02 architecture of ane
DESCRIPTION
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLYTRANSCRIPT
Architecture of the Ancient Near East
Historical BackgroundLocation
the valley of Tigris and
modern Iraq
Mesopotamia or land
defined edges
Mediterranean to eastern
• Located in and around
Euphrates rivers in
• Area is also known as
between two rivers• The land had poorly
• The land stretches from
borders of present Iran*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundLocation
• To the south and west, it
fades into the Arabian desert
• To the north and west, it fades into the plains of Syria
• The Tigris and Euphrates rivers sit in the land as dominant physical feature
• The Rivers were unpredictable, being subject to alternating flood and drought
*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundPeriod
• The area witnessed the earliest rise of human civilization
around 4500 BC
• Transformation from prehistory, to villages and cities occurred there
• Civilization there lasted for 5000 years
• Cultural development was not homogenous during the period
• Different cultures established city states and empires at different periods
• The cultures include Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian
*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundPeriod
the history of the cultures
3300 BC
• It has not been possible to trace a neat order of
• An acceptable order is presented
• Sequence of Civilization– 4500 to 2000 BC Sumerian culture, peaking in
– 2350 – 2200 BC Akkadian Period– 2000- 1600 BC Babylonian Culture– 1600 – 1717 BC Kessites and Hittites– 1350 – 612 BC Assyrian Culture– 612 – 539 BC Neo Babylonian culture– 539 – 330 BC Persian culture
*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundSocial Characteristics &
Beliefs• Mesopotamia is the cradle of civilization
• What do we mean by civilization?– Civilization is usually associated with the cultural practices of cities and urban living, the presence of writing and written law
• In Mesopotamia, earliest cities were established and urban culture took hold
• Between 4000 and 3000 BC, large number of people began living in a small area creating first cities
• Many people began to have jobs that is unrelated to agriculture
*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundSocial Characteristics &
Beliefs• Once established, cities grew and increased power and
importance
• As cities grew in power and importance, rivalries developed between them for military and economic control
• The ANE was land without natural defenses
• Warfare was common throughout its history
• The Tigris and Euphrates also suffered from alternate drought and floods
• Combination of warfare and frequent drought and flood made a continuous homogenous civilization impossible
• The result is that several cultures flourished and died out during the ANE period
*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundSocial Characteristics &
Beliefsauthority residing in an assembly of male
time, kingship evolved
defeated weaker ones to create empires and
sovereign king
• Cities in the ANE initially developed with
citizens
• Short term leaders were selected during wars
• When war leaders were retained during peace
• It was initially elective and later hereditary
• As some cities became more powerful, they
kingdoms
• This led to collective rule of city states by a
*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundSocial Characteristics &
Beliefs• With kingship also came monumental palaces as place of residence and administration for the king
• Almost all ANE culture worshiped many gods and goddesses
• ANE people did not believe in immortality or eternal life
• They believed only gods were immortal
• Rather, they believed in divine rewards for moral conduct
*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundSocial Characteristics & Beliefs
numerous offspring and long life
related to fertility
crops
were explained by the actions of gods
elements- sky, earth, water, sun, moon, etc
• The reward was enjoyed in this life
• The rewards include increased worldly goods,
• The most popular and earliest religious cults
• Fertility goddesses influenced the growth of
• Aspects of life such as war, weather, disease,
• The Sumerian had a religion based on the
*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundSocial Characteristics &
Beliefs
society
they needed a means of communication and
of writing based on pictograph
called the cuneiform
to produce historical records
• This reflected the agrarian nature of their
• As ANE people came together to live in
cities, record keeping• Around 3500, the Sumerians invented a system
• This was later developed into a simpler writing
• Development of written language enabled them
*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundSocial Characteristics &
Beliefs• Written records also led to the development of written law as in the code of King Hummurabi
• Cities in ancient Mesopotamia were enclosed by wall fortifications
• The fabric of the cities are a blend of residential, commercial and industrial buildings• Houses were one story high and mostly of
