3. I R A I C C I , U L L U R A I A N D D H V A M I

Tolkappiyam and Anandavardhana ' s Dhvanyaloka a r e

c o n s i d e r e d epoch-making works i n I n d i a n a e s t h e t i c s . A

t r e a t i s e on grammar and p o e t i c s , Tolkappiyam, commonly

a s s i g n e d t o t h e p r e - C h r i s t i a n e r a , s p e a k s of a p o e t i c

t r a d i t i o n v e r y much l i k e t h e one embodied i n Canksm p o e t r y

and a l s o h i n t s a t l i t e r a r y c o m p o s i t i o n s of an e a r l i e r

p e r i o d . Anandavardhana, who l i v e d i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y

A.D., b e l o n g s t o a g r e a t t r a d i t i o n of S a n s k r i t

a e s t h e t i c i a n s , some of h i s i l l u s t r i o u s p r e d e c e s s o r s b e i n g

B h a r a t a , Bhamaha, Udbhata and Vamana. I n h i s Dhvanyaloka,

a s y s t e m a t i c t r e a t i s e on s u g g e s t i o n i n p o e t r y , he c l a i m s

t h a t dhvani is t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e o f p o e t r y j u s t a s rasa i s

t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e of dhvani. T c l k a p p i y a r , on t h e o t h e r

hand, h a s g i v e n u s c r y p t i c a c c o u n t s of what a r e c a l l e d

iraicci and ullurai. These t h r e e c o n c e p t s , c l o s e l y

examined w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e poems i n which t h e y a r e

e x e m p l i f i e d , r e v e a l how complex and s u b t l e I n d i a n a e s t h e t i c

t hough t was even i n t h e d i s t a n t p a s t .

The re a r e t h r e e aphor i sms on iraicci i n

Tolkappiyam's " P c r u l i y a l " and t h r e e more r e f e r e n c e s t o it

i n " K a r p i y a l " and " P e y a r i y a l " .'

I~aicci i s a s s o o i a t e d w i t h Uri. ( 1 1 7 5 )

Some meaning is born of Izaicci a l s o ;

Tha t w i l l be comprehens ib l e t o t h o s e w e l l v e r s e d i n Akam C o n v e n t i o n s . ( l l 7 6 ) I n c i d e n t s of l o v e w i l l b e a l l u d e d t o i n Iraicci i n o r d e r t o c o n s o l e t h e l o v e r s p i n i n g i n s e p a r a t i o n . ( l l 7 7 )

~ o l k g p p i y a r d o e s n o t ment ion iraicci when he

c a t a l o g u e s t h e t h i r t y f o u r p r o p e r t i e s of t h e poem i n

"Ceyyu+ iya l " . He a t t e m p t s t o d e f i n e and e x p l a i n i~aicci

o n l y i n t h e t h r e e P o r u i i y a l crttirans quo ted above . Of t h e

m a t e r i a l s of a poem, t h r e e a r e g i v e n prominence by him:

mutsl ( t h e " f i r s t t h i n g s " i . e . t i m e and p l a c e ) , Karu .4

( t h i n g s born i n t o o r n a t i v e t o a r e g i o n ) , and Uri ( t h e - human f e e l i n g s a p p r o p r i a t e l y s e t i n nutpal and Karu).

V

Iraicci would, t h e r e f o r e , d e n o t e t h e f l o r a and f a u n a of a - l andscape a s u sed i n s c e n e s d e p i c t i n g t h e l o v e of b i r d s and

a n i m a l s i n o r d e r t o i n t e n s i f y t h e a f f e c t i o n s f e l t by human

c h a r a c t e r s . I n two of t h e aphor i sms i n " K a j p i y a l " ( 1 0 9 4

and 1116) , T o l k z p p i y a r makes p a s s i n g r e f e r e n c e s t o iraicci

t o i n d i c a t e i ts p l a c e i n t h e h e r o i n e ' s and s e r v a n t s '

u t t e r a n c e s . They f u r t h e r c l a r i f y t h a t t h e a l l u s i o n s w i l l

be t o t h e s c e n e s of l o v e among b i r d s and a n i m a l s w i t n e s s e d

on t h e way and t h a t t h e p r ime mo t ive f o r i n c l u s i o n of s u c h

