PHASE I: USAGESubject-verb: identification, agreementClause v phraseWord choice

Consistent verb tenseCorrect pronoun usagePronoun agreement

List of commonly confused words Identifying the main subject Identifying the main verb Basic verb tenses Checking for verb consistency; when is inconsistency okay Pronoun cases: examples, exercises Informal v Formal language

PHASE II: MECHANICSCommas clarify. Semicolons separate. Colons introduce.

Punctuation, Punctuation, PunctuationCapitalization, Spelling

Comma splices Commas with introductory words/phrases/clauses/that, which Commas with nonrestrictive phrases/clauses Commas with appositives Commas in a series Semicolons to separate clauses in a sentence Semicolons to separate items in a series that includes internal punctuation Colons to introduce a series, quote, or explanation Punctuating a quote Apostrophes: possession and contraction Hyphens, Dashes, Parentheses End punctuation Capitalization, down and dirty

PHASE III: RHETORICConveying meaning through effective organization as well as effective syntax and semantics

What is the point?o Identifying effective sentence structure, active/passiveo Recognizing implication and inference

How are rhetorical devices used?o Parallelism, figurative language, leaps of logic

Which comes first?o Effective organization of words, sentences, paragraphso Is the sentence, paragraph, or text cohesive? If not, how could it be fixed?

Does this essay type (rhetorical mode) fit the purpose?o Cause-Effect; informative (expository); narrative; process analysis,

comparison-contrast …

PHASE I

MAIN SUBJECT refers to the main part of the sentence, not a dependent clause. A subject is never the object of the preposition or any other object type.VERBS MUST AGREE with subjects in number and must be consistent in tense with other verbs.

Identify the main subject and correct verb choice in each sentence.

1. Because Mary Ellen (has not / had not) completed her chores, she cannot go to the movies.

2. Under the car seat (were / are) two notebooks that have been missing for three weeks.

3. French Euro Roast coffee and Sumatra coffee (have been served / were served) at Starbuck’s for a long time.

4. The images from Diana’s photography class (was accepted / have been accepted) by the gallery for their next show.

5. Walt Disney, a forward-thinking innovator, initiated a mass movement in family entertainment.

6. Last week before she went away to college, Margaret led the discussion about Kate Chopin’s novel The Awakening.

7. The shipped product differed from the one that was advertised in the catalog.

VERB TENSE CONSISTENCY

Are these sentences correct? If not, what is wrong and how will it best be corrected? Name each verb tense, then tell whether it is right or wrong.

___ 1. If the club limited its membership, it will have to raise its dues.

___ 2. As Barbara puts in her contact lenses, the telephone rang.

___ 3. Thousands of people will see the art exhibit by the time it closes.

___ 4. By the time negotiations began, many pessimists have expressed doubt about them.

___ 5. After Capt. James Cook visited Alaska on his third voyage, he is killed by Hawaiian islanders in 1779.

___ 6. I was terribly disappointed with my grade because I studied very hard.

___ 7. The moderator asks for questions as soon as the speaker has finished.

___ 8. Everyone hopes the plan would work.

___ 9. Harry wants to show his friends the photos he took last summer.

___ 10. Scientists predict that the sun will die in the distant future.

___ 11. The boy insisted that he has paid for the candy bars.

___ 12. The doctor suggested bed rest for the patient, who suffers from a bad cold.

Tense Consistency Exercise 3

In the following passage from Alex Haley's Roots, some of the verbs have been deliberately omitted. Supply the appropriate tense for each missing verb, the plain form of which is given in brackets.

In Banjuh, the capital of Gambia, I met with a group of Gambians. They [tell] me how for centuries the history of Africa has been preserved. In the older villages of the back country, there are old men called griots, who [be] in effect living archives. Such men [memorize] and, on special occasions, [recite] the cumulative histories of clans or families or villages as those histories [have] long been told. Since my forefather [have] said his name was Kin-tay (properly spelled Kinte), and since the Kinte clan [be] known in Gambia, the group of Gambians would see what they could do to help me. I was back in New York when a registered letter [arrive] from Gambia.

Words [have] been passed in the back country, and a griot of the Kinte clan [have], indeed, been found. His name, the letter said, [be] Kebba Kanga Fofana. I [return] to Gambia and [organize] a safari to locate him.

The verbs in bold in the following passage are each in the correct tense.

In Banjuh, the capital of Gambia, I met with a group of Gambians. They told me how for centuries the history of Africa has been preserved. In the older villages of the back country, there are old men called griots, who are in effect living archives. Such men memorize and, on special occasions, recite the cumulative histories of clans or families or villages as those histories have long been told. Since my forefather had said his name was Kin-tay (properly spelled Kinte), and since the Kinte clan was known in Gambia, the group of Gambians would see what they could do to help me. I was back in New York when a registered letter arrived from Gambia.