mud brick• Rooms were arranged around courtyards
*for educational purposes only*
Historical BackgroundSocial Characteristics &
Beliefs• Houses looked inward
• Rooms were narrow with thick walls and flat, vault or dome roofs• Timber and stone were scarce, clay was abundant and mud brick was most common building material• Buildings were usually raised on platforms to protect them from the floods• Clay was also used for pottery
• Mesopotamians invented astrology, wheeled vehicle & made advances in science & math
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureIntroduction
• The transition from prehistory was made around 4500 BC with the rise of the Sumerian civilization
• Sumerians established an irrigation system that made the capable of food production to support urban living
• They were also skilled in metal craft
• The Sumerians invented the cuneiform system of writing
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureIntroduction
cuneiform system of writing
Sumerian civilization were
civilization to make a
designing public buildings
material
sun dried and built into
• The Sumerians invented the
• The major cities of the
Kish, Uruk and Ur
• The Sumerian were the first
conscious attempt of
• Mud was their building
• Mud was formed into brick,
massive walls *for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureIntroduction
• Mud was their main building material
• Mud was formed into brick, sun dried and built into massive walls
• Walls were thick to compensate the weakness of mud
• They were reinforce with buttresses
• Spaces were narrow because of the walling material
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureIntroduction
• Spaces were narrow because of the walling material
• Façade of buildings were whitewashed and painted to disguise the lack of attraction of the material
• Buttresses and recesses also relieve the monotony of the plastered wall surfaces
• Temples was their major building type
• We will examine Sumerian house organization and their temple forms
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureIntroduction
• The clearest example of the cities of the ancient Near East is found in the Sumerian city of Ur
• Cities were enclosed in walls with Ziggurat temples and palace as centers of the city
• Fabric of the city is made up of residences mixed with commercial and industrial buildings
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureIntroduction
• The houses are densely packed with narrow streets between them.
• Streets were fronted by courtyard houses of one story high
• The houses streets were usually punctuated by narrow openings that serve as entrance to houses
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureArchitectural Monument-
Temples• Temples were the principal architectural
monuments of Sumerian cities• Temples consist of chief and city temples
• We will examine two examples of chief temples- the white temple at Uruk and the Great Ziggurat at Ur
• And we will examine on city temple, theOval temple at Khafaje
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureWhite Temple Uruk
• Uruk was a major Sumerian city by 3300 BC
• Uruk is also known as warka in arabic
• The name Iraq is derived from Uruk
• The city covered an area of 2 square kilometer
• Had a population of 40,000 people
• White temple was located atUruk
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureWhite Temple Uruk
• The white temple was built around 3000 BC
• The white temple is an example of earliest development of Sumerian temples and Ziggurat
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureWhite Temple Uruk
great mound of earth called
12 meters above ground
built with mud bricks
shape
supported by buttresses
temple was a long
alter and offering table
• The temple is place on a
Ziggurat, rising more than
• The ziggurat and temple are
• The temple is rectangular in
• Temple walls were thick and
• In the inner part of the
sanctuary, that contains an
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureWhite Temple Uruk
• Rooms oblong and in shape and vaulted surrounded the long side of the sanctuary
• The temple had imposing doorways located at its either end
• Worshippers to the temple however enter through a side room
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureWhite Temple Uruk
• Series of staircases and stepped levels lead worships to the entrance of the temple
• The temple was plastered white externally, making it visible for miles in the landscape
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureGreat Ziggurat Ur
• Ur was a Sumerian city located near the mouth of the Euphrates river
• The city was a thriving place by 2600 BC
• It was considered sacred toNnanna, the moon god• The white temple was built
around 2113 to 2048 BC by the ruler Urnammu
• It was built on the ruins of previous temples and incorporated their remains
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureGreat Ziggurat Ur
bricks reinforced with thin
of twisted reeds
