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Biology Benchmark Review Spring 2018

Name: _________________________________ Period: _______ Date: ___________

Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze, or increase the rate of a chemical reaction, without being changed or used up. Enzymes may break apart a substrate, such as in digestion, or they may join two substrates together, such as in protein synthesis.

■ Enzymes speed up chemical reactions (building up or breaking down molecules) by reducing the amount of energy needed for the reaction to start.

■ Denature - modifying the molecular structure of an enzymes active site

■ Inhibitor - A molecule that limits or blocks the function of an enzyme

Optimum Conditions – The peak most effective condition for enzymes to catalyze chemical reactions

Notice that the cell cycle consists of three parts:

(1) interphase, where the cell grows and replicates its DNA; (2) mitosis (M), in which the nucleus divides to form two nuclei and is divided into four phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase); and

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Name: _________________________________ Period: _______ Date: ___________

(3) cytokinesis, or division of the cytoplasm and cell.

Cancer cells are cells that replicate constantly, going through the cell cycle (specifically, mitosis) more than they should and creating tumors that can harm the body.

The product of mitosis is two identical diploid cells. Each daughter cell has the exact same number of chromosomes and genes as their parent cell. This process to create somatic cells.

Meiosis produces four different haploid cells. Each of the four daughter cells has a completely different genetic makeup from the parent cells. This process to create gametes.

Remember that the best way to remember the order of each taxon is to create a mnemonic for yourself such as Dear King Phillip Come Over For Grape Soda.

You can also make your own.

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Name: _________________________________ Period: _______ Date: ___________

_________, __________, ___________, __________, __________, __________, __________, ________

Prokaryote: No nucleus No membrane-bound

organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts

But does have ribosomes All prokaryotes are

unicellular (bacteria)

Eukaryote: Eu = nucleus Has organelles and ribosomes All protists, fungi, plants, and

animals are eukaryotes. Some eukaryotes are

unicellular and some are multicellular.

Virus Terms Host cell: The cell that a virus infects, virus must be inside a host

cell to reproduce

Vaccine: To prevent viruses, a weakened version of the viruses is may be injected into an organism to “teach” the immune system how to make the specific antibodies to fight the virus.

Antibiotics: DO NOT kill viruses. To Kill Bacteria!! Remember, viruses are non-living

Examples of viruses: HIV (attacks helper T cells in the immune system and eventually leads to AIDS), influenza/flu (attacks respiratory system), polio (attacks nervous system and causes paralysis), measles, chicken pox, cold

Lytic Cycle: short reproductive cycle where the virus actually kills the host cell quickly

-Short word, short cycle

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Name: _________________________________ Period: _______ Date: ___________

Lysogenic Cycle: longer reproductive cycle where the virus DNA “hides” inside of the host DNA. As the host cells replicate, the virus DNA replicates too.

Mutation Definition Examples

Substitution Mutations

THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT

THE FAT HAT ATE THE RAT

single base substitution

One nitrogenous base must be replaced by another base pair.

…CAT CAT CAT… →

…CGT CAT CAT…

Frameshift Mutations

THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT

THE FAT HCA TAT ETH ERA T

Insertion : One nitrogenous base pair is inserted in the DNA, shifting each base pair to the right.

Deletion : One nitrogenous base pair is deleted in the DNA, shifting each base pair to the left.


…CAT CGA TCA T…


…CAT CTC AT…

6A: DNA Structure/FunctionEach of your cells and the cells of all organisms has deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which are molecules that contain the information to make proteins and keep the cells alive. Each DNA molecule is made of two long chains of subunits called nucleotide. DNA is stored in the nucleus.

A DNA nucleotide consists of a sugar, phosphate and a base. The four bases in DNA are adenine (___), thymine (___), cytosine (___) and guanine (___.) They are the common subunits that make up the genetic code for all

living things.

These bases code for proteins which are your traits.Chromosomes: wound up DNA. Contain the genetic information needed to form an individual’s traits. Each of which codes for a specific polypeptide (protein). -In Karyotypes, every chromosome is paired up (two of each)-Sex chromosomes: XX = female

XY= male (Y’s with the guys)

DNA is the directions for making protein, but ribosomes are actually the “workers” that carry out the instructions. Proteins are made by linking building blocks called Amino

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G

G

Male or female?

Abnormal, why?


Name: _________________________________ Period: _______ Date: ___________

acids. Just like DNA, RNA can be used to direct the synthesis of protein. They are structurally similar, with 2 exceptions:

(1) RNA is single-stranded; (2) RNA has uracil (___) in place of thymine (T).

Transcription is the process in which a section of DNA (a gene) converts its genetic information into a molecule that can travel outside of the nucleus, mRNA. The DNA’s two strands within a cell’s nucleus will separate by breaking the hydrogen bonds between complementary bases. The bases that make up RNA will match with the complementary DNA bases, creating a molecule with all the necessary information for making protein.