o c c u r r e n c e s w i l l be t o i nduce and s u s t a i n t h e emot ion of

l o v e i n t h e h e r o o r t h e h e r o i n e . I n t h e one ccttiram i n

" P e y a r i y a l " (661) i t i s s a i d t h a t c e r t a i n names ment ioned

i n i r a i c c i , t hough hav ing s u f f i x e s meant f o r human b e i n g s

and g o d s , w i l l r e f e r o n l y t o t h e o r e a t u r e s found on t h e

way. The g rammat i ca l t r e a t i s e s t h a t came a f t e r TolkEippiyam

s u c h a s Nalabiakapporuf and ~ z ~ a n a l a i i k i ; r a m do n o t throw any

l i g h t on t h e c o n c e p t b u t s imp ly i d e n t i f y i z a i c c i w i t h

karupporu ! . Even ou r a n c i e n t commenta to r s , I t ampi i r ana r and

N a c c i n Z r k k i g i y a r a r e n o t v e r y h e l p f u l i n d e f i n i n g t h e t e r m

p r e c i s e l y o r i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i t from U;;u_rai unambiguous-

l y . 2

I r a i c c i abounds i n Cankam poems. I n some poems it

a p p e a r s a s a mere d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p l a c e . ~ i ; k u ~ u n u ? y u

h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g p i e c e by ' i j t a l ~ n t a i y ' i i r :

They 've come, C r o s s i n g even t h e h o t f o r k i n g d e s e r t p a t h s

where t h e s h a r p t o o t h e d r e d d o g s of t h e j u n g l e w a i t by t h e c a c t u s clump t o k i l l a w i l d p i g f o r h i s mate now s u f f e r i n g pangs of l a b o u r ,

a l l t h e way t h e y ' v e come w i t h you , o h e a r t , t h e g e n t l e ways

o f t h e woman you l o v e . 3

The h e r o t e l l s h i s h e a r t t h a t t h e s t e r l i n g c h a r a c t e r

of t h e l a d y i t l o v e s h a s come a l l t h e way t o t h e w i l d e r n e s s

i n which t h e r e d dog , i n o r d e r t o f e e d h i s p r e g n a n t ma te ,

is on t h e l o o k o u t f o r a w i l d p i g . S e p a r a t e d f rom h i s

s w e e t h e a r t , t h e l o v e r d e s c r i b e s h i s agony and t h e s e t t i n g

chosen i s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e f e e l i n g e x p r e s s e d . The

p a l a i r e g i o n a w a s t e l a n d pa rched by summer b e i n g t h e p l a c e ,

t h e c a c t u s p l a n t and a n i m a l s l i k e r e d d o g and w i l d p i g

found i n such r e g i o n s c o n s t i t u t e t h e Karupporuf. Here t h e

Karupporu! has no hidden meaning t h o u g h it s e r v e s w e l l t o

e x p r e s s t h e pangs of s e p a r a t i o n i n t e n s e l y f e l t by t h e

p r o t a g o n i s t . A poem i n K a l i t t o k a i d r a m a t i z e s t h e agony o f a

l o v e - l o r n l a d y who t e l l s h e r f r i e n d t h a t h e r l o v e r who h a s

gone t o s e c u r e w e a l t h w i l l c e r t a i n l y r e t u r n b e c a u s e he w i l l

come a c r o s s s e v e r a l s c e n e s of ma le a n i m a l s and b i r d s

shower ing t h e i r l o v e and a f f e c t i o n on t h e i r m a t e s .

" F o r e s t s a r e ha rd t o c r o s s , t h e i r h e a t u n b e a r a b l e , " he s a i d ;

My g i r l of g o l d e n e a r - r i n g s , He a l s o s a i d ,

" t h e e l e p h a n t t h e r e d r i n k s t h e l i t t l e w a t e r muddied by i ts young ones w i t h d rum- l ike f e e t , a f t e r f e e d i n g i ts ma te . "

" F o r e s t s a r e p a i n f u l t o p a s s t h r o u g h , boughs c h a r r e d by t h e h e a t b e a r i n g d r i e d up l e a v e s , " he s a i d ;

He a l s o s a i d , " t h e dove t h e r e s p r e a d s i t s s o f t w ings t o s o o t h e w i t h s h a d e i t s l o v i n g t e n d e r mate sco rched by t h e s u n . "