located as part of a temple
the ziggurat and its court
attached to it called the
priest of the temple and
• It was constructed of mud
layers of matting and cables
• The Great Ziggurat was
complex• The complex comprised of
and a secondary court
court of Nannar• The king was the chief
lived close to it *for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureGreat Ziggurat Ur
• The temple sits on a three multi-tiered Ziggurat mountain
• Access to the temple is through triple stairways that converge at the summit of the first platform
• From this stage, one passed through a portal with dome roof to fourth staircase
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureGreat Ziggurat Ur
• The fourth staircase gave access to the second and third stages of the ziggurat and to the temple
• The temple is usually access only by the priest, where gods are believed to come down and give instructions
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureGreat Ziggurat Ur
• The ziggurat is believed by the Sumerians to unit the heavens and the earth
• The people believed that climbing the staircase of the ziggurat gives a holy experience• The chief temple was also used as a last line of defense during times of war• Most of what is known about
what exist on top of the ziggurat is projection
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureOval Temple- Khafaje
• Oval temple is an example of second type of Sumerian temples
• It was constructed around2600 BC
• The temple is named oval because of its massive oval walls surrounding the temple
• Located in the city, emphasis in its organization is on enclosing space within courtyards
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureOval Temple Khafaje
• Space is enclosed to create island of peace from a busy city
• The temple is raised on a simple platform enclosed within the oval walls
• It had subsidiary chambers at the ground level
• The outer wall was extended to protect a priestly
residence with its own chapel
*for educational purposes only*
Sumerian ArchitectureOval Temple Khafaje
• The inner court had an offering table and showed evidence of animal sacrifices
• The inner court also had basins for ablution as well as workshops and storage rooms
*for educational purposes only*
Assyrian ArchitectureIntroduction
• Assyria is the name for a part of ancient Mesopotamia located on the upper Tigris
• The principal cities of Assyria were Nineveh, Dun, Khorsabad, Nimrud and Assur
• The Assyrians were great warriors and hunters, and this was reflected in their art
• They produced violent sculptures and relief carving in stone that was used to ornament their houses
*for educational purposes only*
Assyrian ArchitectureIntroduction
temples lost their importance to
in which palaces took precedent
platforms, and their principal
guardian figures of human
lined with pictures and
stone slabs up to 9 feet high
• During the Assyrian periods,
palaces• Assyrian kings built walled cities,
over religious buildings• Palaces were raised on brick
entrance ways were flanked by
headed bulls or lions of stone• Their halls and corridors were
inscriptions carved in relief on*for educational purposes only*
Assyrian ArchitectureIntroduction
• The interiors were richly decorated and luxurious.
• The walls of cities were usually strengthened by many towers serving as defensive positions
• The city of Khorsabad demonstrate the might and authority of the Assyrian kings
• It is also at this place that the remains of Assyrian architecture can be found
*for educational purposes only*
Assyrian ArchitectureCity of Khorsabad
• Khorsabad was designed as the royal capital of Assyria
• The city was built on a flat land with an area of about a square mile and was enclosed by a double wall with seven city gates
• Only a part of the city including palaces, temples and administrative headquarters was built
• The palace was located on the north west side of the city
*for educational purposes only*
Assyrian ArchitecturePalace of Sargon
• The palace is approached at ground level through a
walled citadel
• Within the citadel is found the main palace, two minor palaces and a temple dedicated to Nabu
• The main palace was set on a platform located on the northern side of the citadel
• All the buildings within the citadel were arranged around courtyards
*for educational purposes only*
Assyrian ArchitecturePalace of Sargon
• The palace was arranged around two major courtyards about which were grouped smaller courtyards
• The palace consisted of large and smaller rooms with the throne room being the largest
• The building was decorated with relief sculpture and glazed brick
*for educational purposes only*
Babylonian ArchitectureIntroduction
• After the fall of Nineveh in612 BC and the end of theAssyrian civilization, focusof Mesopotamian civilization shifted to old Babylon
• A new dynasty of kings, including Nebuchadnezzar, revived old Babylonian culture to create a Neo- Babylonian civilization
• Old Sumerian cities were rebuilt
*for educational purposes only*
Babylonian ArchitectureIntroduction
enlarged and heavily
