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Chapter 2

Early Societies in Southeast Asia and the Indo-European Migrations

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Civilization Defined

Urban Political/military system Social stratification Economic specialization Religion Communications “Higher Culture”

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Civilization and the Means of Production Essential element: concentration of wealth

Agriculture Control over natural resources Development of ancient civilization

not hunter-gatherer economics

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Origins and Spread of Agriculture

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Mesopotamia

“Between the Rivers” Tigris and Euphrates

Contemporary Iran, Iraq Cultural continuum of

“fertile crescent”

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The Wealth of the Rivers

Nutrient-rich silt Key: irrigation

Necessity of coordinated efforts Promoted development of local governments City-states

Sumer begins small-scale irrigation 6000 BCE By 5000 BCE, complex irrigation networks

Population reaches 100,000 by 3000 BCE Attracts Semitic migrants, influences culture

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Sumerian City-States

Cities appear 4000 BCE Dominate region from 3200-2350 BCE

Ur (home of Abraham, see Genesis 11:28), Nineveh (see Jonah)

Ziggurat home of the god Divine mandate to Kings Regulation of Trade Defence from nomadic marauders

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The Ziggurat of Ur

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Political Decline of Sumer

Semitic peoples from northern Mesopotamia overshadow Sumer Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 BCE)

Destroyed Sumerian city-states one by one, created empire based in Akkad

Empire unable to maintain chronic rebellions

Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 BCE) Improved taxation, legislation Used local governors to maintain control of city-states

Babylonian Empire later destroyed by Hittites from Anatolia, c. 1595 BCE

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Legal System

The Code of Hammurabi (18th c. BCE) 282 items lex talionis (item 196: “eye for an eye”) Social status and punishment women as property, but some rights

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Later Mesopotamian Empires

Weakening of central rule an invitation to foreign invaders

Assyrians use new iron weaponry Beginning 1300 BCE, by 8th-7th centuries BCE control

Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, most of Egypt Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (r. 605-562) takes advantage

of internal dissent to create Chaldean (New Babylonian) Empire Famously luxurious capital

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Mesopotamian Empires1800-600 BCE

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Technological Development in Mesopotamia Bronze (copper with tin), c. 4000 BCE

Military, agricultural applications Iron, c. 1000 BCE

Cheaper than bronze Wheel, boats, c. 3500 BCE Shipbuilding increases trade networks

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Social Classes

Ruling classes based often on military prowess Originally elected, later hereditary Perceived as offspring of gods

Religious classes Role: intervention with gods to ensure fertility, safety Considerable landholdings, other economic activities

Free commoners Peasant cultivators Some urban professionals

Slaves Prisoners of war, convicted criminals, debtors

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Patriarchal Society

Men as landowners, relationship to status Patriarchy: “rule of the father”

Right to sell wives, children

Double standard of sexual morality Women drowned for adultery Relaxed sexual mores for men

Yet some possibilities of social mobility for women Court advisers, temple priestesses, economic activity

Introduction of the veil at least c. 1500 BCE

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Development of Writing

Sumerian writing systems form 3500 BCE Pictographs Cuneiform: “wedge-shaped”

Preservation of documents on clay Declines from 400 BCE with spread of Greek

alphabetic script

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Uses for Writing

Trade Astronomy Mathematics

Agricultural applications Calculation of time

12-month year 24-hour day, 60-minute hour

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Mesopotamian Literature

Epic of Gilgamesh, compiled after 2000 BCE Heroic saga Search for meaning, esp. afterlife This-worldly emphasis

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The Early Hebrews

Patriarchs and Matriarchs from Babylon, c. 1850 BCE

Parallels between early biblical texts, Code of Hammurabi

Early settlement of Canaan (Israel), c. 1300 BCE Biblical text: slavery in Egypt, divine redemption

On-going conflict with indigenous populations under King David (1000-970 BCE) and Solomon (970-930 BCE)

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Moses and Monotheism

Hebrews shared polytheistic beliefs of other Mesopotamian civilizations

Moses introduces monotheism, belief in single god Denies existence of competing parallel deities Personal god: reward and punishment for conformity

with revealed law The Torah (“the teaching”)

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Foreign conquests of Israel

Civil war Northern tribes: Israel Southern: Judah

Assyrian conquest, 722 BCE Exiles Israel: ten lost tribes

Babylonian conquest, 586 BCE Additional exile of many residents of Judah Returned later than century

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Israel and Phoenicia, 1500-600 BCE

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The Phoenicians

City-states along Mediterranean coast after 3000 BCE

Extensive maritime trade Dominated Mediterranean trade, 1200-800 BCE

Development of alphabet symbols Simpler alternative to cuneiform Spread of literacy

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Indo-European Migrations

Common roots of many languages of Europe, southwest Asia, India

Implies influence of a single Indo-European people Probable original homeland: contemporary Ukraine

and Russia, 4500-2500 BCE Domestication of horses, use of Sumerian

weaponry allowed them to spread widely

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The Indo-European Migrations

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Implications of Indo-European Migration

Hittities migrate to central Anatolia, c. 1900 BCE, later dominate Babylonia

Influence on trade Horses, chariots with spoked wheels, use of Iron Iron Migrations to western China, Greece, Italy also significant

Influence on language and culture Aryo, “noble, lord”

Aryan, Iranian, Irish Caste system in India