The mRNA leaves the nucleus and attaches to the ribosome in the cytoplasm It attaches in groups of 3 bases, known as a codon. A second type of RNA, known as tRNA (transfer RNA) is found in the cytoplasm. This molecule has a unique folded structure, with a 3-base sequence known as an anticodon exposed along one side, allowing it to join with a matching codon from mRNA. The tRNA also has an amino acid attached at one end. The amino acid that is attached is determined by the 3-base sequence.

6F:

Genetic CrossesPhenotype: the physical trait of an organism (Red flowers)Genotype: the genetic alleles of an organism (RR, Rr, or rr) Allele: different versions of a traitDominant allele: the allele that will “dominate” the other. If there, it will be expressedRecessive allele: the allele that will be overshadowed if there is a dominant alleleHomozygous: two of the same alleles (RR or rr)Heterozygous: two different alleles (Rr)Punnett SquaresExample: Two heterozygous parents with brown eyes (Bb and Bb) Dihybrid CrossIn guinea pigs, black coat (B) is dominant to white coat color (b) and short hair (H) is dominant to long

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BB= ¼ Bb= ½bb= ¼ Brown = ¾ and Blue= ¼

BB= ¼ Bb= ½bb= ¼

Word BankDNA mRNARNA PolymeraseCodonAnticodon

RibosometRNAAmino AcidsPolypeptide ChainProtein


Name: _________________________________ Period: _______ Date: ___________

hair (h). What fraction of offspring will be homozygous recessive for both traits if two guinea pigs that are heterozygous for both traits are crossed? Step 1: Identify the genotypes of both parents. Parent 1: BbHh Parent 2: BbHhStep 2: SEPARATE THE LETTERS!!BbHh x BbHhBb x Bb Hh x Hh

Step 3: Set up a Punnett square for each trait, or “letter.” KEEP THE LETTERS SEPARATE Step 4: Multiply the fractions. This question asks: What fraction of offspring will be homozygous recessive for if two heterozygous guinea pigs are crossed?Homozygous recessive color: bb = ¼ Homozygous recessive hair: hh= ¼ Multiply: bb X hh ¼ X ¼ = 1/16

B.7: The student knows evolutionary theory is a scientific explanation for the unity and diversity of life.

B.7E Natural SelectionThrough many different types of evidence, scientists have come to understand that all organisms on Earth share a common ancestor and have changed over time through the process of evolution. Evolution: the process of species changing over time and it happens mainly through the process of natural selection.Natural selection: individuals who are best adapted to their environments survive and reproduce the best. Decreases genetic variation.Over time, there will be more of those traits in the population as

they survive better and pass their genes on to their children Genetic Drift – The change of traits in a population due to random chanceBottleneck Effect – A type of genetic drift, Only a small portion of the original population survives after a natural disaster, disease, predators, resource scarcity, etc.

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BB= ¼ Bb= ½bb= ¼

HH= ¼ Hh= ½hh= ¼

Brown = ¾ and Blue= ¼

Label the oldest and youngest fossil layer


Name: _________________________________ Period: _______ Date: ___________

Founder Effect – A type of genetic drift, A few members of the original population start a new colony in an unpopulated area. Gene Flow – Migration (Movement) of genes from one population to another existing population of the same species

Biogeography (the study of where organisms live) has shown scientists where different organisms first evolved and how they have changed since moving to

different places.

Homologous structures are characteristics that have the same basic structure found in different species because they evolved from a common ancestor, not because they serve the same purpose (like the forelimbs above). Analogous structures are structures that serve a similar purpose in two distantly related species. They are a product of convergent evolution- species becoming more similar over time (example: both butterflies and birds have wings, but they evolved wings independently, not because they are closely related.

Binomial Nomenclature A two-part scientific name, with the genus 1st and species 2nd.

• Genus and species – always capitalize the Genus in the scientific name

Examples Homo sapiensPanthera leoB.8: The student knows that taxonomy is a branching classification based on the shared characteristics of organisms and can change as new discoveries are made.Because life is so diverse, scientists have created a system for organizing all living things called taxonomy. The largest taxa (or groups) of living things are called domains.

There are only 3 domains—Eukarya (all eukaryotic organisms), Archaea, and Bacteria. The next smaller group is a kingdom. There are 6 kingdoms—Bacteria, Archaea, Plants, Animals, Fungi, and Protists.

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Name: _________________________________ Period: _______ Date: ___________

The scientific name for a species consists of its genus and species.

Phylogenetic Trees show the relationships between different organisms. The different “nodes” (where they come together) represent common ancestors. Some phylogenetic trees are called cladograms and show when traits were gained or lost. Time moves left-->right

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Last common ancestor for salamander and lizard.-both have jaws and lungs, but only lizard has claws or nails

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