magnificent new buildings
Mesopotamian building
period
enhanced by a new form of
of figures designed in
• The capital old Babylon was
fortified
• It was also adorned with
• The traditional style of
reached its peak during the
• Traditional building was
façade ornament consisting
colored glazed brick work
*for educational purposes only*
Babylonian ArchitectureCity of Babylon
• The city of Babylon is shaped in the form of a quadrangle sitting across and pierced by the Euphrates[64]
• The city was surrounded by a fortification of double walls
• These had defensive towers that project well above the walls
*for educational purposes only*
Babylonian ArchitectureCity of Babylon
• The walls also had a large moat in front, which was also used for navigation
• The length of the wall and moat is about five and a quarter miles
• The city had a palace, Nebuchadnezzar’s palace, located on its
northern side on the outer wall
*for educational purposes only*
Babylonian ArchitectureIshtar Gate
procession street that cuts
the ground to the tower of
the city through the famous
the double walls of the city
projecting towers on each
• From the palace originated a
through the city raised above
Babel
• The procession street enters
Ishtar gate
• The Ishtar gate is built across
fortification
• The gate had a pair of
wall
*for educational purposes only*
Babylonian ArchitectureIshtar Gate
and adjoining streets
glazed bricks and
of heraldic animals- lions,
relief and glazed in other
old Babylon has survived
• All the facades of gates
were faced with blue
ornamented with figures
bulls, and dragons• These were modeled in
colors
• None of the buildings of
to the present age
*for educational purposes only*
Babylonian ArchitectureArchitecture in the city of
Babylon• Nebuchadnezzar’s palace covered a land area of 900 feet by 600 feet
• It had administrative offices, barracks, the king’s harem, private apartment all arranged around five courtyards
• The palace is also praised for its legendary hanging garden
• This is recorded as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, but exact knowledge of the nature of this garden is not known *for educational purposes only*
Babylonian ArchitectureArchitecture in the city of Babylon
also prominent
Babylon
Babel located at the end of
mentioned in the Christian
information about the
the tower
on the tower is hypothetical
• Temples and towers were
architectural elements of
• The legendary tower of
procession street is
bible
• There is also no
design and construction of
• Most of what is available
*for educational purposes only*
Persian ArchitectureIntroduction
• The Persian empire started in about 560 BC when Cyrus the great from the province of Fars swept over the region with his powerful cavalry
• By the end of the century, Cyrus and his successors, Darius 1 and Xerxes had conquered the entire civilized world from Indus to Danube River with the exception of Greece
• It was the wish of the Persians to construct great buildings
• They were to achieve greatness with their architectural solutions
• The architectural solutions were a synthesis of ideas gathered from almost all parts of their empire and from the Greeks an Egyptians
*for educational purposes only*
Persian ArchitectureIntroduction
• Their materials of construction was also from different locations
• Material included mud-brick from Babylon, wooden roof beams from Lebanon, precious material from India and Egypt, Stone columns quarried and carved by Ionic Greeks
• Despite sourcing materials and ideas from different areas, their architecture was original and distinctive in style
*for educational purposes only*
Persian ArchitecturePalace at Persepolis
its greatest monumentality at
capital for the Persian Empire
and finished in 460 BC
mountain leveled to create
feet
a
fortification wall
covered by buildings
• Persian architecture achieved
Parsepolis• It was constructed as a new
• The city was started 510 BC
• It is set along the face of a
large platform 1800 feet by 900
• It was surrounded by a
• The site was more than half
*for educational purposes only*
Persian ArchitecturePalace at Persepolis
• The palace consisted of three parts:
• An approach of monumental staircases, gate ways and avenues
• Two great state halls towards the center of the platform
• The palace of Xerxes, the harem, and other living quarters at the south end of the site
*for educational purposes only*
PersianPalace
Architectureat Persepolis
relied on a hypostyle
spaces of varying scale
very big and generally
by mud brick walls
of the palace was the royal
• Structurally, the buildings
scheme throughout
• They used it to achieve
• Some of the spaces
were square in plan• The spaces were enclosed
• The most impressive aspect
audience hall*for educational purposes only*
Persian ArchitecturePalace at Persepolis
• The Royal audience hall was a square 250 feet in length
• It contained 36 slender columns widely space & 67 feet high
• The columns had a lower diameter of only 5 feet
• The centers of the columns were spaced 20 feet or 4 diameters apart