Word had been passed in the back country, and a griot of the Kinte clan had, indeed, been found. His name, the letter said, was Kebba Kanga Fofana. I returned to Gambia and organized a safari to locate him.

Controlling Shifts in Paragraphs

Although the main tense in the following paragraph is past, the writer correctly shifts to present tense twice. Find these two verbs in present tense. If you encounter difficulty, try reading the paragraph aloud.

The Iroquois Indians of the Northeast regularly burned land to increase open space for agriculture. In fact, the early settlers of Boston found so few trees that they had to row out to the islands in the harbor to obtain fuel. Just how far north this practice extended is uncertain, but the Saco River in southern Maine appears to have been the original northern boundary of the agricultural clearings. Then, pressured by European settlement, the Iroquois extended their systematic burning far northward, even into the Maritime Provinces of Canada. (abridged from Hay and Farb, The Atlantic Shore)

Read the following paragraph through, and determine the main tense. Then reread it and circle the three verbs that shift incorrectly from the main tense.

For the past seven years, I have called myself a swimmer. Swimming, my one sport, provides a necessary outlet for my abundant energy. I have always drawn satisfaction from exertion, straining my muscles to their limits. I don't know why pushing forward in the water, as my muscles cried out in pain, sets off a booming cheer in my head. Many times when I rounded the turn for the last lap of a race, my complaining muscles want to downshift and idle to the finish. My mind, however, presses the pedal to the floor and yells, "FASTER!" The moment that I touched the wall my muscles relax; the pain subsides. I am pleased to have passed the point of conflict. (adapted from Brendon MacLean, "Harder!")

You will notice several shifts in tense in the following paragraph describing action in a fictional narrative. Find the six faulty shifts in tense.

In "The Use of Force" William Carlos Williams describes a struggle involving a doctor, two parents, and their young daughter. The doctor must obtain a throat culture from the girl, who was suspected of having diphtheria. This ordinarily simple task is hindered by the frightened and uncooperative patient, Mathilda Olson. Adding to the doctor's difficulties were the parents, who had to struggle with their own conflicting emotions. They want their daughter helped, but they did not trust the doctor to do the right thing. Sensitive to the parents' uncertainty, the doctor became more and more frustrated by Mathilda's resistance. Williams gives considerable attention to how each of the Olsons react, but it

is clear that his main interest was in the doctor and his responses. (adapted from a student essay)

In this first paragraph, the two verbs in present tense--both appropriate for the situation--are indicated in bold.

The Iroquois Indians of the Northeast regularly burned land to increase open space for agriculture. In fact, the early settlers of Boston found so few trees that they had to row out to the islands in the harbor to obtain fuel. Just how far north this practice extended is uncertain, but the Saco River in southern Maine appears to have been the original northern boundary of the agricultural clearings. Then, pressured by European settlement, the Iroquois extended their systematic burning far northward, even into the Maritime Provinces of Canada. (abridged from Hay and Farb, The Atlantic Shore)

The main tense in this next paragraph is present. Incorrect shifts to past tense are indicated in bold.

For the past seven years, I have called myself a swimmer. Swimming, my one sport, provides a necessary outlet for my abundant energy. I have always drawn satisfaction from exertion, straining my muscles to their limits. I don't know why pushing forward in the water, as my muscles cried out in pain, sets off a booming cheer in my head. Many times when I rounded the turn for the last lap of a race, my complaining muscles want to downshift and idle to the finish. My mind, however, presses the pedal to the floor and yells, "FASTER!" The moment that I touched the wall my muscles relax; the pain subsides. I am pleased to have passed the point of conflict. (adapted from Brendon MacLean, "Harder!")

Since the following paragraph describes action in a fictional narrative, the main tense should be present. The six incorrect shifts to past tense are underlined.

In "The Use of Force" William Carlos Williams describes a struggle involving a doctor, two parents, and their young daughter. The doctor must obtain a throat culture from the girl, who was suspected of having diphtheria. This ordinarily simple task is hindered by the frightened and uncooperative patient, Mathilda Olson. Adding to the doctor's difficulties were the parents, who had to struggle with their own conflicting emotions. They want their daughter helped, but they did not trust the doctor to do the right thing. Sensitive to the parents' uncertainty, the doctor became more and more frustrated by Mathilda's resistance. Williams gives considerable attention to how each of the Olsons react, but it is clear that his main interest was in the doctor and his responses. (adapted from a student essay)

SEQUENCE OF VERB TENSES

Strictly speaking, in English, only two tenses are marked in the verb alone, present (as in "he sings") and past (as in "he sang"). Other English language tenses, as many as thirty of them, are marked by other words called auxiliaries. Understanding the six basic tenses allows one to re-create much of the reality of time in their writing.

