words or symbols taken from the Qur'an and Hadith, they are really invoking this same diville authority and demonstrating the continuity of Muhammad's Covenant (which had already demonstrated continuity withJesus' Covenant and all of the earlier prophets in the Abrahamic and Arabian tradition). Quotation here is a participation in, and an affirmation, appropriation, celebration, invocation, 'cantillation', deployment, reprise and enacting of the diville authority of the eternal Covenant. 29 Words, according to the Baha'i teachIDgs, are sources of extraordinary power and influence. For example, such power is acknowledged by 'Abdu'l-Baha in his lament on the breaking of the Islamic Covenant in which he refers to the destructive power of the words of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab. The eventual second Caliph of Islam is reported to have ultimately rejected the station of 'Ali with the statement, 'Verily the Book of God is sufficient unto us.' That is to say: 'We need not follow any specific person for guidance.' AdibTallerzadeh has summarized 'Abdu'l-Baha's remarks as follows:

... these few words, embodying the forces of negation, were so potent that tlley became the prime factor ill precipitating all the discord and bloodshed ill the Islamic Dispensation. They caused tlle martyrdom of the Imam 'Ali and His

47

THE BAHA'I FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

illustrious son, Imam I;Iusayn. They gave rise to untold sufferings and death for countless souls within the Islamic fold. The effect of these words, according to 'Abdu'l-Baha's testimony, was so far-reaching that a thousand years later it brought about the martyrdom of the Bab and all the sufferings of Baha:u'llah.3°

It is suggested here that one of the sources of the extraordinary power said to reside in the Tablet of Al).mad is precisely the degree to which the Covenant is evoked either through reference to previous scripture (Qur'an and Hadith) or by the gener­ation of new images and symbols for this most important of all agreements or contracts, which is given such dramatic mythic form in Qur'an 7:172. What follows, then, is an exploration of a few of these words and images in an attempt to demon­strate our thesis. This exercise will at the same time, it is hoped, demonstrate some of the value of one of Shoghi Effendi's stronger exhortations to the Baha'is mentioned above: to learn about Islam.

Covenant in the Tablet of AhInad

The Tablet of Al).mad contains numerous direct and oblique references to the Covenant and the authority or guardianship (walqya) associated with it. The fIrst reference is in the form of an invocation of divine names: 'He is the King, the AlI­Knowing, the Wise!' The fIrst name al-sultan does not appear in the Our'an in this form, which could also be rendered 'the absolute ruler', but several instances of the indefll1ite sultan 'absolute rule or authority' do occur and their contexts indicate' there is no doubt that such authority derives from GodY The second and third names - al-54.li, al-baccom - are frequent Ouranic names for God. The name 54.li, 'the All-Imowing', occurs both in the defll1ite and indefInite form a total of 140 times in the Qur'an as a name of God, and baccom, 'the All-wise', similarly occurs 81 times. But they occur in this form together a total of 29 times and thus this combination of divine names may be considered one of the most characteristic of Ouranic compound divine epithetsY

The second reference to the Covenant is the image of the 'Nightingale of Paradise' singing Qnthe'twigs of the Tree of Eternity' (warqatu)l-firdawstughanna <ala. afnan sidrat al-baqa»). Literally, the 'nightingale' is not a nightingale (bulbu~ but rather a dove or pigeon, the Arabic name of which - warqa - is an onomatopoeic for the sound of its cooing. It seems clear that Shoghi Effendi is being sensitive here to the literary and linguistic tastes of an audience who may fail 'to fll1d the necessary enchantment in a reference to the pigeon of paradise. Another more interesting effect of this translation choice is that it removes the classical nightingale from his typical rosebush habitat, where because of his attraction to the beauty and scent of the rose, the fated bird would thrust itself against the deadly thorns so that the roses are made redder by the shed blood of the nightingale sacrilicing its life for beauty expressed both visually and through the sense of smell by the roses. This is one of the most venerable images in the Persian poetic tradition, which can be traced to the influential Ruzbihan Baqli of Shiraz (d. 1221), in whose commentary on the

SEEING DOUBLE: TF

mystical shat!ziyat or cited: 'The beauty I

bahaVllah).'33 But in of Eternity, sidrat al­combines a number revelation, authority

There are two VI

is shqjara but in this. the further boundar Sidrat is the name 0: evoke the Quranic concerned with the most such narrative~ is agreement on the towards God beyon Muhammad himsel Baha'u'llah to himse realm.35 Thus the sh itual authority and proximity to the divi scandalizing readen here. But in reality b spiritual truth as mu God. God is always remaining closer to 1

unlike all else which evanescent. An und( experience all hum~ conceive of eternity

Baqa) has other, cism where it is fn extinction and annil the Seven Valleys, tl the absolute permaj of the 'Tree' is ev01 'time-ridden' world Covenant is also throughout the tabl( ology used by Baha: own offspring, Afn branches on the Tn adorned by leaves (; gale' in the original distinctive Baha'i te

: RLD'S RELIGIONS

lngs and death for ords, according to :ars later it brought 'u'llah.30

ower said to reside ovenant is evoked h) or by the gener­all agreements or :172. What follows, 3.ttempt to demon­demonstrate some ns to the Baha'is

: references to the i with it. The fIrst , the King, the AJl-the Qur' an in this

ral instances of the r contexts indicate ~ second and third The name :Ali, 'the otal of r40 times in rly occurs 8r times. 1S this combination teristic of Quranic

:he 'Nightingale of -jirdaws tuglzanna <ala Ie (bulbu~ but rather lomatopoeic for the ,ensitive here to the fmd the necessary

er more interesting lightingale from his beauty and scent of

.. ,rns so that the roses rlg its life for beauty roses. This is one of .ch can be traced to :ommentary on the

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVE..NANT AND THE TABLET OF AJ:IMAD/Lawson

mystical slzatlziJat or 'divine scandals' the famous statement from the Prophet is cited: 'The beauty of the rose is from (or 'part of' ) the glory of God (literally, balzri'u'llalz).'33 But in the Tablet of Al~mad, the nightingale is singing from the Tree of Eternity, sidmt al-baqa'. This is an unage which deserves special discussion as it combines a number of themes and topics redolent of the institution of Covenant, revelation, authority and seeulg double.

There are two words for tree Ul Arabic that are relevant here. The usual word is slzajam but in this passage Baha'u'llah uses sidmt. In the Qur'an 'the Lote-tree of the further boundary' (53: r 6), is not the slzqjamt al-muntalza but the· sidmt al-muntalzri. Sidrat is the name of a species of tree and has been chosen here, one assumes, to evoke the Quranic passages (34:r6, 53:r6, 56:28) and especially 53:r6 which is concerned with the famous night-journey of the Prophet Muhammad. Although. most such narratives have numerous variants - and this one is no exception - there is agreement on the status of the Lote-tree: it is the point in Muhammad's journey towards God beyond which - according to Tradition - either his guide Moses or Muhammad himself was not permitted to gO.34 The 'Nightingale' (a reference by Baha'u'llah to himself) is 'placed' in this essentially placeless and very lofty spiritual realm.35 Thus the short phrase is a reference and affIrmation of Muhammad's spir­itual authority and Baha'u'llah's, as well as an evocation of the nearest possible proximity to the divine. This sidmt al-muntalzri is called sidmt al-baqa'perhaps to avoid scandalizing readers who might be oblivious to the poetry of the spirit being sung here. But in reality baqa', which means eternity and permanence, connotes the same spiritual truth as muntalza': there is a limit to our understanding and perception of God. God is always beyond, hidden, unseen, absent, remote (while at the same time remaining closer to us than our jugular vein), sublime and transcendent, permanent unlike all else which is precisely the opposite: visible, present, mundane, ephemeral, evanescent. An understanding of eternity depends on experience of its opposite, an experience all human beings share. Thus 'seeing double' is necessary. One cannot conceive of eternity without a simultaneous conception of its opposite.

Baqa' has other connotations as well, especially in the context of Islamic mysti­cism where it is frequently yoked with its spiritual and semantic opposite ]ana': extinction and annihilation. In the quest of the mystic, as reiterated for example in the Seven Valleys, there comes a time for utter annihilation of the self in order that the absolute permanence of tlle divine may be encountered.36 Thus tlle 'eternity' of the 'Tree' is evoked to draw attention to God and to the impermanence of the 'time-ridden' world tllat is its opposite. In the context of Baha'i teachings, the Covenant is also identified with the 'Tree' and this imagery has ramilied throughout the tablets. The fIrst example to come to mind is the distinctive termul­ology used by Baha'u'llah to refer to descendants of relatives of the Bab and to His own offspring, Mnan and Aghsan respectively, who are in reality tvvigs and branches on tlle Tree of the Covenant. Such twigs and branches are most properly adorned by leaves (wamqa, note the phonic similarity between leaves and 'nightin­gale' Ul the original languages) - without which the tTee would soon die - another distulctive Baha'i term used to refer to the female members of the holy household.

49

50 THE BAHA'I FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

'Abdu'l-Baha explicitly refers to the 'tree of the Covenant' in the following passage:

Had the Covenant not come to pass, had it not been revealed from the Supreme Pen and had not the Book of the Covenant, like unto the ray of the Sun of Reality, illuminated the world, the forces of the Cause of God would have been utterly scattered and certain souls who were the prisoners of their own passions and lusts would have taken into their hands an axe, cutting the root of this Blessed Tree.37

And from 'Abdu'I-BaM's last tablet to America the following four passages demon­strate the aptness of associating the 'Tree of Eternity' with the Covenant:

Through the power of the divine springtime, the downpour of the celestial clouds and the heat of the Sun of Reality, the tree of life is just beginning to grow. Before long, it will produce buds, bring forth leaves and fruits, and cast its shade over the East and the West. This Tree of Life is the Book of the Covenant.

In America, in these days, severe winds have surrounded the Lamp of the Covenant, hoping that this brilliant Light may be extinguished, and this Tree of Life may be uprooted.38

o Lord of the Covenant! 0 luminous Star of the world! The persecuted 'Abdu'l­Baha has fallen into the hands of persons who appear as sheep and in reality are ferocious wolves; they exercise every sort of oppression, endeavour to destroy the foundation of the Covenant, - and claim to be Baha'is. They strike at the root of the Tree of the Covenant - and count themselves persecuted - just as did the people of the Bayan who broke the Covenant of His Holiness, the Bab, and from six directions shot arrows of reproach and calumny at Thy Blessed Body.39

Here, in a Tablet to 'Abdu'I-BaM, [BaM'u'llah] says also: '0 God! This is a Branch which has sprung forth from the Tree of Oneness, the Sadrat of Thy Unity.,4

0

The Tree in the Qur'an

Of course, the 'tree' enjoys great popularity in the mythology and folklore of tl1e world. Perhaps one of the most important features of the tree, in this context, is that it represents both the visible and invisible worlds: its visible canopy of leaves and branches is mirrored by its invisible root system, by its verticality it unites the visible earth with the invisible heaven, it is a symbol of life itself and it gives life. It is a source of food and shelter. The Qur'an itself is likened to a tree that offers its shade to the tired and weary.4! It requires sun and water and fertile soil to grow. All of these aspects are readily transmuted into metaphors for the spiritual life of humanity. But we must limit ourselves here to the Islamic background and even that only very cursorily. Trees in the Qur'an are used as symbols of divine wrath and pleasure, of bounty, sustenance and shelter. Trees and the ancillary ideas of fruit

SEEING DOUBLE: n

and shade are referr three of these here.

al-sidra: This tree is 'Lote-tree beyond w In the plural form it 34:r6 the wild, tho: flourishing pomegr;: punished its inhabil 56:28, however, the symbol of heavenly comfort to the so-ca tion to being a syml symbol of 'free will' transformed into pc

al-shqjara: The Qur' word' is likened (Q] (Qur'an r4: 26). At I Zaqqum' whose rot inhabitants (see alsc more apocalyptic cc thing, a polar oppo: At r6:67-8 referenc build their hives. Ir oilier than the 1m Covenant.44

At 22:r8 'trees' state of worship al( such as 'all things i.J

the trees, the anim, similar statement.) great number are al forth from 'green tr miraculous sign of I

means whereby G( observe nature is i phenomenon at the cially in this conne( earth and does He 1

well-planted orchar the growth of the tI 56:72 for a similar ~ to approach is me"

R!.D'S RELIGIONS

following passage:

from the Supreme the Sun of Reality, l have been utterly 1 passions and lusts lis Blessed Tree.37

r passages demon­::::ovenant:

the celestial clouds ling to grow. Before st its shade over the ant.

the Lamp of the :d, and this Tree of

persecuted 'Abdu'l­:p and in reality are avour to destroy the strike at the root of

_~d-=Just as did the >, the Rib, and from essed Body 39

}od! This is a Brancll of Thy Unity,40

and folklore of the 1 this context, is that inopy of leaves and y it unites the visible d it gives life. It is a : that offers its shade : soil to grow. All of the spiritual life of ;round and even that of divine wrath and cilIary ideas of fruit

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENA.NT A.1\TJ) THE TABLET OF AJ:IMAD/Lawson

and shade are referred to in the Qur'an by a variety of words. We ,"vill only discuss three of these here.

al-sidra: This tree is mentioned four times in the Qur'an. As mentioned, it is the 'Lote-tree beyond which there is no passing' in 53:I4 'shrouded in mystery' in 53:17. In the plural form it appears in both a positive and negative light in the Qur'an. At 34:I6 the wild, thorny, fruitless and shadeless lote-u'ees have replaced the once flourishing pomegranates, dates and grapes that grew in 'Arabia Felix' before God punished its inhabitants for turning away from Him, breal<ing His covenant, At 56:28, however, the cultivated, shade-giving and fruit-producing lote-trees are a symbol of heavenly bliss, akin to the sidra mentioned in sura 53. They will provide comfort to tlle so-called 'Companions of the Right Hand' in Paradise.42 So, in addi­tion to being a symbol of divine transcendence and permanence, this tree is also a symbol of 'free will': through humanity'S knowledge and volition negatives may be u'ansformed into positives.

al-shajara: The Qur'an speaks, for example, of a 'goodly tree' to which a 'goodly word' is likened (Qur'an I4:24) and an 'evil tree' to which an 'evil word is lil(ened (Qur'an I4: 26). At Qur'an I7:60 mention is made of the 'accursed tree' or 'tree of Zaqqum' whose roots are sunk in the bowels of Hell producing bitterness for its inhabitants (see also 37:62-5, 44:43-6 and 56:52).43 As is so often the case Witll the more apocalyptic conceits of the Qur'an, a good thing is opposed by a similar bad thing, a polar opposite. Perceiving one entails perceiving the other: seeing double. At I6:67-8 reference is made to the 'trees' in which God has inspired the bees to build their hives. In tlle esoteric exegetic tradition of Shi'ism, the bees are none otller than the Imams themselves whose proper home is in the Tree of the Covenant.44

At 22:I8 'trees' are returned to nature, as it were; and described as being in a state of worship along with all of the other natural phenomerla created by God such as 'all things in heaven and on earth, the sun, tlle moon, the stars, the hills, the trees, the animals, and a great number among mankind'. (See also 55:6 for a similar statement.) The Our'an in1mediately (and characteristically) adds 'But a great number are also fit for punishment.' At 32:80 the fact that fire can be brought forth from 'green trees' (viz., through rubbing two sticks together) is adduced as a miraculous sign of God. Indeed, nature itself is seen in the Qur'an as just another means whereby God communicates His power and will to humanity Thus to observe nature is in reality a double observation: one sees the visibl~ natural phenomenon at the same time that one 'sees' the .invisible power of God. See espe­cially in this connection Qur'an 27: 60: 'Has He not created tlle heavens and the eartlland does He not send down rain from the sky? Yea, with it We c~use to grow well-planted orchards full of beauty and delight. It is not in your power to cause tlle growth of the U'ees in tlIem. Can there be another god besides God?' (See also 56:72 for a similar statement.) The tree which Adam and Eve were instructed not to approach is mentioned several times (2:35, 7:I9-20, 22). Qur'an 20:120-I is

5I

THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

particularly interesting: 'But Satan whispered evil to him. He said: "0 Adam! Shall I lead thee to the Tree of Eternity (shajarati 'l-klzuld) and to a kingdom that never decays?" So they both ate of the Tree ... ' The Burning Bush of Moses is repre­sented in the Qur'an as the 'Tree growing upon Sinai' (23:20) or 'the blessed Tree growing on the right bank of the valley in the holy territory' (28:30).45 WhenJonah was cast forth from the belly of the fIsh, God caused a large tree to grow as shelter for him (37=146). At 48:r8 a particularly interesting passage is the direct reference to the oath sworn to Muhammad at al-Hudaybiya, an agreement referred to by Muslims as the 'Oath of Ric;lwan' (Bay'at al-rirj,wrin) because of the language in the following verse:

God's good pleasure (Arabic: radiya 'llrihu) was with the believers when they swore fealty (c£ bay'a) to thee under the Tree. He knew what was in their hearts, and He sent down His Divine Tranquillity (al-sakina) to them and rewarded them with a speedy victory. (Qur'an 48:r8) .