• The column was the greatest invention of the Persians
• The columns were fluted and stand on inverted bell shaped bases
• Their capital combine Greek motifs with Egyptian palm leaf topped by an impost of paired beast
*for educational purposes only*
Persian ArchitecturePalace at Persepolis
palace at parsepolis was the
of a 100 columns
were 37 feet high, with a
apart or seven diameters
created room and spacious
compared to the audience
• Another famous aspect of the
throne room• This was also known as hall
• The columns in the room
diameter of only 3 feet• They were spaced 20 feet
from axis to axis• The slim nature of the column
feeling in the room when
hall*for educational purposes only*
Assyrian ArchitecturePalace at Persepolis
• The monumental entrance to Parsepolis is also one of the unique aspects of the Palace
• The monumental gateway ensure a dramatic entry
to the Palace
• It was heavily adorned with relief sculpture ornamenting its stairway
*for educational purposes only*
Assyrian ArchitecturePalace at Persepolis
• The relief structure addresses different themes relating to the role of Parsepolis as the capital of the Persian Empire
*for educational purposes only*
Assyrian ArchitecturePalace at Persepolis
• In some places, the sculpture shows delegates from the different parts of the Persian bringing gifts and rare animals to the king during celebrations• In some places, royal guards and nobles of the imperial court are shown• Elsewhere, the king is seen
in conflict with animals or seated beneath a ceremonial umbrella
*for educational purposes only*
AssyrianPalace
Architectureat Persepolis
have survived to the
give a faulty expression
appearance
supporting the halls of the
the palace and its
perished completely
• The ruins of Parsepolis
present day
• Existing ruins however
of the city’s original
• Some columns
great halls have survived
• The mud brick fabric of
enclosing walls have *for educational purposes only*
Assyrian ArchitecturePalace at Persepolis
• Only the sculptures which adorn
doorways or windows and openings and the relief ornamenting its entrance way remain
*for educational purposes only*
Buildings & Other Arch.Building Types
Elements
houses, temples and palaces
outstanding buildings types in ANE
and city fortification was also witnessed
organization led to the evolution of the inward
city with narrow passages to distribute people
• 3 building types examined in ANE; Cities and
• Temples and palaces were the most
• Significant development in house organization
• In Sumerian civilization, development in
house looking courtyard house• Houses formed the dominant buildings of the
*for educational purposes only*
Buildings & Other Arch. ElementsBuilding Types
• Across all the civilizations, cities were usually walled
• The walls were of massive brick material, with evenly distributed towers serving as buttresses.
• Examples of city wall or fortification examined include City of Khorsabad and Babylon
• The chief’s house at precinct of the Great Ziggurat and the Palace at Parsepolis were also fortified with brick walls.
*for educational purposes only*
Buildings & Other Arch. ElementsTemples and Palaces
during the different periods of the ANE
and were also common during the Babylonian
Ziggurats, while the character of the Babylonian
of them
located outside the city and the city temple
• Importance of temples and palaces varied
• Temples started during the Sumerian period
period.• The Sumerian temples were raised on
temples is not certain because there is no trace
• The Sumerian temples had chief temples
located within the fabric of the city*for educational purposes only*
Buildings & Other Arch. ElementsTemples and Palaces
• Neo-Babylonians also built great palaces. The legendary palace of Nebuchadnezzar with its hanging garden is widely reported in history
• Temple building declined during the Assyrian period, when palaces took over as the prominent building type
• The Palaces at Khorsabad and Parsepolis shows the rise of the palace as the focus of architectural development over the temple
*for educational purposes only*
Materials, Construction & Tech.Materials
• Stone and timber suitable for building was rare in the plains of the Tigris and Euphrates.
• Clay was however in abundance
• This was compressed in moulds and dried in the sun to provide bricks for all buildings
• Sun dried brick became the standard building material
• It was used across all the cultures of the ancient Near East
*for educational purposes only*
Materials, Construction & Tech.Materials
• Wood was scarce but was imported fromLebanon
• Wood was probably applied mainly for roofing or for producing tools and ornaments
• Stone was used by the Assyrians but only for relieve carving and for columnar support
• It was in ancient Persia that extensive use of stone witnessed
• The Babylonians introduce glazed brick, which was used in the façade of their gates and prominent buildings
*for educational purposes only*
Materials, Construction & Tech.Construction
development of construction methods
to stone
reinforced with buttresses.