Simple Present: They walk

Present Perfect: They have walked

Simple Past: They walked

Past Perfect: They had walked

Future: They will walk

Future Perfect: They will have walked

Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the perfect tenses, all of which are formed by adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third principal part.

ring, rang, rungwalk, walked, walked

The most common auxiliaries are forms of "be," "can," "do," "may," "must," "ought," "shall," "will," "has," "have," "had," and they are the forms we shall use in this most basic discussion.

Present Perfect

The present perfect consists of a past participle (the third principal part) with "has" or "have." It designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present or the effect of which still continues.

1. Betty taught for ten years. (simple past)

2. Betty has taught for ten years. (present perfect)

The implication in (1) is that Betty has retired; in (2), that she is still teaching.

1. John did his homework. He can go to the movies.

2. If John has done his homework, he can go to the movies.

Infinitives, too, have perfect tense forms when combined with "have," and sometimes problems arise when infinitives are used with verbs such as "hope," "plan," "expect," and "intend," all of which usually point to the future (I wanted to go to the movie. Janet meant to see the doctor.) The perfect tense sets up a sequence by marking the action which began and usually was completed before the action in the main verb.

1. I am happy to have participated in this campaign!

2. John had hoped to have won the trophy.

Thus the action of the main verb points back in time; the action of the perfect infinitive has been completed.

Past Perfect

The past perfect tense designates action in the past just as simple past does, but the action of the past perfect is action completed in the past before another action.

1. John raised vegetables and later sold them. (past)

2. John sold vegetables that he had raised. (past perfect)

The vegetables were raised before they were sold.

1. Renee washed the car when George arrived (simple past)

2. Renee had washed the car when George arrived. (past perfect)

In (1), she waited until George arrived and then washed the car. In (2), she had already finished washing the car by the time he arrived.

In sentences expressing condition and result, the past perfect tense is used in the part that states the condition.

1. If I had done my exercises, I would have passed the test.

2. I think George would have been elected if he hadn't sounded so pompous.

Future Perfect

The future perfect tense designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the future.

1. Saturday I will finish my housework. (simple future)

2. By Saturday noon, I will have finished my housework. (future perfect)

Review

1. Judy saved thirty dollars. (past)

2. Judy will save thirty dollars. (future)

3. Judy has saved thirty dollars. (present perfect)

4. Judy had saved thirty dollars by the end of last month. (past perfect)

5. Judy will have saved thirty dollars by the end of this month. (future perfect)

IRREGULAR VERBS IN ENGLISH

Present Past Past Participle

be was, were beenbecome became becomebegin began begunblow blew blownbreak broke brokenbring brought broughtbuild built builtburst burst burstbuy bought boughtcatch caught caughtchoose chose chosencome came comecut cut cutdeal dealt dealtdo did donedrink drank drunkdrive drove driveneat ate eatenfall fell fallenfeed fed fedfeel felt feltfight fought foughtfind found foundfly flew flownforbid forbade forbiddenforget forgot forgottenforgive forgave forgivenfreeze froze frozenget got gottengive gave givengo went gonegrow grew grownhave had hadhear heard heardhide hid hiddenhold held heldhurt hurt hurtkeep kept keptknow knew knownlay laid laidlead led ledleave left leftlet let letlie lay lain

lose lost lostmake made mademeet met metpay paid paidquit quit quitread read readride rode riddenrun ran runsay said saidsee saw seenseek sought soughtsell sold soldsend sent sentshake shook shakenshine shone shonesing sang sungsit sat satsleep slept sleptspeak spoke spokenspend spent spentspring sprang sprungstand stood stoodsteal stole stolenswim swam swumswing swung swungtake took takenteach taught taughttear tore torntell told toldthink thought thoughtthrow threw thrownunderstand understood understood

wake woke (waked)

woken (waked)

wear wore wornwin won wonwrite wrote written

Using Pronouns Clearly

Because a pronoun REFERS to a noun or TAKES THE PLACE OF that noun, you have to use the correct pronoun so that your reader clearly understands which noun your pronoun is referring to.

Therefore, pronouns should:

1. AGREE IN NUMBER

If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.

INCORRECT: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.CORRECT: If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.

Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.

INCORRECT: Everybody ought to do their best.

CORRECT: Everybody ought to do his or her best.

INCORRECT: Neither of the girls brought their umbrellas.

CORRECT: Neither of the girls brought her umbrella.

NOTE: Many people find the construction "his or her" wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural noun as your antecedent and thus you can use "they" as your pronoun, it may be wise to do so. If you do use a singular noun and the context makes the gender clear, then it is permissible to use

just "his" or "her" rather than "his or her."