The word Ric;lvan (Arabic pronunciation: rirj,wrin) is important as the name Baha'u'llah gave to the garden which was the site of the renewal of the ancient covenant in r863, transferring its focus from the Bab to Baha'u'llah himself It is also the name of the series of perhaps the most important holy days in the Baha'i Faith, commemorating that sacred event. As such, the Ri<;lvan holy days are analo­gous to the Ghadir Khumm observances in Shi'ism, however differently they may be observed. The word rirj,wdn is derived from the above Quranic verb rarj,iya. The form rirj,wrin occurs in a variety of contexts r3 times in the Qur'an (3: r5, 3: r62 , 3:174, 5:2, 5:r6, 9:2r, 9:72, 9:I09, 47:28, 48:29, 57:20, 57:27, 59:8) where it may always be translated as 'the good pleasure of God'. Its Baha'i usage and reading is an excel­lent example of the way traditional Islamic ideas and symbols are employed by Baha'u'llah and others to simultaneously honour that tradition and to separate from it. Seeing double.

al-zaytuna: But perhaps the single most powerful image of the tree in the Qur'an comes at the exquisitely beautiful Light Verse:

God is the Light of tlle Heavens and the Earth. The likeness of His light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp, the Lamp enclosed in a Glass, the glass as it were a glittering star: Lit from a Blessed Tree, an olive neither eastern nor western, whose oil would almost shine forth by itself even though no fIre touch it. Light upon light! God doth guide to His light whom He will. And God strikes metaphors for mankind. And God is Knower of all things. (Qur'an 24:35)

It is impossible to overestimate the importance of this verse in Islamic thought and spirituality. Similarly, it would be impossible to overestimate its signifIcance for the Baha'i tablets. An exhaustive study of this signifIcance would further elucidate the relationship between the Baha'i Faith and Islam, the study of which was so strongly

'!

SEEING DOUBLE: Tl

urged upon the Bat vastly variegated eXI the 'oil' of divine 10 if no fIre touches it' verse is explained a Muhammad and wi Lamp, the Lamp' is tering star' is said tl the world. 'Lit frorr. eastern nor western' forth by itself' mea 'Even though no fi unbroken successior scendence throughc

Rejection of Bah

Perhaps the most I regard to the fulfIlm ment:

Be assured in th~ away from the ~ eternity to all etc

Here Baha'u'llah, , Bab's cause with all away from this caus Day of the CovenaJ Prophet and Mess( slightest hint of ten his religion. The 'I reference to-both th unexceptionable or source of the Cause many pressures to d ask whether or not Muslims - had beer

Day of Resurrec'

It should be noted t in prayer books in 1 to the Covenant We

RLD'S RELIGIONS

i: "0 Adam! Shall ngdom that never )f Moses is repre­: 'the blessed Tree 30).45 When Jonah to grow as shelter direct reference to :nt referred to by b.e language in the

i rs when they swore , heir hearts, and He

'arded them with a

:ant as the name wal of the ancient u'llah himself It is . days in the Baha'i .oly days are analo­.ifferently tl1ey may lic verb m¢iya. The n (3:15,3:162,3:174, :e it may always be reading is an excel­Is are employed by )n and to separate

tree in the Qur'an

s of His light is as if . in a Glass, the glass : neither eastern nor )Ugh no fIre touch it. rill. And God strikes Lur'an 24:35)

Islamic thought and , significance for tl1e further elucidate the rhich was so strongly

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AI:IMAD/Lawson

urged upon the Baha'is by Shoghi Effendi. The verse is of course the subject of a vastly variegated exegetic tradition. In the Shi'i tradition the oil is none other than the 'oil' of divine loving protection and authority (walqya) which 'shines forth even if no frre touches it'. In a Tradition related on the authority of Ja'far al-~adiq, the verse is explained as follows: The 'Niche' is said to be Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad and wife of 'Ali and considered tl1e 'Mother of all the Imams'. 'In it a Lamp, the Lamp' is said to refer to Hasan and Husayn. 'The glass as it were a glit­tering star' is said to mean that Fatimah shines like a star amongst the women of the world. 'Lit from a blessed Tree' is said to mean 'lit' from Abraham. 'Neither eastern nor western' means neither Jewish nor Christian. 'Its oil would almost shine forth by itself' means that divine knowledge almost flows spontaneously from it. 'Even though no frre touched it. Light upon light' means Imam after Imam in unbroken succession.46 The Bab himself refers to tl1is tree, its light, its oil, its tran­scendence throughout his Qayylim al-asma.47

Rejection of Baha'u'llah is Rejection of All Divine Messengers

Perhaps the most powerful and uncompromising sentence in the tablet - with regard to the fulfrlment of tl1e Covenant - is the following remarkably explicit state­ment:

Be assured in thyself that he who turneth away from this Beauty hath also turned away from the Messengers of the past and showeth pride towards God from all eternity to all eternity.48

Here Baha'u'llah, with consummate certainty and poise, explicitly identifies d1e Bab's cause with all of the divine Messengers of the past. That is, the one who turns away from this cause has defocto broken the Covenant instituted on the primordial Day of the Covenant (described above) and renewed and reiterated through every Prophet and Messenger from that time to this. Here Baha'u'llah witl10ut the slightest hint of tentativeness or apology asserts the divine and authentic origin of his religion. The 'Beauty' (luidha )l-:jama~ in the above excerpt is a simultaneous reference to both the Bab and Baha'u'llah. While for Baha'is today this may seem unexceptionable or unremarkable because they have never questioned the divine source of the Cause, it is suggested that those living at the time of Baha'u'llah had many pressures to deal with, pressures that from time to time might cause them to ask whether or not this is the true Cause for which Muslin1s - and especially Shi'i Muslims - had been waiting and praying for so long.

Day of Resurrection (Yawm al-qiyii:ma)

It should be noted that the end of tl1e Tablet of Al).mad has remained untranslated in prayer books in European languages. But because this brief passage also refers to the Covenant we will examine it here. The reference to the Covenant is in the

53

54 THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE 'WORLD'S RELIGIONS

mention here of the Day of Resurrection. The Covenant taken between God and humanity during that time before time when all things existed only in potential recounted at Qur'an 7:172 was taken so that souls would be able to recognize the truth on the Day of Resurrection.49 The following is a provisional translation of this brief coda:

So remember Us to all those dwelling in the City of God, the King, the Mighty, the Beauteous - those who have faith in God and in Him 'Whom God doth raise up on the Day of Resurrection. Verily, they are the true sojourners upon the ways of Divine Truth and Reality.50

From the context of the tablet, it seems clear that Baha'u'llah is referring to the Bab as 'He Whom God raises up'. The tablet was revealed in 186551 at a time when the Babi community was divided and in disarray. Baha'u'llah wished to' express his acknowledgement of the Bab's authority - his affIrmation of the Bab's Covenant -and his recognition of him as the promised one of the Islamic dispensation. In recognizing this, Baha'u'llah also affirms the primordial, pre-eternal, pre-creational Covenant. At the saqIe time, Baha'u'llah asserts His own authoritative relationship with the Covenant. The phrase 'those who have faith in God and in Him Whom God doth raise up on the Day of Resurrection' (al-ladhina hum amanu bi'llahi wa bi'l­ladhi yaba'thuhu allahu fi yawm al-qiyamatz) refers both to the past and the present because of the grammatical tenses: the verb 'to have faith' is in the perfect tense, a tense that indicates an action has been completed. The verb 'to raise up' is in the imperfect tense, a tense which indicates that an action is in process, continuous: it began in the past, it is certainly taking place now and it may continue in the future. Thus it can refer to the Bab, whom God had already 'raised up' and it can refer to Baha'u'llah, whom God is now 'raising up'.

Baha'u'llah refers to the Bab earlier in this tablet in the sentence, 'And that the One Whom He hath sent forth by the name of 'Ali was the true One from God ... He is the King of the Messengers and His Book is the Mother Book (umm al-kitab) did ye but know ('arifin).'5 2 In this passage there are three direct references to the Covenant: 1) the phrase 'by the name of :Ali was the true One from God' (huwa ~aqq min (znd allah); 2) the phrase 'Ring of the Messengers'; 3) the phrase 'His Book is the Mother Book'. 'Ali is the name of the Bab, or as he was most frequently referred to at this stage in the history of the movement, Hadrat-i A'la (His Holiness the Most Exalted). But it should never be forgotten or lost sight of that the identity of Islam, whether Sunni or Shi'i, is formed in large measure by the dispute over the succes­sion to Muhammad referred to above, in which one side claims that the Prophet appointed no one to succeed him and another side claims that 'Ali was the true one from God.

Baha'u'llah further exalts the station of :Ali (the Bab) by calling him the 'King of the Messengers' (sultan al-nlsu~. There are two common words in Arabic for 'king': malik and sultan and while it might be thought that the designation sultan represents a lower level of sovereignty than malik, the fact that the Tablet of Al:tmad

1

I ! I

SEEING DOUBLE: Tf

opens with an invocc 'king' here is also c highest possible level of the few uses of tr the Baha'i writings ; note that Baha'u'lla rather calling him 11 of the same 'species' certainly clear that , the propagation and the divine Messenge

The station of t: deems his tablets to Book' referred to in commentaries with While anything app us far afield, it is pe broadest possible cc Mother Book or the ation. The books of sacred and transcer Bab's tablets as the from the previous : earlier revelations r; claim by Baha'u'llal to all appearances VI

to the Covenant of the Qur'an identifi, Imams.

A number of 01

the Covenant:

Thus doth the N deliver this clear and whosoever c

a people, if ye c it, a assemblage

Nay, by the One do this, even shc

IRLD'S RELIGIONS

between God and l only in potential

: ,e to recognize the l translation of this

ing, the Mighty, the od doth raise up on l upon the ways of

'eferring to the Bab at a time when the :hed to express his ~ Bab's Covenant­,ic dispensation. In mal, preccreational . ritative relationship md in Him Whom manu bi'llahi wa bi'l­lSt and the present the perfect tense, a o raise up' is in the )cess, continuous: it ntinue in the future. )' and it can refer to

tence, 'And that the : One from God ... . Book (umm al-kitdb) :ct references to the rom God' (huwa ~aqq rase 'His Book is the 'equently referred to lS Holiness the Most he identity of Islam, >ute over the succes­ms that tlle Prophet 'Ali was the true one

alling him tlle 'King words in Arabic for le designation sultan :he Tablet of Al)mad

'. I', ,:.

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TI\BLET OF AI:Il'v1.AD/Lawson

opens with an invocation in the name 'the King, the All-Knowing, the '!\Tise', where 'Icing' here is also al-sultan, suggests that for Baha'u'llah the word indicates the highest possible level of sovereignty. The word rasul is interesting as it represents one of the few uses of traditional Islamic terminology for what is usually referred to in the Baha'i writings as 'divine Manifestation'. It is interesting also in this regard to note that Baha'u'llah is not calling the Bab a divine Messenger (rasul altalz) but is rather calling him tlle King of tlle Messengers. Here, the King mayor may not be of tlle same 'species' as his subjects. However we [mally understand this epithet, it is certainly clear that as the King of tlle Messengers, tlle Bab is deeply implicated in the propagation and preservation of the divine Covenant that it is the main task of the divine Messengers to reiterate and reestablish in their respective communities.

The station of tlle Bab is perceived on an even higher plane when Baha'u'llah deems his tablets to be not 'merely' divine revelation but to be the actual 'Mother Book' referred to in the Qur'an at 3:7; I3:39; 43:4 and frequently associated in the commentaries with the PresenTed Tablet (lawzz ma!Jfo?,) mentioned at Qur'an 8Y22. While anything approaching a complete discussion of this designation would take us far afield, it is perhaps sufficient here to our purpose simply to characterize the broadest possible consensus on the meaning of these designations in Islam. The Mother Book or the Preserved Tablet is the 'heavenly archetype' of all divine revel­ation. The books of tlle Prophets (Torah, Gospel, Qur'an) are but reflections of this sacred and transcendent divine message. Thus, when Baha'u'llah designates the Bab's tablets as the Mother Book, he is saying that they are qualitatively different from the previous. scriptures in that they are paradoxically the source of these earlier revelations rather than the result. Such a dramatic and apparently illogical claim by Baha'u'llah about the writings of one who for all practical purposes and to all appearances was defeated by the world bespeaks an adamantine commitment to the Covenant of his predecessor. That this claim is done in the very language of tlle Qur'an identifies that Covenant with the Covenant of the Prophet and the Imams.

A number of other phrases in the Tablet of Al)mad also stand out as signs of tlle Covenant:

Thus doth the Nightingale utter His call unto you from this prison. He hath but to deliver iliis clear message. vVhosoever desireth, let him turn aside from this counsel and whosoever desireth let him choose the patll to his Lord.

o people, if ye deny these verses, by what proof have ye believed in God? Produce it, 0 assemblage of false ones.

Nay, by the One in ''''hose hand is my soul, they are not, and never shall be able to do this, even should they combine to assist one anotller.

55

56 THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

'Thus doth the Nightingale utter his call unto you'

The verbal phrase 'utter His call unto you' is the translation of a single compound Arabic word: yudhakkarukum. This word is derived from the basic root dh-k-r which also gives us the word dhikr, usually translated as 'remembrance'. It has been said that although Islam recognizes no original sin, it does recognize that human beings are forgetful and need to be reminded. Such a statement is based on the numerous and varied uses of this word dhikr and its derivatives in the Qur'an. It has been suggested that the word for human being, insan, is derived from the basic Arabic word nasiya meaning precisely 'to forget' .53 Whether or not this etymology is sound, the theological position of Islam and the Qur'an is unmistakable: mankind requires the periodic intervention of divine Messengers who come to remind them about their Covenant or 'contract' with God.54 When the Nightingale utters his call, he is actually reminding his listeners/readers of their obligations and duties. (cf. also the admonition elsewhere in the tablet to forget not: La tansa.)

'The path to his Lord'

There is probably no more pervasive metaphor in Islam than that of the path. Here the Arabic word is sabiL (this words occurs two other times in this tablet), a frequent Quranic word, occurring there in the singular form 112 times, often in contexts implying struggle and hardship as in 'Say not of those who are killed in the path of God that they are dead' (Qur'an 2:r54). Other words in the Qur'an for or indicating path or way are: manahij (5:48), manakib (6P5), rashada (2:r86), sawa' (2:ro8,5:r2) ~irrit/ ~irrit aL-mustaqim (passim), shari'al shir'a (45:18, 5:48), sunna (passim), tariq/ triqa (4:r68-g, 46:30; 20:63,ro4), yabas (20:77 'dry path in the sea'). These words, together with their companions 'guidance' and 'leading astray' form one of the central distinctive religious motifs of the Islamic religion. To be faithful to the Covenant means to be on the right path and vice versa. It would be impossible for a Muslim religious thinker to use such a word - or a Muslim audience to hear or read such a word - as sabil without making a conscious association with the truth of Islam and the Covenant it entails. Baha'u'llah's use of the word here is no excep­tion: the path of God is the same in this day as it was in the past.55

The challenge to those who deny the verses to produce a proof of their belief in God and the assurance that they will fail in this is a variation on the Quranic theme of ta~zar/4i or 'challenge', in which the enemies of the Prophet are challenged to produce a book or verses comparable to the Qur'an. That they cannot do so is understood in the context as a proof of the divine source of Muhammad's revela­tion. At Qur'an ITgo, for example, we find the following:

Say: If the whole of mankind and Jinn were to gather together to produce the like of this Qur'an, they could not produce the like thereof, even if they backed up each other with help and support (law kana ba'rjuhum Li-ba'rjin !-ahiran; cf Baha'u'llah's Law

SEEI.l\fG DOUBLE: n

yakunzt ba'rjuhzdn It in the Tablet of J

Say: Then bring that I may folIo\'.