Sumerian temples.
Mesopotamian period
• The abundance of mud brick led to the
appropriate to its physical properties.
• Structurally Mud brick is weak when compared
• To compensate, walls were very thick and
• This construction system is evident in the
• Vaulting was known and used during the
*for educational purposes only*
Materials, ConstructionConstruction
& Tech.
vaults.
oblong spaces.
the ANE
and Neo-babylonian periods.
borrowed from other cultures in the region,
• Rooms were usually roofed with domes or
• Tunnel vaults were used to cover long narrow
• Columnar construction was not very popular in
• It was used in few instances in the late Assyrian
• It was however extensively used by the Persians
• Persian architecture, was an architecture that
including Egypt and Greek sources*for educational purposes only*
Materials, Construction &Technology
Tech.
commonly used in the Ancient Near East;
probably a product of its desert environment
livable environments in houses
as a thermal storage
fluctuations of temperature
• Two technologies appear to have been
passive cooling and water supply.
• The evolution of courtyard in Mesopotamia was
and the need for climate modification.
• Courtyards were used for cooling to create
• The thick walls of houses may also have served
• They help to mitigate against the wide
*for educational purposes only*
Materials, Construction & Tech.Technology
• People of the ancient Near East also mastered the earth of water supply
• Channels were used to move water and supply it to agricultural fields and houses.
• Ancient Babylon was said to have an aqueduct that supplied water to the city.
• The hanging garden in Nebuchadnezzar’s palace would also be impossible without a means of transporting water from the ground to the garden
*for educational purposes only*
Principles of Arch. OrganizationPrinciples
• Three principles appear to predominant in the organization of architectural form and space
– Courtyard organization
– Lifting of buildings on artificial mountains
– Organic organization of city fabric
*for educational purposes only*
Forces Shaping Arch. Organ.Forces
• Three forces account for the prevailing architectural organizing principles observed
• Geography,
• Symbolism and meaning to the people
• Social factors
• Combination of the factors account for the architectural forms that are witnessed in
all the cultures of the ANE
*for educational purposes only*
Forces Shaping Arch.Geography
Organ.
and built form
and constrained the development of
conditions which lead to the evolution of the
of courtyard fixed the form of buildings as a
of one story multi-courtyard form
• A strong factor in shaping spatial organization
• Limited the availability of construction
material construction technology• Desert environment also meant t hash climatic
courtyard form of building• Prevalence of mud bricks coupled with the use
regional solution.• Most buildings- whether house or palace, were
*for educational purposes only*
Forces Shaping Arch. Organ.Symbolism and Meaning
symbolisms and meaning
sky and to god
Ziggurat to communicating with the chief priest
holy experience.
motivation for the construction of larger and
• Organizing principles may also be a factor of
• The role of symbolism is evident in the Ziggurat
• Sumerians think of ziggurat as a ladder to the
• They believed that God came down to the
• Climbing the ziggurat is also associated with a
• Symbolic meaning of ziggurat provides more
impressive mountains*for educational purposes only*
Forces Shaping Arch. Organ.Symbolism and Meaning
and power of the king
in the symbolic importance
center of authority.
of the temple
authority and power of the emperor of the
commandeer resources from as far as Egypt and
• Palaces also symbolize power and authority
• In Assyria, architecture expressed the authority
• The palace at Khorsabad also shows the decline
compared to the palace of the king, which is the
• At Parsepolis, the palace also expresses the
Persian empire
• This power is evident in the ability to
Lebanon to create a unique palace*for educational purposes only*
Forces Shaping Arch. Organ.Social Concerns
• Social concerns contributed to the evolution of
design principles
• There was need for defense due to warfare
• Led to construction of wall fortifications for cities
• Also to ziggurat as a place of refuge from attack
• Concerns for privacy
• Courtyard house may have evolved because of privacy needs *for educational purposes only*