2. AGREE IN PERSON

If you are writing in the first person (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the second person (you) or third person (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the second person, don't switch to first or third.

INCORRECT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.CORRECT: When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.

3. REFER CLEARLY TO A SPECIFIC NOUN.

Don't be vague or ambiguous.

INCORRECT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged.

CORRECT: You rewrite the sentence, fixing the dangling modifier.

INCORRECT: I don't think they should show violence on TV.

CORRECT: You rewrite the sentence to clarify the pronoun reference.

INCORRECT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice.

CORRECT:You rewrite the sentence to be more clear

INCORRECT:

CORRECT:You rewrite the sentence to clarify the pronoun reference.INFORMAL V FORMAL LANGUAGE

It is always wise to use formal language in any school or academic setting.ACT uses formal language.

Do not use contractions.

Do not use slang.

Do not use jargon unless the article is a professional or technical paper aimed at a professional audience.

Do not use fragments.

Do not use regionalisms.

Do use standard sentence constructions.

Do use standard paragraphing.

Do adhere to the 4C’s.

Do know your audience.

PHASE II: MECHANICS

Commas clarify. Semicolons separate. Colons introduce.

Purdue OWL Commas: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/607/02/

Purdue OWL Semicolons: http://depts.dyc.edu/learningcenter/owl/semicolons.htm

Purdue OWL Colons: http://depts.dyc.edu/learningcenter/owl/colons.htm

Purdue OWL Quotation Marks: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/577/01/

Purdue OWL Apostrophes: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/621/01/

Purdue OWL Hyphens: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/576/1/

Dashes, Parentheses

End Punctuation

COMMA SPLICESWhen two complete sentences are joined ONLY BY A COMMA, that is called a comma splice. In formal writing, it is ALWAYS WRONG.

COMMAS WITH INTRODUCTORY WORDS, PHRASES, CLAUSES

SETTING OFF WITH COMMASAPPOSITIVESNONESSENTIAL INFORMATION

COMMAS AND SEMICOLONS TO SEPARATE ITEMS IN A SERIES

SEMICOLONS TO SEPARATE CLAUSES

COLONS TO INTRODUCE A SERIES, A QUOTE, OR AN EXPLANATION

QUOTATIONS

APOSTROPHES: POSSESSION AND CONTRACTION

HYPHENS, DASHES, PARENTHESES

END PUNCTUATION

PHASE III: RHETORIC

SENTENCE STRUCTURERUN-ONS or FUSED SENTENCESA run-on occurs when there is NO PUNCTUATION between complete sentences. A fused sentence is the same as a run-on.Purdue OWL: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/exercises/5/26/5

FRAGMENTSA fragment is an incomplete sentence; that is, either no subject, no verb, or no complete thought.Purdue OWL: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/620/01/

ACTIVE SENTENCE / PASSIVE SENTENCEPurdue OWL: Active and Passive voice: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/539/02/Changing passive to active voice https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/539/05/

IMPLICATION/INFERENCEA meaning is implied by the writer or speaker.A reader or listener infers meaning.

ORGANIZATION of WORDS, SENTENCES, PARAGRAPHSPARAGRAPHS:Chronological order:

Paragraphs separate the process or series of events into major stages. Classification:

Paragraphs divide the material into major categories and distinguish between them.

Increasing importance: Paragraphs are arranged so that the most important point comes last, thus building the essay's strength.

Cause and effect Indicates causal relationships between things and events. Be careful, however, not to mistake coincidence with causality, nor to disregard other possible causes.

Comparison and contrast Involves lining up related ideas for a detailed account of similarities and differences. In this kind of essay it is important to decide whether you will be concentrating on similarities or differences. In general, the more similar things are, the more you concentrate on the differences, and vice versa. If you are comparing two works by the same author, or two love poems, for example, what will most interest you will be the differences between them; if you are comparing an Anglo-Saxon riddle with a science fiction novel the differences will be obvious enough that you will want to focus on the similarities.

SENTENCES:

Sentences can be organized much the same way as paragraphs. However, sentences often build on each other to create meaning. Be sure to get ideas in the correct order.WORDS:

The best way to test whether words are in the correct order is to hear them. Also, be sure not to use a word before it is defined or explained.

PARALLELISMParallelism is structural. It occurs when structures are repeated for effect, to create interest, or to convey a message. Parallelism can use words, phrases, clauses, or entire sentences. Parallel structure often, but not always, repeats a key word or words. These items are often in a series, or they can occupy the same structural position in a sentence.

Biking, hiking, and skiing are Jonah’s favorite hobbies.

The loveliest parts of a long nature hike occur when we observe wildlife in their natural habitat, when we encounter formations along the trail, and when we sit down to rest by a lovely hillside.

To love others is to accept them as they are.