Signs

The motif of signs ; tion. The Arabic WI

revelation, verses of from other forms o' function of these ay ('verses') or are in tl cate God and Goc illustrate this. The : The Bab's writings directly or refers to

Soon will We sh becomes manife witness over all (

The Qur'an may b, scripture56 which a nature and in the s( three contexts: natu reading will strive realms. The implic, that of reader of tr, sign as important i entails 'seeing doul: be in nature, in the drawn towards the One may read the sion of the change

To God belong God; God is All

Here it is importan tion. It has also bee way, and especially

'ORLD'S RELIGIONS

. a single compound ;ic root dh-k-T which ee'. It has been said ognize that human len t is based on the es in the Qur'an. It rived from the basic ~ not this etymology ill is unmistakable: ngers who come to God.54 When the

ers/readers of their the tablet to forget

ill that of the path. mes in this tablet), a 1 I 12 times, often in )se who are killed in rds in the Qur'an for mshada (2:186), sawci' 5:48), sunna (passim), in the sea'). These

g astray' form one of To be faithful to the uld be impossible for . audience to hear or :iation with the truth Tord here is no excep­)ast.55

proof of their belief ltion on the Quranic 'ophet are challenged : they cannot do so is Muhammad's revel a-

ler to produce the like if they backed up each zn; cf. Baha'u'llah's law

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF .A!:IMAD/Lawson

yakunu ba'tjulzum li-ba'¢in ?,alzimn - even should they combine to assist one another­in the Tablet of Al).mad) .

Say: Then bring ye a book from God which is a better guide than either of them that I may follow it if ye are truthful. (Qur'an 28:49; cf. also Qur'an 2:23-4)

Signs

The motif of signs and verses is also an important feature of the Islamic dispensa­tion. The Arabic word 4ya 'sign' (pI. 4yat) means both portent and verse of divine revelation, verses of poetry being referred to as bo;yt/ ab)lat to differentiate scripture from other forms of literature. The Qur'an is very specific about the nature and function of these cfycit whether they are in the form of divinely revealed language ('verses') or are in the form of created phenomena, when read correctly they indi­cate God and God's Covenant with humanity. A few Quranic quotations will illustrate this. The frrst is perhaps the most widely cited verse in this connection. The Bab's writings are full of references to it and Baha'u'llah either quotes it directly or refers to it many times as well.

Soon will We show them Our Signs in the horizons and in their own souls until it becomes manifest to them that this is the Truth. Is it not enough that thy Lord is witness over all created things? (Qur'an 41:53)

The Qur'an may be understood to say that in addition to the miraculous verses of scripture56 which are portents or signs of God, such signs are also deposited in nature and in the soul. Thus the reading of signs is to be done on three levels or in three contexts: nature, self! soul and revelation. The implication is that such a triple reading will strive to perceive the harmony obtaining throughout these various realms. The implication her~ is also that the primary station of tlle human being is that of reader of the world. In this act of reading, it is expected that one views the sign as important in that it indicates something beyond itself, so the reading act entails 'seeing double'. One must pay close attention to the given sign, which may be in nature, in the soul or in tlle Book. At the very same time, one's vision must be drawn towards the beyond-the-sign (God) in order for the reading to be accurate.57 One may read the famous Quranic verse, said to have been revealed on the occa­sion of the change in the direction of prayer (qiblah), as corroborating tllis point.

To God belong the East and the West; whithersoever you turn, tllere is tlle Face of God; God is All-embracing; All-knowing. (Qur'an 2:I 15)

Here it is important to note that the Arabic word wojlz (Face) also can mean direc­tion. It has also been translated in this context as 'Presence'. When understood this way, and especially in connection with another important verse:

57

58 THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

Supplicate no other god save God. There is no god but He. Everything that exists is perishing except His Face. (Qur'an 28:88)

the Qur'an says that the way to God is eternal while the various phenomena that indicate Him are in a process of change. His eternity is suggested in the very pres­ence of evanescence. Thus we have another species of seeing double and one that is very common to our modes of perception. A thing is known by its opposite: heat through cold, left through right and so on.s8 Perceiving heat entails also perceiving, or at least remembering the perception of, cold.

Elsewhere the Qur'an reiterates its 'theory' of signs:

On the earth are Signs for those of assured faith. As also in your own souls, will ye not then perceive? And in heaven is your sustenance, as also that which ye are promised. Then, by the Lord of heaven and earth, this is the very Truth as much as the fact that ye can speak intelligently to each other. (Qur'an 51:20-3)

A final lengthier quotation is included because it represents a powerful example of the relational and self-referential dynamics of reading. Here the Qur'an, repre­senting a distinct category of signs, uses its signs to illuminate the signs of nature and the soul. The lesson seems to be that the triple reading of phenomena, self and Book must be coordinated first of all by reference to the Book.

It is God Who causeth the seed-grain and the date-stone to split and sprout. He causeth the living to issue from tlle dead and He is the One to cause the dead to issue from the living. That is God. Then how are ye deluded away from the Truth?

He it is that cleaveth the day-break (from the dark): He makes the night for rest and tranquillity, and the sun and moon for the reckoning (of time). Such is the jUdgement and ordering of (Him) the Exalted in Power, the Omniscient.

It is He who maketh the stars as beacons for you, that you may guide yourselves with their help through the dark spaces of land and sea. We detail Our Signs for people who lmow.

It is He Who hath produced you from a single soul. Here is a place of abiding and a place of departure: We detail Our Signs for people who understand.

It is He who sendeth down rain from the skies: With it vVe produce vegetation of all kinds. From some We produce green crops out of which vVe produce grain heaped up at harvest. Out of ilie date-palm and its spailies come clusters of dates hanging low and near. And then there are gardens of grapes, and olives and pomegranates. Each similar in kind yet different in variety. When they begin to bear fruit feast your eyes with the fruit and the ripeness thereof. Behold! In these things are Signs for people who believe. (Qur'an 6:95-9)

SEEING DOUBLE: TI-

The Covenant is eS1

signs indicate is nonl hermeneutic circle, . such references and guarded and protect the more obvious OJ

to be read in two rei zontal' reading. Eac a second direction: verbal or rhetorical known in the 'sub-h mqjazz) is precisely tl of God and God's Ie of divine love. Of ( with one eye, as it VIi

either distorted or : described in the Ha of this paper, as ha: the cause of or caw double. In the folIo' is quite unambiguol

Know ye that he is an ignorant s" outer meaning i~ with the outer IT

'A service in bod

Another reference tl is 'ibadat al-thaqala:J!1 servant/ slave, as in Al:tinad it is an ;ibs translation of this f second word, thaqall study and meditati thaqalayn is in the ( baggage'. Cast in t refers to three or r weight for measurir does appear once ir

Soon shall vVe : 55:31, Yusuf Ali

\>\'ORLD'S RELIGIONS

Everything that exists

lOus phenomena that :sted in the very pres­: double and one that 1 by its opposite: heat ntails also perceiving,

Jromised. th as much as the fact

I)

powerful example of e the Qur'an, repre­:e the signs of nature phenomena, self and k.

J split and sprout. He e to cause the dead to luded away from the

lakes the night for rest (of time). Such is the Omniscient. 1 may guide yourselves e detail Our Signs for

'e is a place of abiding b.o understand. life produce vegetation .ich We produce grain come clusters of dates rapes, and olives and : When they begin to :reof. Behold! In these

:1

~ '.'Ii ,,' <j

:.:,:'1 "',,_

SEELNG DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AJ':llv1AD/Lawson

The Covenant is established through revelation (verses/signs) and that which the signs indicate is none other than the divine and the Covenant implied thereby - the hermeneutic circle, if you please. Tlu'oughout the Tablet of A.Q.mad are numerous such references and hints to the Covenant of Islam instituted by Muhammad and guarded and protected by His progeny, the Imams. We have only discussed a few of the more obvious ones. The important point here is that these clues and hints are to be read in two registers at once: the Islamic and the Baha'i, a historical or 'hori­zontal' reading. Each 'sign' as we have stated repeatedly is also to be read doubly in a second direction: 'gothicly' or vertically as metaphor. Metaphor is not merely a verbal or rhetorical device but a strategy through which divine Truth is made known in the 'sub-lunar' realm. 59 In the mystical tradition, metaphorical love (Cislzq megazi) is precisely the love hetween human beings; real love (Cislzq (zaqiqz) is the love of God and God's love for humanity. Human love is a bridge (mega;;:;) to the real goal of divine love. Of course these signs and verses may be read in only one register, with one eye, as it were. However, if this is done then the message of Baha'u'llah is either distorted or negated altogether. The 'Islamic Antichrist' - al-Dajjal - was described in the Hadith by the Prophet Muhammad, which is quoted at the head of this paper, as having only one eye. This indicates that evil is implicated (either the cause of or caused) by a refusal or inability to see clearly with two eyes - to see double. In the following provisional translation of the Surat aI-shams, Baha'u'llah is quite unambiguous about how to read:

Know ye that he who clings to the outer meaning and abandons the inner meaning is an ignorant savage and he who clings to the inner meaning and abandons the outer meaning is a negligent one. But he who takes the inner meaning in harmony with the outer meaning, that one has perfect awareness. Go

'A service in both worlds' (al-thaqalayn)

Another reference to the Covenant is the phrase 'service in both worlds'. The Arabic is Cibddat al-tlzaqalq)l1Z. The fIrst word here is derived ii'om the same word as cabd, servant/slave, as in 'Abdu'l-Baha, 'Servant of Baha'. In this form in the Tablet of A.Q.mad it is an abstract noun: servitude/service. Thus, Shoghi Effendi's choice in translation of this fIrst word is quite straightforward. His choice in translating the second word, tlzaqalq)l1Z, as 'both worlds' is not quite so transparent and invites serious study and meditation. Interestingly enough for the present discussion, the word tlzaqalq)11Z is in the dual number. 51 The singular noun tlzaqal means 'burden, load, baggage'. Cast in the dual Jorm it simply means two of these. (The plural, itlzqal, refers to three or more. The word mitlzqal is derived from this root and means a weight for measuring - for example, a quantity of gold or silver.) The word tlzaqalq)11Z does appear once in the Qur'anG2 in the Sura of the Merciful (suratu r-ra(zman):

Soon shall We settle your affairs, 0 bOtl1 ye worlds (q)i)lulza 'tlz-tlzaqalanz)! (Qur'an 55:31, Yusuf Ali translation)

59

60 THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

This sura is distinguished by its rhyme, predominantly in -an, which also happens to be the grammatical suffIx indicating the dual number. Thus the word tlzaqalan fits perfectly into this rhyme scheme. It is also distinguished by the frequent refrain: 'Which of the favours of your Lord will ye deny?' The sura has a highly incanta­tory form and its contents are very poetic, musical and mystical. It is thought to be one of the early IvIeccan suras. As Yusuf Ali so astutely observes:

Here the special theme is indicated by the refrain. The rhyme in most cases is in the Dual grammatical form, and the Argument implies that though things are created in pairs, there is an underlying Unity, through the Creator, in the favours which He bestows, and in the goal to which they are marching. 63

Nonetheless, the precise meaning of tlzaqaltin is far from clear. 6't The most frequent explanation is that it refers to the two burdensome groups: mankind and jinn. As we see in Yusuf Ali's translation, the two groups are· taken as symbolic of two worlds: one visible, the other invisible. However, the world of jinn, as understood by Muhammad's audience, would not have been a paradise, rather it was an inter­realm where both the virtuous and the mischievous and even malevolent beings known as jinn pursued their separate destinies. There is no evidence that the world of jinn, just because it was invisible to humans, was therefore also the hereafter or paradise (or in Baha'i terms, the Abha. Kingdom). Such an idea would be unthink­able. However, when Yusuf Ali transrates al-tlzaqalayn as 'both worlds' he is counting on his reader being familiar with the immediate context which mentions specifically men and jinn several times (Qur' an 55: 14, 15, 33, 39, 56, 74) so that there can be no doubt about what is intended by Yusuf Ali's 'both worlds'. A short excerpt from this sura, indicating the presence of the controlling rhyme -an mentioned above, will further illuminate the matter:

26 All that is on earth will perish (jan) 27 But will abide (forever) the face of thy Lord - full of majesty, Bounty and

Honour (al-ikram) 28 Then which of the favours of your Lord win ye deny? (tukadlzdhiban) 29 Of Him seeks (its need)' every creature in the heavens and on earth: every day

in (new) splendour doth He (shine)! (slzaOn) 30 Then which of the favours of your Lord win ye deny? (tukadhdhiban) 31 Soon shall We settle your affairs 0 both ye worlds! (al-thaqaltin) 32 Then which of the favours of your Lord will ye deny? (tukadlzdlziban) 33 0 ye assembly of Jinns and men! If it be ye can pass beyond the zones of the

heavens and the earth, pass ye! Not without authority will ye be able to pass! (sultan)

34 Then which of the favours of your Lord will ye deny? (tukadlzdlziban)

Yusuf Ali's note to this verse is worth quoting:

SEEmG DOUBLE: n

Thaqal: weight, S'

thaqalas are {tlle before our eyes} hold, with sin.* ' conducted under of balance, that ~ a chance in th~ p will be establishe favour, by which'

Another important Khumm quoted ab< that the word appe slightly different prc

[lVIuharnmad] g; summoned and: me to depart fro: tlzaqalayn) which, of God and my < until they lead y<

The relevance this I refers to the two thi the Our'an and th successive Guardia! These two things, Muhammad's own Muhammad was p: the covenant-breakl

,I I·' , 6 for tlzaqa IS army. the ~adit1z al-thaqalq protecting tlle corr.· dissension. Such an widest possible are, Islam (dar aI-islam),

The Shi'i Qur'; thaqaldn of the Qur prophetic Hadith, ' refers to the world, 'two worlds' ~ not the Hildith al-thaqalc Effendi has transla1 Shi'i understandine

WORLD'S RELIGIONS

2, which also happens s the word thaqalan fits the frequent refrain: has a highly incanta­

::al. It is thought to be ryes:

1IIle in most cases is in hat though things are Creator, in the favours ing. 63

.. 64 The most frequent nankind and jinn. As 1 as symbolic of two )f jinn, as understood rather it was an inter­·en malevolent beings lidence that the world :: also the hereafter or lea would be unthink­worlds' he is counting I mentions specifically ) that there can be no hort excerpt from this nentioned above, will

esty, Bounty and

lkadhdhibrin) .d on earth: every day

lkadhdhiblm) zqalan) tkadhdhibrin) lond the zones of the .yilJ. ye be able to pass!

Ikadhdhibrin)

SEEl.L'l"G DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AJ:llvIAD/Lawson

Thaqal: weight, something weight)s something weighed with something else. The two thaqalas are {the two worlds of} Jinns and men, {the unseen world and the world before our eyes} *who are burdened with responsibility or, as some commentators hold, with sin.* They are both before {GOd}*Allall*, and the affairs of both are conducted under His Command. If there are inequalities or apparent disturbances of balance, that is only for a season. {God} * Allah* gives to both good and evil men a chance in this period of probation; but this period will soon be over, and Judgement will be established. To give you this chance, tllls probation, tllls warning, is itself a favoUl~ by which you should profIt, and for which you should be grateful. (R)65

Another important occurrence of the dual of thaqal is in tlle Sermon of Ghaclir Khumm quoted above. For convenience, I will cite tlle relevant passage here. Note that the word appears in a different grammatical case in this instance, giving a slightly different pronunciation.

[Muhammad] gave the community news of IllS own death, saying: 'I have been summoned and it is nearly the moment for me to answer. The time has come for me to depart from you. I leave behind me among you two all-important things (al­thaqalayn) which, if you cleave to tllem, you will never go astray - that is the Book of God and my offspring from my family (ahl al-bqyt). They will never abandon you until tlley lead you to me at tlle (sacred) waters (of Heaven).,66

The relevance this passage has for a study of the Covenant is obvious. Al-thaqalqyn refers to the two things most valuable for maintaining faithfulness to the Covenant: the Qur'an and the progeny of the Prophet who have been designated as the successive Guardians (awlb1a, sing. walz) of the Cause of God and the Covenant. 67

These two things, moreovel~ are stipulated as 'bequests' in this Tradition, as Muhammad's own Covenant or testament «aM), since, according to the Shi'a, Muhammad was prevented from committing His will and testament to paper by the covenant-breakers. It is interesting to observe here that an alternate translation for thaqal is 'army'. 68 Thus it maybe possible to understand Muhammad's words in the ~adith al-thaqalC9i72 as designating the Qur'an and the Imams as two armies protecting the community from the various enemies of covenant-brealcing and dissension. Such armies would also aid the believers in their task of establishing the widest possible area for the practice of Islam, known technically as the Abode of Islam (dar al-islam), and also as the Abode of the Covenant (dar al-<alzd).69

The Shi'i Qur'an commentaries consulted for this article all equate the word tlzaqalan of the Qur'an verse 55:31 with 'tlle two precious things' mentioned in the prophetic Hadith, although Muhsin FaY9 Kashani adds his opinion that the word refers to tlle world of jinn and men. vVhether tllis means that it also refers to these 'two worlds' is not raisedJo That Baha'u'llah himself affIrmed the significance of the Hadith al-tlzaqalqyn is clear from his quoting it in tlle Kitab-i-iqan. Here Shoghi Effendi has translated thaqalqyn as 'twin weighty testimonies' in line with tl1e usual Shi'i understanding of this dual nounJ1

61

THE BAHA'I FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

The nominative dual usage in sura 55:3I is of special interest because of the great discrepancy between the interpretations of this verse throughout Islamic history and the related phrase in the Tablet of Al).mad which the Guardian has translated as 'a service in both worlds'. Grammatically, Baha'u'llah's 'ibddat al­thaqalayn might also be translated as 'a service to both worlds' or 'authorities' - the Book and the teacher IImam - since the preposition 'in' (fl) does not occur here. Thus the meaning might also be: For the one who chants this Tablet, God will give the reward of a hundred martyrs and the rank of having served faithfully both of the 'two precious things'. That is, the one who sincerely believes that which is stated in the Tablet of Al).mad has be.en true to the Qur'an, to the Prophet and to the Imams - to the 'Islamic' Covenant, even if it appears otherwise.

The purpose in drawing attention to this translation question is to highlight another aspect of the relationship between the Baha'i Faith and Islam. Shoghi Effendi's enrichment of a standard symbol of the Islamic Covenant, by departing from the traditional understanding of a single word, is characteristic of the way in which the Baha'i Faith has become distinct and has acquired an identity which may be best described as post-Islamic.

Reading as Sacrantent

Over 25 years ago John Hatcher published an essay in which he discussed basic Baha'i presuppositions about what it means to be in the worldJ2 From what has been said about the theory of signs above, that this essay is 'apparently' about the nature of reading will be quite understandable since we have seen how the act of reading signs has immediate existential implications.73 Essential here is what might otherwise be thought a mere literary figure, the metaphorical process. However, Hatcher demonstrated in his article the profound connections between being, spir­itual growth and reading that are assumed in the Baha'i teachings. In order to make his point as clear as possible, he painstalcingly described the structure of metaphor, which entails three elements: I) 'the tenoT, that which is being described'; 2) 'the vehicle, that which is compared to the tenor; and 3) the meaning, that area of similarity between the tenor and the vehicle.'74 So, in the famous simile 'My love is lil(e a red red rose', the tenor is 'My love', the vehicle is the 'red red rose' and the meaning is what occurs in the mind when the comparison is struck. It may be added here that for all practical purposes the tenor in the metaphorical process is lil<:e the 'x' in an algebraic equation, waiting to be discovered through the process. In other words, it is unlmown and to a large extent unseen, unimagined and unthought until the metaphor is generated. Unlike the algebraic 'x', however, the value that is discovered through the metaphorical process is not quantifiable. The metaphorical 'equation' yields a field of meaning rather than an integer. The tenor, then, is seen and known in the way the author of the metaphor wishes us to know and see it in such a field of meaning. In his remarkable article, Hatcher explicates in masterful and engaging fashion how the Baha'i tablets insist that the author of creation, God, wishes this handiwork to be perceived in and through the metaphorical process.

SEEING DOUBLE: TH

The reader or list complete the fina: for determining il

This basic propositic 'a safeguard against is a living and chang creative imagination mind imagines in a ( this metaphorical e\ metaphor . . .'77 Fu would seem irrevers matter how metaph(

The point is that always be mon phenomenal wor individual. Socie' honesty, and as implementing th:

The physical mel part of man's effc means by which 1

by which he may the process of : completely relin, conception of sp

The source of this 't locates in none othe

... human ImoVl to the senses ... reality of the int( to the senses . . station - one is because in the 0

happiness are in1 you say: 'My hea is neither oppres which you are 01 say, 'such an ind place; or again, '

''''ORLD'S RELIGIONS

lterest because of the e throughout Islamic ich the Guardian has aha'u'llah's 'ibddat al­, or 'authorities' - the I does not occur here. ; Tablet, God will give rved faithfully both of !es that which is stated le Prophet and to the nse. lestion is to highlight th and Islam. Shoghi ovenant, by departing .cteristic of the way in an identity which may

.ch he discussed basic )rld.72 From what has apparently' about the 'e seen how the act of ial here is what might cal process. However, .s between being, spir­ings. In order to make tructure of metaphor, ng described'; 2) 'the that area of similarity

: 'My love is like a red ie' and the meaning is ay be added here that ess is lilee the 'x' in an ~ess. In other words, it I unthought until the 'alue that is discovered etaphorical 'equation'

... en, is seen and known d see it in such a field Iasterful and engaging tion, God, wishes tllis process.

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AJ:1MAD/Lawson

The reader or listener must be made to tllink, to be a bit creative, because he must complete the final and most important part of the process himself He is responsible for determining in what way tlle tenor and the vehicle are similar./5

This basic proposition about the perception and reading of existence and reality is 'a safeguard against dogulatism'76 precisely because a metaphor, by its very nature, is a living and changing entity owing to its utter dependence for its life on the active, creative imagination of the human mind. Just as each mind is different, so each mind imagines in a distinctive fashion. 'My point is not to assigl1 one translation to tllis metaphorical event . . . to affrx one meaning violates the very nature of tlle metaphor ... '77 Furthermore, this individual reading act has profound (and it would seem irreversible) implications for society. It is not solely a private act, no matter how metaphorical:

The point is that there is no final or complete perception of the abstraction; it can always be more acutely perceived or more exquisitely dramatized in the phenomenal world. Of course, the idea of limitless growth is not confined to the individual. Society itself can manifest a collective awareness of authority, justice, honesty, and as its awareness of these attributes expands, society is capable of implementing that understanding more completely in social action.78

The physical metaphor, .. functions on this plane as an integral and inextricable part of man's efforts to fulfil his primary goal, spiritual development. It provides the means by which he perceives spiritual qualities in the first place and it is the means by which he may express and acquire that attribute once it is understood, Even as the process of spiritual growth attains higher levels of response, man never completely relinquishes on this plane the reciprocal relationship between the conception of spirituality and tlle implementation through metaphorical act.79

The source of this 'theory of reacling' - which is really a theory of being - Hatcher locates in none other than 'Abdu'l-Balla's Some Answered Questions:

... human knowledge is of two kinds. One is the knowledge of things perceptible to the senses ... The other kind of knowledge is intellectual - that is to say, it is a reality of the intellect; it has no outward form and no place, and is not perceptible to the senses ... Therefore to explain the reality of the spirit, its condition, its station - one is obliged to give explanations under the forms of sensible tllings, because in the sensible world all that exists is sensible. For example, grief and happiness are intellectual things; when you wish to express those spiritual qualities YOi.l say: 'My heart is oppressed; [orJmy heart is dilated', tl16ligh the heart brman is neither oppressed nor dilated. This is an intellectual or spiritual state, to explain which you are obliged to have recourse to sensible figures. Anotller example: you sa)~ 'such an individual made great progress', tllOugh he is remaining in the same place; or again, 'such a one's position was exalted', altllOugh like everyone else, he

THE BAHA.'I FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

walks upon the earth. This exaltation and this progress are spiritual states and intellectual realities, but to explain them you are obliged to have recourse to sensible figures because in the exterior world there is nothing that is not sensible.

So the symbol of knowledge is light, and of ignorance, darkness; but reflect, is knowledge sensible light, or ignorance sensible darkness? No, they are merely symbols. 80

It is the 'metaphorical act' or event that has been the proper topic of this paper, the place where seeing double, or the double vision, occurs because in order for the metaphor to be 'enacted' or initiated (and in some sense to be emboclied) the subject must be looking at two things at once, or almost at once - a difficult but quintessentially human accomplishment. 81

The Muslim mystical tradition, out of which the Baha'i Faith is seen to have been born, has long recognized this as an axiom of epistemology in the veneration of such Holy Traditions as: 'The Paths to God are as numerous as the souls of the believers.' Thus each reader Ibeliever will engage -with the text in a very personal and intimate way. When the double vision is in play, a certain degree of confusion or amphiboly can occur. This means that the tenor and the vehicle become 'confused'.82 Amphiboly, as Corbin explained, is a cardinal axiom of the mystical and poetic tradi­tion; as such, it is relevant to the Baha'i corpus. It may be understood through the example he gives. HafIz, whom many consider the greatest Persian mystic poet, has generated much controversy over the problem of interpreting his wine poetry liter­ally or figuratively. The question, as Corbin points out, is badly conceived, since it is a matter of the othervvise transcendent (or as ~bdu'l-Baha preferred, 'spiritual or intellectual' truth) having been clothed so that it might be visible, accessible. And in this, the clothing also acquires something of the Truth. But the 'clothing' - not only the Truth itself - is also prone to being misunderstood and confused and confusing.83

Amplzibo[y

This is that which hath descended from the realm of glory, uttered by the tongue of power and might, and revealed unto the Prophets of old. We have taken the inner essence thereof arid clothed it inthe'gaiment of brevity, as a token of grace unto the righteous, that they may stand faithful unto the Covenant of God, may fulfil in their lives His trust, and in the realm of spirit obtain the gem of Divine virtue.8,.

In this well-known introduction to his Hidden Words Baha'u'llah employs the metaphor of clothing to illumine the status, function and purpose of this brief work. Whether or not there is any direct connection or relationship, it will help explicate further the theme of seeing double by referring to a similar metaphor used by the famous and influential 13th-century Iranian mystic Ruzbihan BaqH Shirazi (see p. 48) in his attempts to elucidate the method by which the Unknowable becomes known. In fact, Ruzbihan uses exactly the same metaphor of clothing, but whereas Baha'u'llah uses a word based on the root q-m-J, in this case the metaphor

.', SEEING DOUBLE: TH

is based on the root divine Truth is 'disgu renowned scholar of

Ruzbihan becom suffering, his year: in created forms, tradition, he sees created world in ( [primordial] Day

The scholar responsi standing of Islamic : uses the word amphi suited to its purpose becomes susceptible words used, but bec killing of the lions w: the double meaning~ of the statement itse of the very structure Oudsi: 'I desired to ~d I was known. ,89 rial world is essentia: as a means for huma creation and God ar amphibolous nature iltibris is precisely 'co be known but His t

attributes, His ener~ creative act, that is t

mere material phen( becomes a vehicle £ Baha'u'llah himself

. .. the light of c the essence of at of knowledge hat made manifest.91

Prior to using, say, Guardianship,92 the of the divine, the 1

mundane register. T

~ WORLD'S RELIGIONS

are spiritual states and :d to have recow'se to ng that is not sensible. darkness; but reflect, is

? No, they are merely

topic of this paper, the cause in order for the to be embodied) the once - a difficult but

,ith is seen to have been the veneration of such

: souls of the believers.' . personal and intimate onfusion or amphiboly become 'confused'. 82

y'stical and poetic tradi­nderstood through the ersian mystic poet, has g his wine poetry liter­ly conceived, since it is preferred, 'spiritual or ible, accessible. And in le 'clothing' - not only 1fused and confusing. 83

lttered by the tongue of Ve have taken the inner l a token of grace unto nt of God, may fulfIl in m of Divine virtue.84

ha'u'llah employs the purpose of this brief lationship, it will help :0 a similar metaphor lystic Ruzbihan Baqli vhich the Unknowable :aphor of clothing, but :his case the metaphor

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AJ:IMAD/Lawson

is based on the root l-b-s and the operative word is iltibcis 'disguised' or 'veiled'; divine Truth is 'disguised' in phenomenal 'signs,.85 In elucidating this metaphor, the renowned scholar of Islamic mysticism Annemarie Schimmel has written:

Ruzbihan becomes enraptured when he speaks of his own experiences, of his suffering, his yearning for beauty. The iltibds, the concealment of pre eternal beauty in created forms, is the theme of his meditations; faithful to the classical SufI tradition, he sees in love the effort to break once more through the limits of the created world in order to reach the state of true [Divine Unity] as it existed at the [primordial] Day of the Covenant.86

The scholar responsible for insisting on the importance of Ruzbihan for an under­standing of Islamic mysticism was the above-mentioned Henry Corbin.87 Corbin uses the word amphiboly to translate iltibds and it is felt that this choice is admirably suited to its purpose.88 Amphiboly occurs in logic, for example, when a statement becomes susceptible of two meanings, not because of the double meaning of the words used, but because of the construction of the sentence. For example: 'The killing of the lions was swift and merciful.' Thus, logical amphiboly depends not on the double meanings of elements in the statement (ambiguity) but on the structure of the statement itself. Similarly, creation is susceptible of two 'meanings' because of the very structure of Being or Existence. This structure is related to the Hadith Qudsi: 'I desired to be known, therefore I created creation in order to be known and I was known.,89 The meaning of this statement for Ruzbihan is that the mate­rial world is essential as a means of knowing Truth or God or Absolute Being and as a means for humanity to know the Truth. This is much different from saying that creation and God are the same. Such a confusion is quite understandable given the amphibolous nature of the cosmos.go Indeed, one of the connotations of the word iltibcis is precisely 'confusion'. God created the phenomenal world in order that He be lmown but His transcendence is such that He can never be truly lmown. His attributes, His energy, if you will, can be detected through the 'residue' of His creative act, that is to say 'all created things'. That this is so elevates immeasurably mere material phenomena to a status otherwise unanticipated. Each created thing becomes a vehicle for the knowledge of God, an 'embodiment' of divine virtue. Baha'u'llah himself says exactly tl1e same thing in The Book qf Certitude:

... the light of divine knowledge and heavenly grace hath illumined and inspired the essence of all created things, in such wise that in each and every thing a door of knowledge hath been opened, and within every atom traces of the sun hath been made manifest.9'

Prior to using, say, a tree to stand for proXlffilty to God, the Covenant and Guardianship,92 the tree is merely a tree. By using the tree to stand for some aspect of the divine, the revelation transforms (or transposes) nature from its worldly, mundane register. Through tl1e process of divine manifestation (tajalli, ?,uhur), which

65

66 THE BAHA'f FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

paradoxically depends upon the material realm and the human sensorium,93 this material realm is transmuted by association, as if the divine energy charging through it actually transfigures it. The tree, by virtue of its participation in the Unknown, the Divine Hiddenness, the Invisible realm, the Holy Silence, becomes charged with the electricity of this Other Realm. And so the phenomenal world is spiritualized (which may be thought to be different from divinized) in the soul or the imagination of the observer, reader, believer. Nature read in this manner becomes impossible to participate in without being brought into contact - however tenta­tively - with holiness, sacredness, divinity. As one scholar explains, the phenomenal realm - in the spiritualized consciousness - becomes transparent and the divine light now is perceived as shining through all created things. 94 But this light needs to be seen by humans ('God desired to be known'). By human perception being 'drawn through' nature during the metaphorical process, nature is also humanized. The world becomes a Holy Land by being humanized.95

Divine love requires a human reality; Divine Unity requires a divine reality. This situation gives rise to possible confusion, a misreading of the world which sees either nothing beyond matter or the essence of God in the material realm (a frequent misinterpretation of mysticism).96 The double vision sees matter qua matter, an invaluable and indispensable vehicle for the truth and detects also the transcendent Truth that actually enlivens matter. The experience of ultimate Meaning or Truth must also be referred to through symbols and images precisely because its abstract reality is incommunicable and inaccessible. Ruzbihan frequently referred to this inner Reality as the betrothed or bride; in such a metaphor; the intensity of the experience of the perception of Meaning is likened to the intensity of the experience of physical love in marriage.97 It would seem that Baha'u'llah himself is speaking out of this tradition in those places in the Kitab-i­iqan where he refers to the 'brides of inner meaning' .98 In Arabic the idea of esoteric meaning is also etymologically associated with the feminine since the word bripin, 'inner meaning, esoteric dimension', is derived from the word for womb (batrz). Indeed, one may see the presence of this tradition of associating the feminine with true meaning in the several works devoted by Baha'u'llah to the 'Maid of Heaven' who, it will be recalled, was the agent of his revelation in the first place.99 Thus Baha'u'llah's encounterwitl1 the 'Maid of Heaven'may be intended to be under­stood as an encounter with Absolute Meaning, or the lil(e. fOo

The Manifestations of God (that is to say, Prophets and Messengers and perhaps Guardians, awliyd fOl

) are the guides to this way of reading/seeing. Ruzbilian says that it is through these beings, 'ignored by the mass of humanity', that God sees the world and that they are the eyes by which creation beholds God. IOO They are ignored because that which acts as the place of manifestation, the particular phenomenon, can also act as a veil (multabis). Indeed, one of the more remarkable qualities of a veil is that it reveals and conceals simultaneously: by its very presence it indicates a reality that is being hidden. Siyyid Kazim Rashti, in a passage very much in line with the teachings of Baha'u'llah as found in the Swat al-shams mentioned above, refers to a similar way of seeing in discussing the

l: " .~ ! II

~ ! , ! ~ i

I I I \

I I

i ! I

SEEING DOUBLE: n

process of manifest: tions of divine unil manifestations of gt:

both their specific ~ authority a series of said, 'I am the City rates this idea:

And Our comm. see no disharmOl from any other tl

Sohewhon two aspects in or not in three, is a the aspects of th, or the City. But access [to the H,

'The NightingalE Eternity'

Such a beautiful im of the Bab and Ba with creation, indi( article. As the Bab

Verily We have being concernin binding comma

Thus time and eter double. This seeing the world. Whether nature of human p tendency to percei, features of thoughl opposition (unity/n hot/ cold; present/; so on) we are condi phenomenon we el symbolon, 'that brokl them, to old bond contract, a significatiOi world itself is that 1

: WORLD'S RELIGIONS

.man sensorium,93 this vine energ-y· charging ts participation in the ioly Silence, becomes : phenomenal world is lized) in the soul or the this manner becomes

[tact - however tenta­lains, the phenomenal parent and the divine But this light needs to nan perception being ure is also humanized.

Iuires a divine reality. f the world which sees :he material realm (a ision sees matter qua h and detects also the :perience of ultimate : and images precisely :tccessible. Ruzbihan

or bride; in such a :)f Meaning is lileened :.97 It would seem that places in the Kitab-i­:n Arabic the idea of minine since the word word for womb (batn). ting the feminine with the 'Maid of Heaven' the fIrst place.99 Thus ntended to be under-

and Messengers and y of reading/seeing. .e mass of humanity', lich creation beholds : of manifestation, the eed, one 6ftherriore simultaneously: by its .d Kazim Rashti, in a as found in the Surat ing in discussing the

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT Al\TD THE TABLET OF AJ:IMAD/Lawson

process of manifestation and its veiling. He says that some people are manifesta­tions of divine unity, others are manifestations of prophethood and others are manifestations of guardianship in the realm of nature. But all are manifestations of both their specific stations and the whole 'process' simultaneously. Taking as his authority a series of Quranic verses and the famous Hadith in'Nhich Muhammad said, 'I am the City (or House) of knowledge and 'Ali is its gate', he further elabo­rates this idea:

And Our command (amrunO) is but one (wa~idatun) [Qur'an 54:50] ... ; Thou can see no disharmony in the creation of the Merciful [Qur'an 67:3] ... ; If it had been from any other than God they would have therein much disharmony [Qur'ill1 472].

So he who recognizes only one aspect is one-eyed and he who recognizes [only] two aspects in one is cross-eyed. But he who recognizes them all in one aspect, and not in three, is a true seer (b~irun krimilun) ... Know that the gates of the gate and the aspects of the threshold are all one, when you consider what is inside the House or the City. But if the sight is turned only to the gates (ila nqft al-abwab), then the access [to the House] will disappear and the way will become blocked.103

'The Nightingale of Paradise singeth upon the twigs of the Tree of Eternity'

Such a beautiful image can also indicate, in addition to the time-bound Covenants of the Bab and Baha'u'llah, the timeless Covenant of the marriage of Meaning with creation, indicated in the Quranic verse discussed at the beginning of this article. As the Bab says in the Qayyu.m al-asma, echoing this Quranic language:

Verily We have taken a covenant from every created thing upon its coming into being concerning the Remembrance of God, and there shall be none to avert the binding command of God for the purification of mankind ... 10

4

Thus time and eternity are gathered together in the individual sign or verse: seeing double. This seeing double is constantly reinforced in our experience of duality in the world. vVhetller in tlle thought of Heraclitus or the moving lament on the binary nature of human perception in the Phaedo, it has long been acknowledged that our tendency to perceive polarities in our experience is one of tlle chief distinguishing features of thought and perception.105 By virtue of our experience of duality and opposition (unity/multiplicity; whole/partial; inner/outer; past/ present; up/down; hot/ cold; present/ absent; black/white; friend/enemy; good/bad, faith/reason and so on) we are conditioned to instinctively posit tlle 'other half' or 'other side' of each phenomenon we encounter. Indeed, the word 'symbol' stems from the Greek word SJ1mbolon, 'tllat broken object, the two halves of which bear witness, for tllose holding tllem, to old bonds between tllemselves or their families; but it also sigl1ifies sign, contract, a signification that is undecipherable without its counterpart'. 106 In a sense, tlle world itself is that broken object. Its other half is tlle transcendent realm.

68 THE BAHA.'f FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

Such duality is another feature of seeing double because the basic binary mode of perception is constantly reinforced by our experience of the myriad dual­ities of existence. The reader 'sees double' when reading but habitually does not register this all-important perspective or approach at the conscious level. By discussing it here, I wish to draw out the workings of the reading act to the realm of awareness, not in order to 'explain away' the inherent power of the act but to permit us to be more mindful and therefore to participate more fully in the act, to understand reading as an experience akin to what the Christian tradition I07 calls a sacrament.

'Seeing double', a term frequently used to describe someone who has become intoxicated, is a perfect term in this context, although the intoxication or inebria­tion is of a special kind. Baha'is are familiar with the various instances of wine imagery throughout the Baha'i scriptures (another legacy of the Islamicate literary tradition). Indeed, the innumerable uses of the symbol by Baha'u'llah calls out for a separate study.lOB One example will suffice here. In his biographical eulogy of Ustad Isma'il, 'Abdu'l-Baha cites the ode of Rumi that Baha'u'llith had written down specifically for this early staunch believer, an ode he further instructed Ustad Isma'il to chant while facing towards the Bab. The frrst two stanzas are:

-1 I am lost, 0 Love, possessed and dazed, Love's fool am I, in all the earth. They call me frrst among the crazed, Though I once came frrst for wit and worth.

o Love, who sellest me this wine, o Love, for whom I burn and bleed, Love, for whom I cry and pine -Thou the Piper, I the reed. 109

The paradox (seeing double) here is that this intoxication enables one to see things as they are, rather than in the distorted way associated with 'physical' drunkenness. The motto here would then be 'In truth, wine', rather than the traditional 'In wine , . . ... , truth'(in vino veritiis). ParadoxicaIly,also, such duality and amphiboly produce certi­tude so that duality somehow becomes the antithesis of ambiguity in the sense of indeterminacy and vagueness. By searching for the 'brides of inner sig11ificance' the reader declares belief in a Covenant that guarantees meaning and purpose in the world, a reason for our suffering and a promise for the future, a future which is, at the same time, the bride of inner meaning. lIO

Conclusion

It is evident unto thee that the Birds of Heaven and Doves of Eternity speak a twofold language. One language, the outward language, is devoid of allusions, is unconcealed and unveiled; that it may be a guiding lamp and a beaconing light

SEEING DOUBLE: n

whereby wayfare into the realm of verses already IT

whatever lieth hi their innermost 1

It is important to d ances to the contrar Baha'i Faith. Such; and effort on. Rath to the necessary so establish this relatio and perhaps endles: implications. This ] other possible herm into account in any ough reading of the

The Baha'i Fait a distinct identity tl so-called independe be preferred by SOlT

to spend so much ei ings of the founde implications of the replaced by a new ( behalf of Shoghi about Islam, we m developments in the ence of the Bible a the assessment of tl is that the Bible is 1

and the vocabulax-J then not only do tl problem of the forr both a source and specific consciousm concrete evidence Similar work on th done and is badly· the 'quranization c not - the unprece culture, there has b this influence in 1

tastes. "5 But the ki

~ WORLD'S RELIGIONS

ause the basic binary ce of the myriad dual­ut habitually does not e conscious level. By ading act to the realm ower of the act but to lore fully in the act, to tian tradition 107 calls a

eone who has become ltoxication or inebria­ous instances of wine the Islamicate literary aha'u'llah calls out for liographical eulogy of tha'u'llah had written rther instructed Ustad stanzas are:

:tbles one to see things )hysical' drunkenness. e traditional, 'In wine, Jhiboly produce certi­Jiguity in the sense of inner significance' the Ig and purpose in the ~, a future which is, at

es of Eternity speak a devoid of allusions, is and a beaconing light

~.

I

~-

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AI:IMAD/Lawson

whereby wayfarers may attain the heights of holiness, and seekers may advance into the realm of eternal reunion. Such are the unveiled traditions and the evident verses ah-eady mentioned. The other language is veiled and concealed, so that whatever lieth hidden in the heart of the malevolent may be made manifest and their innermost being be disclosed. III

It is important to close with a word of apology: this article - despite false appear­ances to the contrary - is not written to 'expose' the profound 'Islamicness' of the Baha'i Faith. Such an exercise would in any case be too redundant to waste time and effort on. Rather, it is written to open up to those who might not have access to the necessary sources the deep connection between the two religions and to establish this relationship as one among many in what must remain the continuing and perhaps endless attempt to mine the Baha'i scriptures for all of their possible implications. This Islamic substrate need not be privileged at the e).."pense of all other possible hermeneutic presuppositions but it must be acknowledged and taken into account in any serious attempt that strives for anything approaching a thor­ough reading of the Baha'i scriptures. 112

The Baha'i Faith has, despite its Islamic provenance and background, acquired a distinct identity through a number of processes and stands today therefore as a so-called independent world religion, although the terms distinct and discrete may be preferred by some. It may be queried then why it is necessary or even advisable to spend so much effort in identifYing the Quranic and Hadith content of the writ­ings of the founders of the Faith since presumably one of the most important implications of the Baha'i message is that the Islamic dispensation has now been replaced by a new one. Even if we did not have all of the exhortations from or on behalf of Shoghi Effendi repeatedly urging Baha'is to become knowledgeable about Islam, we might be encouraged in such a project by the results of recent developments in the study of literature in general. Specifically, studies of the influ­ence of the Bible on the western literary tradition have opened up new vistas for the assessment of the relationship between religion and culture. "3 The proposition is that the Bible is responsible for the terms of reference, the structure of thought and the vocabulary of much of western civilization. If such discoveries are valid, then not only do their results have implications for the perhaps strictly academic problem of the formation of a literary tradition, but since a literary tradition is also both a source and result of moral and ethical spiritual values and a guide to the specific consciousness and conscience or 'soul' of a society, these discoveries provide concrete evidence for tlle influence on society of what Baha'is call revelation. Similar work on the influence of the Qur'an on tlle Islamic tradition has not been done and is badly needed. 1I4 Even though scholars have spoken of such things as

. tlie 'quranizatioli of consciousness' and have recognized - indeed how could one not -. the unprecedented degree to which the book has influenced history and culture, tllere has been no Northrop Frye in Quranic studies, as yet, to demonstrate this influence in terms compatible with western post-enlightenn1.ent scholarly tastes. 1I5 But the kinds of insights Frye offers about tlle relationship between tlle

69

THE BAHA'i FAITH Al'J"D THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

Bible and 'western' culture are very suggestive for the study of the Qur'an and Islamic culture. [[6 This insistence upon reading the inner with the outer has a long and venerable tradition in Islamic culture and may be regarded as one of the most precious aspects of the Islamicate legacy to the world, a legacy enshrined, preserved and universalized by the Baha'i teachings. [[7 The Baha'i Faith is a bearer of this Quranic and Islamic influence to a much larger audience than that one defined by the traditional boundaries of the 'Muslim world' - the traditional Abode of the Covenant. [[8 In the process, the Baha'i Faith has also distinguished itself fi-om Islam more so than any other similar contemporary Islamicate devel­opment. The remarkable and distinctive 'post-Islamic' features of the Baha'i Faith - by virtue of their number and nature - merit a separate study. It is thought, however, that by focusing upon the similarities and the profound genetic relation­ship between Islam and the Baha'i Faith we will be in a better position to recognize those features when we see them. It is, in any case, quite understandable how the Baha'i Faith and Islam enjoy a kind of amphibolous relationship and what is meant in the Hadith when the Prophet Muhammad declared that 'Dajjal is one­eyed whereas God is not'.

Bibliography Primary Riferences

~bdu'l-Baha. Memorials qf the FaitlifU!. Translated by Marzieh Gail. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, '1971.

- Selectionsjrom the Writings qf 'Abdu'l-Bahd. Compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice. Translated by a Committee at the Baha'i World Centre and by Marzieh Gail. Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1978.

- Some Answered Gtestions. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1981. - Tablet to August Fore!' Wilmette, IL: Balla'i Publishing Trust, 1978. - Tablets qf Abdul-Baha Abbas. Compiled by Albert R. Windust. 3 vols. Chicago: Baha'i

Publishing Society, 1909 (vol. I); 1915 (vol. 2); 1916 (vol. 3). - Tablets qf the Divine Plan. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1977-- The Will and Testament qf 'Abdu'l-Bahd. Issued by the National Spiritual Assembly of

the Baha'is of the UnitedSfates and Canada, 1944, from text received atI04 Wall Street, New York, February 25, 1922, addressed by the Guardian to 'The beloved of God and the hanclmaids of the Merciful throughout the United States of America and Canada'. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1944; Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1977-

The Bab. Tifsir surat al-baqam. MS.

- Q,qyyzlm al-asnui: tifsir surat YTlszif, af;san al-q4ri!. MS.

- Selections fimn the Wiitings qf the Bdb. Compiled by the Research Department of the Universal House of Justice and translated by Habib Taherzadeh with the assistance of a Committee at the Baha'i 'World Centre. Haifa: Baha'i 'World Centre, 1978.

Bahd'i Pra),ers: A Selection qf Prqyers Revealed by Bahd'u'lldh, the Bab, and 'Abdu'l-Bahd. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1982.

SEEING DOUBLE: n

Bahd'i World Faith: Se Publishing Trust,

Baha'u'llah. Epistle tc Original text in . Canada: Associat translation/ origir.

- 'The Fire Tablet': - Gleanings .from the J

Baha'i Publishin. Bahd'u'llah. Lajna Badi' [1984]. Ref!

- The Hidden Words. - 'Kitab-i-'Ahd', in - The Kitab-i-Aqdas. - Kitab-i-iqan. Tran

1989. Persian text by National Spir English translatio

- 'Lawl). Ahmad', j

Khavari. New D< - NfajmU'a min alwl

d'Editions Baha'i - The Seven Vall0's a

Ali-Kuli Khan. " (Haft-i Veld!) inAti as English translc

- 'Surat aI-shams' Commentmy on the vol. 4, nos. 3-4 (i

- 'Tablet of Al).ma Baha'i Publishin~

- Tablets of Bahd'z. Department of tl with the assistanc Centre, 1978.

The Bible. Revised ~

al-Bukhari, Muham Chicago: Kazi p.

The Compilation qf Cc 2 vols. [Sydney]:

Lights of Guidance: A j

Publishing Trust The Qur'an. Stande

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the Healing Pr a special poten be recited by tl

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9), pp. 39-55· "Abdu'l-Baha's Com­

Ire ... " (A Provisional :mber 1985), pp. 4-64. ll.demon.co. ukl relstud

"khi. Kitfzb al-Irshad: The i by 1. K. A. Howard.

zships in Islamic Thought. :llversity of New York

s Bondsmen ftom Origin to m. Translated from the Persian Heritage Series

~velyn Underhill). New

osito et al. (eds.). New

, (eds.). Princeton, NJ:

:u'assasat al-Nlami li'l-

270 [1853J (pagination

;tives on Tree ~)mbolism.

al-sharl?- risalat al-'ilm kabir H6J Mullfz Hadi

'ahdi in TwelveI' Shi'ism.

T+htings of Baha'u' llfzh.

I I I

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENA.NT AND THE TABLET OF AI:DvIAD/Lawson

Bethesda: University Press of Maryland, 2000. Schimmel, Annemarie. A{ystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill, NC: University of

North Carolina Press, 1975. Sh01ter Encyclopaedia of Islam. H. A. R. Gibb andJ.H. Kramers (eds.). Leiden: E.J. Brill,

1974· Sours, Michael. 'Baha'i Cosmological Symbolism and the Ecofeminist Critique'.

Journal of Baha'i Studies, vol. 7, no 1. (1995), pp. 23-56. - 'Immanence and Transcendence in Theophanic Symbolism'. Joumal of Bahfz'i

Studies, vol. 5, no. 2 (1992), pp. 13-56. - 'The Maid of Heaven, the Image of Sophia, and the Logos Personification of the

Spirit of God in Scripture and Sacred Literature'. Journal of Ba/z(z'i Studies 4.1 (1991),

PP·47-65· - 'Seeing with the Eye of God: Relationships between Theology and Interpretation'.

Baha'i Studies Review, vol. I, no. I (1991), pp. I, 31-9. Taherzadeh, Adib. The Revelation of Baha'u'llfzh, vol. 1. Oxford: George Ronald, 1974;

vol. 2, 1977. Van Duzer, Chet A. DualitJl and Structure in the Iliad and OctYssey. New York: Peter Lang,

1996. Waley, Muhammad Isa. 'Contemplative Disciplines in Early Persian Sufism', in

Leonard Lewisohn (ed.), The Heritage of Szifism: Classical Persian Szifismftom its Origins to Rumi (700-1300). Oxford: Oneworld, 1999, pp. 497-548.

\l\Tensinck, Arent Jan. Tree and Bird as Cosmological Symbols in Ttestern Asia. Amsterdam: Johannes Muller, 1921.

Woodman, Ross. 'The Inner Dimensions of Revelation', in Moojan Momen (ed.). Scripture and Revelation: Papers presented at the First Iifan Colloquium Newcastle-upon-1jme, England, December 1993 and the Second Iifan Colloquium Wilmette, U.SA, March 1994· Published in collaboration with the Haj Mehdi Arjmand Memorial Trust. Oxford: George Ronald, 1997, pp. 341-69.

- 'Metaphor and the Language of Revelation'. Journal of Baha'i Studies, vol. 8, no. I

(1997), pp. 1-27. - 'The Role of the Feminine in the Baha'i Faith'. Joumal of Baha'i Studies, vol. 7, no. 2

(1995), pp. 75-97· Zwettler, Michael. 'A. Mantic Manifesto: The Sura of "The Poets" and the Qur'anic

Foundations of Prophetic Authority', in James L. Kugel. Poetly and Prophecy: The Beginnings of a Literary 'Ji·adition. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990, pp. 75-II9

(text), pp. 205-30 (notes).

Notes

1. Al-Bukhari, $a~zil.z,Book 88 - Fitan, no. 241, vol. 9, p. 183. 2. 'These daily obligatory prayers, together with a few other specific ones, such as

the Healing Prayer, the Tablet of Al?-mad, have been invested by Balla'u'llah with a special potency and significance, and should therefore be accepted as such and be recited by the believers with unquestioning faith and confidence, that through

77

THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

them they may enter into a much closer communion with God, and identify themselves more fully with His laws and precepts.' (From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, cited in Balzfl'[ Prayers, p. 209)

3. Baha.'u'llah, Gleanings, no. 75, p. 143/97; no. 84, p. 166/rrr; Baha'u'llah, Seven Valleys, pp. 5/96, 241rI6.

4. Shoghi Effendi, World Order, p. II2. 5. Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p. 27. 6. Bahd'i JiVorld Faith, p. 358. 7. The word wali (guardian, friend, saint) is derived from walaya (authoritative

friendship, sainthood). More accurately, both words are derived from the same basic semitic root w-l-y from which all of the various related connotations and denotations of the two words, such as friendship, guardianship, protection, sanctity, allegiance, love, nearness, trust and so on are derived. See also below.

8. On this topic, in connection with the Baha'i Faith, there is no better source than the writings of John Hatcher, beginning with his The Metaphorical Nature if Physical Reality, discussed in detail below. See bibliography for other relevant titles.

9. For a particularly lucid and masterful discussion of this process as found in Islamic mysticism, see Izutsu, 'The Paradox of Light and Darkness'.

ro. This is idea is elaborated further below. II. See Enqyclopaedia if Religion and Ethics and the Enqyclopaedia if Religion, 'covenant'.

In the Hebrew Bible, God is often represented as making a covenant with individuals: Genesis 9:9, 15:IS; Exodus 6:4, 244f; Numbers 25:13; Deuteronomy 5:2; Jeremiah 34:13. Breaking the covenant was followed by punishment: Deuteronomy J7:2ff;Joshua 7:IIff, 23:16;Judges 2:20; II Kings IS:9-12. Blessing followed its being observed, e.g. Psalms 132:12: 'If your sons keep my covenant and my testimonies which I shall teach them, their sons also for ever shall sit upon your throne.' Note that the New Testament is know in Arabic as the New Covenant (al­'ahd al-jadid).

12. A summary of the Covenant in Islam is in Taherzadeh, Revelation if Bahd'u'llrih, vol. I, pp. 125-S,

13. On the recipient of the Tablet of AI:tmad, see Faizi, A Flame if Fire. See also Taherzadeh, Revelation if Bahfl'u'llflh, vol. 2, pp. ro7-36.

14. Readers of Baha'u'llah's Hidden Words will be reminded of Persian no. 19, although 'Abdu'l-Baha has indicated that this association is not the most important, if it is correct in the frrst place: '0 My Friends! Have ye forgotten that true and radiant morn, when in those hallowed and blessed surroundings ye were ~ll gathered in My presence beneath the shade of the free oflife, which is planted In the all-glorious paradise? Awe-struck ye listened as I gave utterance to these three most holy words: 0 friends! Prefer not your own will to Mine never desire that which I have not desired for you, and approach Me not with lifeless hearts, defIled witl~ worldly desires and cravings. Would ye but sanctify your souls, ye would at thIS present hour recall that place and those surroundings, and the truth of My utterance should be made evident unto all of you.' See 'Abdu'l-Baha's interpretation of this text, Taherzadeh, Revelation if Bahd'u'ltalz, vol. I, p. SI. On the Day of the Covenant and the Day of Resurrection as the defining moments of 'Islamic time', see Bowering, 'Ideas of Time in Persian Sufism'.

15· Huwayzi, Nur al-thaqalayn, vol. 2, pp. 341-3, nos. 6 and S. 16. On the Covenant in the Abraharnic tradition, see Firmage, et aI., Religion and Law. 17· For the commercial background of this term see Shorter Enqyclojlaedia if Islam, see

SEEING DOUBLE: TEl

under 'Bai'. See' a Haclith fromJa Bani-Hashim, W Book, unto whic Revelation unto 1

IS. See Schimmel, ] terms as they an discussion of the

19. cf. Qur'an 2:27, . 20. Observed on 1St 21. Note the similari

and Testament: God, as well as established, are 1 shelter and uner tllem both). Wh; them, hath not obe) God; whoso opposet whoso disputeth wi disbelieveth in him. }i'om him hath in tr

. the fierce indign 22. al-Mufid, Kitflb

eventual breakir 23. It is interesting t

for other impo Qur'an, the not

24. The word seed, in some of the r; of Shaykh AJ::trn

25. Huwayzi, Kitflb 26. From a letter Wl

in Lights if Guid. 27. Shoghi Effendi, 2S. The Holy Tradi

of the Imams, form: See Laws

29. In the beginnin through the ve contains 42 vel verily [we do te God is God ar symbolizes the

30. From the LaY\> Revelation if Ba}

31. Qur'an e.g. 3: 1: rulers who ha· therefore, to St2 of spiritual aut

! :: WORLD'S RELIGIONS

with God, and identify lletter vvritten on behalf

hII; Baha'u'llah, Seven

n walqya (authoritative derived from the same :lated connotations and .ardianship, protection, ·ived. See also below. is no better source than phorical Nature qf Physical er relevant titles. lCess as found in Islamic ss'.

2 qf Religion, 'covenant'. iling a covenant Witll ~rs 25:13; Deuteronomy owed by punishment: Kings 18:9-12. Blessing s keep my covenant and ever shall sit upon your

, tlle New Covenant (al-

Revelation qf Balui'u'lldh,

Flame qf Fire. See also

led of Persian no. 19, ltion is not the most Have ye forgotten tllat

d surroundings ye were of life, which is planted ~ave utterance to these 11 to rVIine, never desire not with lifeless hearts, sanctify your souls, ye

)undings, and tlle truth m.' See :A..bdu'l-Baha's 'u'lldh, vol. I, p. 8I. On ; tlle defIning moments Sufism'.

, et aI., Religion and Law. nCJlclojlaedia qf islam, see

i'

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF Af:IMAD/Lawson

under 'Bai'. Se,e the related usage of bC!y'a in tlle Kitab-i-Iqim, p. 24Ih87 quoting a Hadith fromJa'far al-~adiq, the sixth Imam: 'There shall appear a Youth from Bani-Hashim, \I\Tho vvill bid the people plightfealf:J! unto Him. His Book ,.yiJl be a new Book, unto which He shall summon the people to pledge their Jaith. Stern is His Revelation unto the Arab. If ye hear about Him, hasten unto Him.' (italics added)

18. See Schimmel, lv.[ptical Dimensions qf islam, pp. 199-213 for a discussion of these terms as they are used in SufIsm. See Lawson, :A..uthority of the Feminine', for a discussion of these terms in Shi'ism and the writings of the Bab.

19· c£ Qur'an 2:27, +I55, 5: 13, 8:56, 13:20, 13:25, 16:91 20. Observed on 18th of Dhu'-l-Hiija annually. It is an official public holiday in Iran. 2I. Note the sinlllarity of tlle language here to tllat in a passage of :A..bdu'l-Balla's Will

and Testament: 'The sacred and youthful branch, the Guardian of the Cause of God, as well as the Universal House of Justice to be universally elected and established, are both under tlle care and protection of the AbM Beauty, under the shelter and unerring guidance of the Exalted One (may my life be offered up for tllem bOtll). Whatsoever they decide is of God. Whoso obryeth him not, neither obryeth them, hath not obeJled God; whoso l'ebelleth against him and against them hath rebelled against God; whoso opposeth him hath opposed God; whoso contendeth with them hath contended with God; whoso disputeth with him hath disputed with God; whoso denieth him hath denied God; whoso disbelieveth in him hath disbelieved in God; whoso deviateth, separateth himself and tu17leth aside fi'om him hath in truth deviated, separated himself and tU17led aside fi'om God. May the wrath, the fIerce indignation, tl1e vengeance of God rest upon him!' p. II. (italics added)

22. al-Mufid, Kitdb al-Jl'shdd, pp. I 24-5. Translation slightly adapted. On 'Umar's eventual breaking of the Covenant, see :A..bdu'l-Baha summarized below,

23. It is interesting to observe that the topic of Covenant acts as something of a pivot for other important doctrinal disputes and questions: the corruption of the Qur'an, the notion of fifra (human nature), creation itself and so on.

24. The word seed, Arabic dhan, is understood here. Dhan fIgures very prominently in some of the more abstruse discussions of creational metaphysics in the writings of Shaykh Al:unad and tlle Bab.

25. Huwayzi, Kitdb tafsir nul' al-thaqalC!yn, vol. 2, p. 337, no. 2. 26. From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual, 27 April 1936,

in Lights qf Guidance, no. 1664, pp. 495-6. 27. Shoghi Effendi, Guidancefor Todqy and TomorTOw, p. 226. 28. The Holy Traditions, sometimes called akhbdr, may be seen as the actual presence

of the Imams, Muhammad's progeny - the people of his house - in 'literary' form. See Lawson, 'Dangers', pp. 176-8.

29. In the beginning of his mission, tlle Bab invoked the autllority of the Covenant through the very structure of his Qayytim al-asma, each chapter of which contains 42 verses. Forty-two is the numerical equivalent of tlle Quranic 'Yea verily [we do testify]!' (baM) found in Qur'an P72 quoted above. It signifies that God is God and therefore obedience is due Him - in short, tllis single word symbolizes the Covenant.

30. From the Lawl).-i Hizar-Bayt of :A..bdu'l-Baha, summarized by Taherzadeh, Revelation qf Bahd'u'lldh, vol. I, p. 127.

3I. Qur'an e.g. 3:15I, 4:9I, 4.:153, II:96. The word al-Sultan was eventually adopted by rulers who had effectively wrested power from the Caliphate and it came, therefore, to stand for tlle bearer of political authority as distinct from the bearer of spiritual authority

79

80 THE BAHA'I FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

32. Qur'an 2:32, 4:II, 4:I7, 4:24, 4:26, 4:g2, 4:104, 4:III, 4:I70, 8:7I, 9:I5, g:28, g:60, 9:97, g:ro6, g:IIO, I2:6, I2:83, I2:roO, 22:52, 24:18, 24:58, 24:59, 33: I, 48:4, 49:8, 60:ro, 66:2, 76:3°. Other frequent compound epithets are 'the J'vlerciful, the Compassionate' (al-ralJman al-TalJih) and the Living, the Eternal (al-~zaye al-Qg)!Jzim).

33. Baqli, Sha1~-i shat~fyat, p. I53; idem, Kitab 'ablzar al- 'ashiqin, p. 34; cf. also ibid. p. 3 for a brief reference to the 'niche' mentioned in the famous Light Verse (Qur'an 24:35), where Ruzbihil.l1 says that humanity has been made a 'niche' for the light of the glory of God (nur balz6.'i-hz). See the discussion of the 'Light Verse' below.

34. Remember also that it was beneath sidrat al-munta1z6. that the primordial Covenant was taken. See above. A standard reference for both tree and bird imagery in an Islamicate milieu is Wensinck, Tree and Bird. Cole, 'World as Text' is largely about tree and bird imagery in a work by Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsa'i. See also his interesting remarks on the etymological relationship obtaining among the words 'tree', 'true' and 'druid'. See also the recent anthropological study by Fernandez ('Trees of Knowledge of Self') for a discussion of trees as symbolic of self knowledge. In connection with the theme of duality and 'seeing double', the motif of reversal (a sub-species of duality) is found expressed in a most evocative context in the universal image of the inverted tree, suggested by Qur'an 6g:23 to none other than Karim Khan Kirmani, arch-rival of the Bab, who cites a tradition from hl in explanation of the verse: 'The trees of Paradise are the inverse of the trees of this world. The trees of Paradise have their roots above and their branches below.' Quoted in Corbin, Spiritual Body, pp. 225-6; see Corbin, Spiritual Body, p. 327, n. g, for reference to CarlJung's study of the arbor inversa.

35. cf. the use of the word warqa' as a metaphor for the soul used by Ibn Sina in the recent article by Wilferd Madelung (:An Isma'ili Interpretation'). See also Hermann Landolt, 'Deux opuscules de Semnani' and the important discussion of bird imagery in Buck, !$ymbol and Secret, pp. 266-8. In this connection the similarity between baqa and balz6.' is to be taken seriously. Lewis, 'Symbol and Secret' [Review], pp. 79-80 offers essential commentary on the trope.

36. cf. Baha'u'llah, The Seven Valleys, pp. 36-9/r2g-33: The Valley of True Poverty and Absolute Nothingnesslwadijlefiq1ijle I.zaqiqi ufimaY-.J,e a-!li.

37. ~bdu'l-Baha, Tablets if the Divine Plan, p. 49. 38. ~bdu'l-Baha, 'The Master's Last Tablet to America', in Balz6.'i VVOrld Faith, p. 429. 39· ibid. p. 433· 40. ibid. p. 436. 4I. cf. for example the title of Siyyid Qutb's Qur'an commentary: Fi <ilali 'l-O!p-'an

'In the Shade of·the Qur'an'.·· .. 42. On all this see Yusuf Ali's commentary on the respective verses. 43. In early Shi'i exegesis this 'accursed tree' was read as standing for the Umayyad

dynasty. See Goldziher, Die Ric!ztungen der lslamisc!zen Komnauslegung. pp. 265-8. 44. Lawson citing Shaykh Al:J.mad and Siyyid Kazim in 'Reading reading itself',

Introduction, n. Ig. 45. See Steven Lambden's magisterial 'The Sinaitic Mysteries'. 46. hl ibn Ibrahim al-Qummi (d. late gth/ early 10th century CE), Taft!r al-QJlmmi, vol.

2, p. 78. The richness and suppleness of Islamic piety allows the following interpr:tation by Muhammad al-Baqir (the fIfth Imam and fatl1er of al-~adiq) to stand SIde by side with this one: the 'niche' is the breast of the believers and the fIrst 'lamp' is the heart, the second 'lamp' is the light which God put in ilie heart of the believer, the 'tree' is the believer (qala: al-shqjara al-mu'min; cf. ~bdu'l-Baha's

SEElJ.'JG DOUBLE: TH

statement that t passim). ' ... an ( peak of a moun upon it and whc the light which did not say a sin

47. See Lawson, ': Revelation' .

48. The Arabic rea( jamalifaqad 'a'rm 'abadi 'l-abidin.

49. See above the tI 50. The Arabic: thu:

'azizi 'l-jamili mi: 'l-qryamati wa ka, Ishraq KM.vari possibly because as we have seen verse of the Co considered as tc

51. Taherzadeh, TI divine 'transfer< speaking of the Civilization, pp. ;

52. This noun, tr3 significant and 1

in the cliscussior the moment to from the 'ilm e recognition, po: know' that Goe fully below. (d. Baha'i writings: true bearer of z and the "lower'

53. Najm aI-Din R 54. See Waley,'COl 55. Compare, for (

before thee is t 33:62, 35:43, 40

56. The Quranic v( beauty and per the lead of hun Muhammad w: remarkable lan, virgin. Here it : the whole ques1

57. In this connect Iqan, p. I64/r,

~ VmRLD'S REliGIONS

), 8:71, 9:15, 9:28, 9: 60, 24:59, 33:1, 48:4, 49:8, are 'the Merciful, the

:rnal (al-~qye al-QgJ!yum). p. 34; c£ also ibid. p. 3

)Us Light Verse (Qur'an Ie a 'niche' for the light le 'Light Verse' below. le primordial Covenant and bird imagery in an as Text' is largely about al-Ahsa'i. See also his ining among the words cal study by Fernandez :es as symbolic of self eeing double', the motif l most evocative context Qur'an 69:23 to none

), who cites a tradition ;e are the inverse of the roots above and their -6; see Corbin, Spiritual arbor inversa.

llsed by Ibn Sina in the erpretation'). See also important discussion of :mnection the similarity , 'Symbol and Secret' ·ope. Valley of True Poverty a-!li.

ah6/i World Faith, p. 429.

lerses. Iding for the Umayyad uslegung. pp. 265-8. ~eading reading itself',

JE), Tafsir al-OJ<mmi, vol. y allows the following d father of al-~adiq) to f the believers, and the h God put in the heart /min; cf. 'Abdu'l-Baha's

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AI:IMAD/Lawson

statement that the believers should become like 'trees', Tablets if the Divine Plan, passim). ' ... an olive neither eastern nor western' means that it is growing on the peak of a mountain, having thus no cardinal direction, 'when the sun rises it rises upon it and when it sets it sets upon it.' ' ... would almost shine forth' means that the light which God has placed in his heart would almost shine forth even if he did not say a single word. ibid. p. 79.

47. See Lawson, 'Reading reading itself'. See also Lawson, 'Interpretation as Revelation' .

48. The Arabic reads: wa innaka anta qyqinfi dJzatika bi-anna al-ladhi 'a'mcJa 'ani /uidha al­jamalijaqad 'a'mcJa 'an al-rusuli min qablu tlzumma 'stakbam 'ala 'llahiji 'azali 'l-azali ila 'abadi 'l-abidin.

49. See above the translation of Qur'an P72-3· 50. The Arabic: thumma dhakl.."ir min ladunna kulla man sakanaji madinati 'llalzi al-maliJd 'l­

'azizi 'l-jamili mina 'l-ladhina hum amanu bi'llahi wa bi'l-ladlziyab'atlzuhu 'llahujiJ,awmi 'l-q9Iamati wa ktinu 'ala manahiji 'l-~zaqq lamin al-salikin. (Risalih--yi tashbih wa ta/llil, ed. Ishraq Khavari, p. 218) It has remained untranslated in Baha'i prayer books, possibly because it speaks so directly and specifically to the Shi'i eschaton, which, as we have seen, was one of the primary topics associated witl1 the exegesis of the verse of the Covenant - the tone and contents of which Shoghi Effendi perhaps considered as too arcane and parochial for a wider readership.

5!. Taherzadeh, The Revelation if BaJza'u'llah, vol. 2, p. 107. For a discussion of the divine 'transference' by means of which Baha'u'llah also intends himself when speaking of tl1e Bab, see Buck, Symbol, pp. 233-47; see now also Saiedi, Logos and Civilization, pp. 38, 123, 135 and especially 195.

52. This noun, translated here as a verbal phrase by tlle Guardian, is highly significant and there is no space left to discuss it in full. I have referred to it below in the discussion of amphiboly but it really deserves a separate study. Suffice it for the moment to point out that it represents a mode of knowledge quite different from tlle 'ilm of the sacerdotal establishment and may best be translated as recognition, possibly intuition and sometimes even gnosis. It is the word for 'to know' that God speaks in the Hadith of the Hidden Treasure referred to more fully below. (c£ also the Hadith man 'anifa quoted or referred to many times in Baha'i vlYitings: 'He who knows himself knows his lord.') The 'recognition' of the true bearer of wal6;ya is essential for upholding the Covenant. See Lawson, 'Islam and the "lower" senses'.

53. Najm al-Din Razi, The Path if God's Bondsmen, pp. 125-6. 54. See Waley, 'Contemplative Disciplines', pp. 507-8. 55. Compare, for example, Qur'an !T77: 'Our way with the Messengers We sent

before thee is the same. No change wilt tllOU fmd in the way of God.' c£ also 33:62, 3S:43, 40 :85, 48:23.

56. The Quranic verses are considered miraculous for three basic reasons: their sheer beauty and persuasive or rhetorical power, their 'alchemical' abilit)! to transform tlle lead of human nature into the 'gold' of human spirituality, and the 'fact' tllat Muhammad was supposedly illiterate, thus the appearance of such exquisite and

remarkable language from such a person is analogous to the birth of Jesus from a virgin. Here it is rarely observed tllat the Qur'an is an oral composition, making the whole question of literacy irrelevant.

57. In this connection, note the celebrated Hadith Kumayl, quoted in tlle Kitab-i­iqan, p. 164h28. The first Imam was asked by one of his closest disciples '0

81

THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

Master! What is Reality?' 'Ali eventually answered: 'Piercing the clouds of glory without reference to anything else (hi-la is/uim).' See also Lawson, 'The Bab's Epistle on the Spiritual Journey towards God', in this issue for a fuller discussion of this Hadith.

58. See, for example, Baha'u'llah, 'The Fire Tablet'. 59. On the importance of tllis idea in the Baha'i writings, see, in addition to the works

of Hatcher (referred to at length below), May and Woodman. 60. Baha'u'Wi.h, 'Surat al-shams', p. II. c£ Cole's translation of this passage, ibid. p.

18. cf. the similar idea in the writings of Siyyid Kazim Rashti, translated in Lawson, 'The Terms', pp. 34-5 and below.

61. Arabic has three grammatical numbers: singular, plural and dual. 62. Profound thanks to Dr Manuchihr Salmanpour for drawing my attention to this

during the conference where an earlier draft of this paper was presented. 63. Yusuf Ali, p. 1471. On the importance of pairing in the Qur'an, see Zwettler for

an extremely suggestive study of zawj'mate' in the Qur'an and the relevance this may have for the typological argument (another form of seeing double) in that Book for Muhammad's authority.

64. Various other translations of this verse are listed here for comparison: I) We shall surely attend to you at leisure, you weight and you weight! (Arberry) 2) Soon shall We apply Ourselves to you, 0 you two armies! (lVlaulvi Muhammad 'Ali) 3) We shall have leisure for you, 0 ye two burdensome companies. [n ] (Bell. Bell's note, vol. 2, p. 550: 'or two races, i.e. jinn and men. Elsewhere Bell says: '[This verse] contains a threat that in spite of His occupations Allah will have time to deal with men and jinn, the thaqalan. ') 4) We shall dispose of you, 0 ye two dependents (man and jinni). (Pickthall) 5) We shall soon be free to turn to you, 0 weary caravans. (Mmed Ali) 6) Soon shall We attend to you, 0 ye two big groups. (lVlaulawi Sher Ali as v. 32) 7) 0 you burdens of the earth, we shall soon be getting free to call you to account. (lVlaududi) Maududi's note: Thaqal is the burden loaded on a conveyance. 77zaqalan (dual), therefore, will mean: 'two loaded burdens'. Here this word refers to jinn and men, who are both loaded on the earth. As the addressees here are those jinn and men who have turned away from the service and obedience of their Lord, they have been addressed as: '0 burdens of the earth.' In other words, the Creator is warning these two disobedient companies of His creation, saying: '0 you who have become a burden for l\!Iy earth, I am soon getting free to take you to task.' This does not mean that Allah at tllis time is tod oilsyto call the disobedient servants to account but it means that Allah has arranged a special timetable according to which the time for the final accountability and reckoning of the jinn and men has not yet come. (p. 878) 8) Nous vaquerons un jour it votre jugement, 0 hommes et genies! (Kasimirski)

65. Yusuf Ali, p. 1401. This note was revised by later editors as indicated by the (R) which appears at its end. It would be very interesting to see what Yusuf Ali vvTote originally. In an earlier edition by the same publisher (1983) the note, this time on p. 1476, is perhaps tlle original, though I have not verified this. I have indicated the variations of the text as follows: {-} indicates material deleted in the later edition; *-* indicates material added in the later edition. Thus it can be seen how the Guardian's translation of the word in the Tablet of Al:unad has much in common witll the interpretation offered in this note by Yusuf Ali.

SEEING DOUBLE: THl

66. See above. 67. Note that awliya

typically translat,

P·23· 68. See above, note I

69. See tlle refereno 70. Kitshani, al-S4ft,

Qumrni, TafsiT, v stratum of Shi'i ; A recent study espeCially pp. 93 thaqalayn.

71. Baha'u'llah, Kitt. my attention to 1

72 . Hatcher, The NIt 73. c£ also the quot, 74. Hatcher, The j1lft

75· ibid. p. 9· 76. ibid. 77. ibid. p. 17· See

dramatic metapJ with episodes in

78. ibid. p. 11. 79. ibid. p. 12.

80. 'Abdu'l-Baha, S( 81. c£ 'Al:unad beca

ii, p. 2.

82. c£ Hatcher, The as having one rr the tenor, and [ actually a piece

83. c£ Kant's use 0:

with appearano 84. Baha'u'llah, Hic 85. One of the imn

Joseph and hi~ Baha'u'llah refe i-Aqdas, pan. 4 suggested that ( is actually a me· 'aif is built on t Aqdas mentione clothing' is forn is clothed in sm

86. Schimmel, Mys is very sugges1

employment of 87. Corbin's severa

in Iranian relig:

~ WORLD'S RELIGIONS

:ing the clouds of glory so Lawson, 'The Rib's le for a fuller discussion

in addition to the works nan. of this passage, ibid. p. n Rashti, translated in

nd dual. ing my attention to this r was presented. :Lur'an, see Zwettler for nand tlle relevance fuis o seeing double) in fuat

comparison: you weight! (Arberry)

~s! (Maulvi Muhammad

mpanies.[nJ (Bell. Bell's ~where Bell says: '[This Allah will have time to

.d jinni). (Picktllall) ;. (Ahmed Ali) LUlawi Sher Ali as v. 32) e to call you to account. ded on a conveyance. ;'. Here fuis word refers tlle addressees here are rvice and obedience of ~ eartll.' In other words, of His creation, saying: oon getting free to take : is too busy to call fue has arranged a special ntability and reckoning

:t genies! (Kasimirski) as indicated by the (R) ~e what Yusuf Ali wrote 3) fue note, tlus time on Jus. I have indicated tlle­~ted in the later edition; It can be seen how the d has much in cormnon

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AJ:llvIAD/Lawson

66. See above. 67. Note that awlb'ti, the plural of wali, is frequently used by Balla'u'llah and is

typically translated as 'friends' by Shoghi Effendi, e.g. Epistle to the Son qf the Wolf,

P·23· 68. See above, note 64, translation no. 2.

69. See the reference to Djalili below. 70. Kashani, al-S4ft, vol. 5, p. I ro. cf. Bahrani, Kittib al-burluin, vol. 4, p. 267 and

Qummi, Trifsir, vol. 2, p. 323. The fIrst two works rely very heavily on the earliest stratum of Shi'i scriptural interpretation as found, for example, in the third work. A recent study of this early material is Bar-Asher, Scripture and exegesis; see especially pp. 93-8 for more on fue meaning and interpretation of the Hadith al­thaq al(~)'n.

71. Baha'u'llah, Kittib-i-iqtin, p. 20I1r55. My thanks to Moojan Momen for drawing my attention to this passage.

72. Hatcher, The Metaph01ical Nature qf P0lsical Realit)!. 73. cf. also the quotation from tlle Kittib-i-iq(lll below, beginning 'It is evident ... ' 74. Hatcher, The Metaph01ical Nature qf Ph)!sical Reali!)" p. 8. 75· ibid. p. 9· 76. ibid. 77. ibid. p. 17. See here the very interesting passages on the Manifestations' use of

dramatic metaphor, exemplilied in episodes from the life of Christ and compared with episodes in Baha'i history, namely the conference of Badasht.

78. ibid. p. II.

79. ibid. p. 12.

80. 'Abdu'l-Baha, Some Answered (!yestions, pp. 83-4, also cited in ibid. p. IO.

81. cf. 'A.l~mad became the embodiment of his own Tablet.' Faizi, 'A Flame of Fire', ii, p. 2.

82. cf. Hatchel; The Metaph01ical Nature qf P0lsical Reali!:y, p. 9: 'To view the metaphor as having one meaning is to miss the analogical equation, mistake the vehicle for tlle tenor, and [in the instance cited here] to end up believing that Christ was actually a piece of bread.'

83. cf. Kant's use of tlle term, denoting an object of 'pure understanding' confused with appearance.

84. Baha'u'llah, Hidden Words. 85. One of the in1mediate implications of fue root q-m-~ is the automatic allusion to

Joseph and his 'shirt' (qami~) (see Lawson, 'Reading reading itself') which Baha'u'llah refers to so frequently throughout his writings, notably in fue Kitab­i-Aqdas, para. 4/4, and fue Book qf the Covenant/ Kittib-i 'AM, p. 2201r98. It may be suggested that detecting the 'fragrance/ 'aif' mentioned here in tlle poetic fIgure is actually a metaphor for the recognition of spiritual autllOrity / walqya. Note that 'aif is built on the same root as 'iiftin, the very word used in the fIrst line of the Aqdas mentioned below in note 92. From l-b-s fue Arabic word libs 'apparel, clothing' is formed, as is the word labs, lubs 'confusion, ambiguity' i.e. something is clothed in such a way that its true identity is unrecognizable or veiled.

86. Schimmel, iVl)sticalDimensions qf Islam, p. 299. To 'breal( tlrrough the limitations' is very suggestive of ~le tlleme of the Hadith Kumayl and Baha'u'llah's employment of it in the Iqan mentioned above.

87. Corbin's several studies of this author are essential reading for persons interested in Iranian religion and Islamic spirituality.

THE BAHA'I FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

88. Pace Ernst, Ruzbihan Baqli, p. 104. It may be questioned whether the sustained criticism of one of the greatest scholars of modern Islamic studies found passim is on solid ground. See, for example, the serious mistranslation of Corbin's French, ibid. p. lOS.

89. ~bdu'l-Baha has written a lengthy commentary on this very influential Tradition. Serious students are directed to Momen (trans. and commentary), '~bdu'l-Baha's Commentary'.

90. c£ amphibole as a te,chnical term in geology 91. Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Iqan, para. 2S, pp. 29-30/23. 92. walayal wildyal valci)latl vilayatl spiritual authority Ilovel guidance. Walciya is

mentioned by Baha'u'llah in the Kitab-i-Aqdas: 'Take heed lest the word "Prophet" withhold you from this Most Great Announcement, or any reference to "Vicegerency" debar you from the sovereignty of Him Who is the Vicegerent of God, which overshadoweth all the worlds.' (Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Aqdas, para. 167) As stated in the notes to the Kitab-i-Aqdas: 'The word here translated "Vicegerency" is, in the original Arabic, "vilayat", which has a range of meanings including "vicegerency", "guardianship", "protectorship" and "successorship". It is used in relation to God Himself, to His Manifestation, or to those who are the appointed Successors of a Manifestation.' (ibid. note lSI) See also Baha'u'llah, Gleanings, pp. 17S-6, no. 89: '"Whoso, while reading the Sacred Scriptures, is tempted to choose therefrom whatever may suit him with which to challenge the authority of the Representative of God among men, is, indeed, as one dead, though to outward seeming he may walk and converse with his neighbours, and share with them their food and their drink.' 'Representative of God' is Shoghi Effendi's translation of ma(la<u'l-walayat (many thanks to Moojan Momen for this reference). It may also be translated as 'place where walaya appears' or 'manifestation of walriya'. c£ the different translation of ma(la' in Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Aqdas, para. I, p. 1911. Ma(la' is a frequent near-synonym for ma?,har, 'manifestation' in the Baha'i tablets.

93. 'Seeing double' also applies to the other senses so that reading is done through hearing, tasting, touching, feeling and so on.

94. See the article by Izutsu mentioned above. Elsewhere, speaking of the necessity of seeing double for progress along the spiritual path, Izutsu has written: 'He who has reached this stage is known in the tradition of Islamic Philosophy as a "man of two eyes" dhu al-'a;ynayn. He is a man who, with his right eye sees Unity, i.e. Absolute Reality, and nothing but Unity, while with his left eye he sees multiplicity, i.e. the world of phenomenal things .. '. in addition to the simultaneous vision of Unity and Multiplicity, he knows that these two are ultimately one and the same thing. Such being the case he recognizes in every one of the actually existent things two different aspects: the aspect of lana and the aspect of baqci'.' (Izutsu, 'The Basic Structure', p. 19. cf. the above comments on the 'Tree of baqa". See also Chittick, The Szifz Path if Knowledge, pp. 356ff: 'Seeing with Two Eyes')

9S. cf. the Tradition: 'The human form is the greatest proof of God to creation.' (KasMni, Kalimcit, p. 12S) The implications for ecology are obvious. If poetic and metaphorical trees are allowed to die, then earthly trees are also doomed. See also Sours, 'Ecofeminist critique'. It is also interesting, in the present context, to note that early Muslim scholars divided the earth into two parts: the region where Islam had yet to be established, known as the abode of strife or war (ddr al-Zlarb), and the region where Islam had been established, known as the abode of peace

SEEING DOUBLE: THE (

or security. This re, or dar al-<ahd 'the. One implication 0

the physical enviro the divine and for humanizing huma social warfare but; poisoning winds 01

96. Corbin, En Islam i; 97. ibid. p. 59· Ruzbih

a verse of poetry i protected, awaitin itself as a bride ( teaching that the the reader/husbal The Tao if Islam, r spiritual and intell must be experienc

98. 'Behold how withi are opened, that s enter the gardens the mystic bride ( of utterance in tht para. 149, p. 1401 of inner meanin~ forth, unveiled (bi the ancient realm this connection, meaningl ~uriyat-i other similar usa~ of Heaven', p. 4 tablets, see Culha

99. On the Zoroastri by Ekbal, 'Daena Paradigm, pp. 195-

100. This is not to sug; d1erefore render suggested that th possible meanu1e reading over tha1 must be allowed

101. c£ Baha'u'llah, J. 102. Corbin, En Islam I03. Rashti, Shad! al-~

(It may be of so one of the most expresses this id( (aI-ism al-a'?,am) i it causes [the b

E ,,,rORLD'S RELIGIONS

1. whether the sustained ic studies found passim is tion of Corbin's French,

~ry influential Tradition. I lentary),' 'Abdu'l-Baha's

I guidance. T11ala)la is <e heed lest the word erne nt, or any reference 1 Who is the Vicegerent lah, Kitdb-i-Aqdas, para. ~ word here translated llas a range of meanings , and "successorship". It or to those who are the I) See also BaM'u'llah, .e Sacred Scriptures, is 1 which to challenge the s, indeed, as one dead, ,ith his neighbours, and a.tive of God' is Shoghi \1oojan Momen for this :re walcfya appears' or f marla' in Baha'u'llah, ar-synonym for ma?:,har,

'eading is done through

aking of the necessity of .u has written: 'He who .c Philosophy as a "man :ight eye sees Unity, i.e. t eye he sees multiplicity, e simultaneous vision of lately one and the same of the actually existent l.spect of baqa'.' (Izutsu, the 'Tree of baqa". See with Two Eyes')

Jf of God to creation.' e obvious. If poetic and ~e also doomed. See also present context, to note Jarts: the region where trife or war (dar al-l!arb), 1 as the abode of peace

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT A_ND THE T.AJ3LET OF AI:IMAD/Lawson

or security. This region could be knovvn either as dar aI-Islam 'the Abode of Islam' or dar al-'ahd 'the Abode of the Covenant'. (Djalili, 'International Law', p. 214) One implication of this in this context is that where the Covenant is established the physical environment is deft-cto protected as an instrumentality for registering the divine and for the divine registering humanity or, perhaps better, more fully humanizing humanity. Similarly, the abode of strife entails not only political and social warfare but also 'environmental warfare'. cf 'The leaves are yellowed by the poisoning winds of sedition.' (Baha'u'llah, 'Fire Tablet', BaM'i P1'O;yers, p. 316)

96. Corbin, En Islam iranien, vol. 3, pp. 75-6. 97. ibid. p. 59· Ruzbillan may be influenced here by the Arabic poetic tradition where

a verse bf poetry is called a 'tent' in which the damsel of meaning (ma'naj resides protected, awaiting reunion with her lover. Rumi later would refer to the Qur'an itself as a bride (precisely 'mus) and there can be no question here of Rumi teaching that the Qur'an should submit to anyone; rather the suggestion is that the reader/husband, through love, submit to his bridelthe Qur'an. See Murata, The Tao if Islam, p. 226. cf. also Ghazali's famous metaphor of sexual ecstasy for spiritual and intellectual knowledge: i.e. that it cannot be explained or taught but must be experienced directly. (Ghaz:ili, The Incoherence if the Philosophers, pp. 213-14)

98. 'Behold how within all things the portals of the Ri<;l.van [= good pleasure] of God are opened, that seekers may attain the cities of understanding and wisdom, and enter the gardens of knowledge and power. Within every garden they will behold the mystic bride of inner meaning ('mus-i ma 'am) enshrined within the chambers of utterance in the utmost grace and fullest adormnent.' (Baha.'u'llah, Kitdb-i-Iqan, para. 149, p. 140h09) Sinlilarly: 'Let the future disclose the hour when the Brides of inner meaning ('musM-:Jii ma 'am) will, as decreed by the Will of God, hasten forth, unveiled (bi ~zijab) out of their mystic mans~ons, and manifest themselves in the ancient reahn of being.' (Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-Iqan, para. 190, pp. 175-6h36) In this connection, see also Baha'u'llah's mention of the 'huris of inner meaning/~zurryat-i ma'ant (Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-iqan, para. 78, p. 70/54) and the other similar usages and the astute comments on these by Sours in his 'The Maid of Heaven', p. 49. On the importance of the feminine generally in the Balla'i tablets, see Culhane, I Beheld a Maiden.

99. On the Zoroastrian background for the Maid of Heaven, see the excellent article by Ekbal, 'Daena-Den-Din'. See also the important analysis in Buck, Paradise and Paradigm, pp. 195-8 and passim.

100. This is not to suggest that this powerful image be intellectualized or 'sanitized' and tllerefore rendered a mere allegory (an integer in a formula). Rather, it is suggested that the idea of the encounter with Meaning be read alongside other possible meanings - another form of seeing double - perhaps privileging this reading over that for emphasis in various contexts. In short, the Maid of Heaven must be allowed to remain a vibrant and living symbol.

101. cf. Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-iqan, para. 198, p. 181h40. 102. Corbin, En Islam iranien, vol. 3, pp. 37-8. 103. Rashti, Shad! al-qaFfdat al-Iamfya, p. 103. cf. also tlle discussion of al-Dajjal above.

(It may be of some incidental interest to note that Hajj Karlin Khan Kirmani, one of the most vociferous detractors of the Bab, had only one eye.) The Bab expresses tllis idea in his commentary on Surat al-Baqara: 'The Greatest Name (aI-ism al-a':;,am) is "He" (huwa). It is the gate of cOlIDllUnion with God ... in that it causes [the believer] to enter unto God without looking to the gate (Bab) ,

85

86 THE BAHA'i FAITH AND THE WORLD'S RELIGIONS

because the gate is [merely] the pointer (al-ishdra).' (provisional translation; Tqfsir Slimt al-Baqam, p. I2) c£ also the Hadith of Kumayl: kaslif,subulpit al-jalal min gha;yr ishdm and Baha'u'llah's commentary on it in Kitab-i-Iqan, paras. I75-8, pp. I641r28-I651r2g. See also Lawson, 'The Bab's Epistle on the Spiritual Journey towards God' in this issue. In his refutation of Shaykh Al,l11:lad's Risalat al-'ilrriiy)'a, the renowned I9th-century Iranian philosopher Mulla Hadi Sabzavari contends that its author ultimately lacked 'perspective' in his condemnation of wazzdat al­wuJud ('existential monism'). He says that had Shaykh AJ:!mad been able to see with 'two eyes' he would have understood tllat even though the divine essence is, of course, utterly unknowable and 'beyond being', it is still permissible and even necessary to speak about proximity to it, its knowledge and so on. (Sabzavari, ShalZz, p. 567) On this work of Shaykh Al,lmad's, see Lawson, 'Orthodoxy and Heterodoxy'. Two Traditions from the Prophet Muhammad regarding ilie two eyes of the heart are contained in Amuli,]ami' al-asrar, p. 581. One reads: 'Verily, the heart has two eyes, just like the body. With the physical eye the physical realm is seen, with the eye of Reality, which is spiritual, the inner spiritual realm and the divine realities are seen.' The other is very similar.

I04- The Bab, Selections, p. 55. I05. On the Homeric life of duality and ilie coincidence of opposites, see ilie recent

work of Van Duzer, Duality and Structure. His thesis has implications for tracing the thought of such pre-Socratic philosophers as Heraclitus (on whom see Enryclopedia Q[ Philosoplry, q.v. 'Heraclitus of Ephesus', especially p. 478). For a later philosophic celebration of duality and opposition, see Nicholas of Cusa, Vision and Hopkins. The question of a possible Islamicate influence in Cusa's iliought on this topic is broached in Lawson, 'Nicllolas'. In Lawson, 'Interpretation', some of the remarkable coincidences of opposites (c£ coincidentia oppositorum) found in the Qay-ylun al-asma are mentioned and in Lawson, 'The Qur'an Commentary', a preliminary analysis of these figures is offered, especially pp. 329-6r.

ra5. Kristeva, Tales Q[ Love, p. 70. She continues, 'One should understand that each sex is the "symbol" of the other, its complement and support, its bestower of meaning. Love, as tendency toward synthesis, would be precisely _ that which creates the recognition of signs, a reading, significations, and would thus set itself up in opposition to the closed, egg-shaped world of anclrogynes.' See also the lucid and stimulating discussion of symbols in Buck, Pamdise, passim and especially pp. I2I: 'Symbols are the illustrations of sacred ideas and ideals' in texts that would otherwise be without pictures. And, of course, icons are subject to the double vision just like all otller phenomena.

I07. See Lawson, 'Reading as Holy Communion'. ra8. A preliminary search turned up over I20 separate uses in the English language

works. rag. 'Abdu'l-Baha, j\1emorials, p. 30 and note where there is reference to the wine being

from the jar of 'Yea, verily!', an allusion to the primordial covenant described in Qur'an ]:I72 and discussed above. Note also the very apposite verse from Rumi quoted here, p. 3I: 'From every eye Thou hidest well,! And yet in every eye dost dwell.' See also k/emorials, p. I4I for a similar use of the symbol of wine.

IIO. Surely it is of some interest here to observe that though one is, by necessity, most alone while reading, one is, perhaps, at the same time - and again paradoxically - the least lonely. Such an observation has implications for the category 'religions of the Book' on which see Corbin, En Islam imnien, vol. I, pp. I35-2I8.

iJ

SEEING DOUBLE: THE CI

III. Bahi'u'llah, KitfLb-i­azaliyya.

II2. Lewis, 'Scripture' between the Baha'i the lmowledge of [t wishes to adequal Baha'u'llah.' (From 2 December I935, i

I I3. Specifically the wo] Great Code and Word. all literature and ~ influenced by the B they are known ill collection of lectur Language and k/eanir. essay. cf. also the c(

II4. The 'influence' of controversial and s properly. Earlier 'A

provenance of mu Islam's authenticit) was taken as an ins impediment today

II5. The works of Arke II6. It is indicative of 1

from the 'Middle which to describe I

is made to stand fc cumbersome and centuries. We cam to religion that de Islamic culture as Europe and her oj

I 17. Of course, it is r scripture' (someth happy coincidenc( the same time tha _ leading to a me heretofore - the I~ far beyond that w

II8. 'By virtue of its c and territories, th exegesis outside 0

[E VVORLD'S RELIGIONS

1.sional translation; Tcifsir f, subulJat al·-jalcil min ghG)l1· -lqan, paras. 175-8, pp. on the Spiritual Journey ~unad's Risalat al- 'ilm:fJ!J,a, -:ladi Sabzavari contends ,demnation of wazzdat al­'\l:llnad been able to see Igh the divine essence is, :till permissible and even ~ and so on. (Sabzavari, ,awson, 'Orthodo},..), and omad regarding the two I. 581. One reads: 'Verily, :al eye the physical realm ~r spiritual realm and the

opposites, see the recent lplications for tracing the on whom see Enqyclopedia 3). For a later philosophic :usa, Vision and Hopkins. s thought on this topic is )retation', some of the ppositorum) found in the Qur'tm Commentary', a , pp .. 329-61. understand that each sex ;upport, its bestower of be precisely. that which and would thus set itself

:ldrogynes.' See also the dise, passim and especially and ideals' in texts that icons are subject to the

in the English language

:erence to the VlIDe being ·.al covenant described in pposite verse from Rumi \nd yet in every eye dost symboL of wine. one is, by necessi1:)~ most and again paradoxically or the category 'religions , pp. 135-218.

SEEING DOUBLE: THE COVENANT AND THE TABLET OF AI:IMAD/Lawson

III. Baha'u'llah, Kitab-i-iqan, para 283, pp. 254-5iI97: af;Jlar-i huw9!J'a wa lJamamat-i azali)!J,a.

II2. Lewis, 'Scripture' is a foundational and essential study on the relationship between the Baha'i canon and the Persian and Islamicate literary tradition. ' ... the knowledge of [the Qur'anJ is absolutely indispensable for every believer who wishes to adequately understand, and intelligently read the "\Alritings of Baha'u'llah.' (From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual, 2 December 1935, in Lights of Guidance, p. 561)

II3. Specifically the work of the celebrated critic Northrop Frye. His last books, The Great Code and T!Jlords oj Power, were devoted to the very interesting proposition that all literature and speech in the western world has been formed and deeply influenced by the Bible, the so-called Old and New Testaments (or Covenants as they are known in Arabic). A kind of summary of these books is the short collection of lectures published shortly after his death entitled The Double Vision: Language and l11eaning in Religion and which is partly responsible for the title of this essa), cf also the comments on Frye made in Woodman, 'lVletaphor', pp. 1-7,24·

II4. The 'influence' of tl1e Bible and otl1er earlier scriptures on the Qur'an is a controversial and sometimes vexatious topic and one tl1at remains to be studied properly. Earlier western scholarship frequently sought to 'expose' the biblical provenance of much of the Qur'an's contents. But the motive was to question Islam's authenticity as a 'true religion' (whatever tl1at might mean). This naturally was taken as an insult by Muslims and the effects of such motives can be felt as an impediment today in the academic study of Islam and the Qur'an.

II5. The works of Arkoun (e.g. Lectures) and others have hinted at such a project. II6. It is indicative of the kinds of problems and obstacles that still separate Europe

from tl1e 'Middle East' that we cannot even think of cognate categories with which to describe ourselves. Westerniislamic is certainly false, except if 'western' is made to stand for a value that is extra-geographic; 'Enlightenment Territory' is cumbersome and stillborn. In any case, Islam has been resident in the 'west' for centuries. We cannot speak of Christian culture precisely because of the allergy to religion that developed in the post-Enlightenment period. We cannot refer to Islamic culture as eastern and if we use the term middle eastern it still posits Europe and her offspring as tl1e point of orientation.

II7. Of course, it is not a question of inventing metaphor or 'spiritual reading of scripture' (something usually credited to Philo in any case). But through a very happy coincidence of the virtual elevation of reading to tl1e level of sacrament at the same time that the arts of tl1e book were becoming improved and elaborated - leading to a more universal spread of literacy than that which had obtained heretofore - the Islamicate world refIned and cultivated ·such an approach to texts far beyond that which had gone before, in both scale and intensity.

II8. 'By virtue of its diffusion in 205 or more sovereign and non-sovereign countries and territories, the Kitab-i iqan emerges as the most influential work of Q,ur'anic exegesis outside of the Muslim world.' (Christopher Buck, 'The Kitab-i Iqan')

George Ronald Baha'i Studies Series

The Baha'i Faith and

the World's Religions

edited by

1100jan Mornen

Papers presented at the Irfan Colloquia

Published in collaboration with the Raj Mehdi Aljmand Memorial Fund

rn George Ronald

George Ronald, Publisher Oxford

wwvv.grbooks.com

© Moojan Momen 2003 All Rights Reserved

A catalogue record for this book is available }i-om the Blitish Library'

ISBN 0-85398-465-4

Printed in Greal Britain

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Contents

Introdurtion

The God of Baha'u'llah Moojan Momen

Seeing Double: The Covenant and the Tablet of Al).mad Todd Lawson

The Sufi Stages of the Soul in Baha'u'llah's The Seven Valleys and The Four Valleys Julio Savi

The Baha'i Faith and Higher Biblical Criticism Robert Stockman

African Traditional Religion - A Baha'i View Akwasi O. Osei

Afii.can Traditional Religion and the Baha'i Faith Enoch Ta1!J,i

Monotheistic Religion in Africa: The Example of the Swazi People Margaret and Oispin Pernbelton-Pigott

The Baha'i Approach to Other Religions: The Example of Buddhism

v

39

89

107

lIS

129

147

Moojan Mornen 167

Common Teachings in Chinese Culture and the Baha'i Faith -From Material Civilization to Spiritual Civilization Albert K Cheung 189

The New Age Movement and the Baha'i Faith Zaid Lundbelg 213

The Bab's Epistle on the Spiritual Journey towards God Todd Lawson 231