" F o r e s t s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o r e a c h , d e n s e s u n r a y s b u r n i n g bamboos on t h e r o c k , " he s a i d ;

He a l s o s a i d , t h e d e e r t h e r e w i t h i t s b o d y ' s shadow o f f e r s s h e l t e r

t o i t s young doe i n s e a r c h of ~ h a d e . " ~

(Kalittokai 11)

The akam conven t ion a s s o c i a t e s f a t i g u e d e l e p h a n t s , d o v e s ,

d e s e r t t r e e s , bamboos, s t a g n a n t w a t e r and t h e b u r n i n g sun

w i t h t h e p a l a i r e g i o n and w i t h t h e theme of s e p a r a t i o n from

t h e l o v e r . I n such poems ir'arupporu! e x p l i c i t l y becomes

iraicci.

B e s i d e s b e i n g a p l e a s i n g i d y l l i c a c c o u n t , izaicci

may become s u g g e s t i v e . A he ro w h i l e r e t u r n i n g home a f t e r

comple t i ng h i s t a s k a t a f a r - o f f p l a c e , shows h i s

c h a r i o t e e r a s c e n e s i g n i f y i n g t h e l o v e of a cock f o r i t s

hen and u r g e s him t o speed up t h e h o r s e s :

Le t o u r t i r e d w a r r i o r s move a t t h e i r own s low pace l o o s e n i n g t h e i r g a r m e n t s , r e s t i n g , r e l a x i n g on t h e way. Spur on t h e c h a r i o t - h o r s e s u s i n g t h e unused s p u r , 0 c h a r i o t e e r , behold t h e f o r e s t fowl t h a t s p o r t s on i ts s k i n many minute d o t s of b e a u t y , its c a l l v e r y muoh l i k e t h e sound of mi lk -d rops f a l l i n g on m e l t i n g b u t t e r , h o l d i n g i n its beak a worm dug from t h e e a r t h we t t ed by r e c e n t r a i n s , qnd l o o k i n g f o r i ts m a t e . 5

The s u g g e s t i o n is t h a t t h e h e r o who migh t have e a r n e d

enough d u r i n g t h e e x p e d i t i o n would j o i n h i s w i f e a s e a r l y

a s p o s s i b l e t o l e a d a happy l i f e

The b e s t k ind of iraicci is t h e one which i n d u c e s ,

by i t s s e n s u o u s a p p e a l s , f e e l i n g s of l o v e and a f f e c t i o n f o r

o n e ' s mate and assumes a c o n n o t a t i v e d imens ion . One

h e r o i n e of t h e H u l l a i r e g i o n compla ins t h a t h e r husband

h a s n ' t r e t u r n e d a t t h e a p p o i n t e d t i m e .

He h a s n ' t come; J a s m i n e s have a l s o bloomed. Those h o l d i n g sheep-hooks i n t h e i r hands hav ing l e f t t h e s h e e p , t h e s h e p h e r d l a d , coming w i t h m i l k and g o i n g w i t h f o o d , has h i s head adorned a l l w i t h j a smine b u d s . 6

(Ku_run toka i , 2 2 1 )

For H u l l a i t t i ? a i , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e theme is

s e p a r a t i o n / p a t i e n c e , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f l o w e r j a smine

and t h e l a n d s c a p e f o r e s t / p a s t u r e . R e f e r e n c e s t o

s h e p h e r d s , s h e e p and cows a r e , of c o u r s e , i n d i s p e n s a b l e .

The a p p e a l i n t h e poem is t o t h e s e n s e o f s m e l l ; i t s

a r o u s a l o f p a s s i o n a t e f e e l i n g s i n t h e p i n i n g h e r o i n e i s

o b v i o u s .

U l i u r a i is a n o t h e r r e l a t e d c o n c e p t wh ich seems t o

have been s u b t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d f rom i r a i c c i by t h e a n c i e n t

Tamil b a r d s . To lk i ipp iya r d e f i n e s i t , a g a i n c r y p t i c a l l y , i n

t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s i n " P o r u ? a t i k Z r a m " . I n " A k a t t i y a i

I y a l " , he p o i n t s o u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e between u ? ? u r a i uvamai - and t h e o t h e r uvamai . ( E n a i Uvamai) .

- U l l u r a i uvamai ( i m p l i e d s i m i l e ) and E n a i Uvamai ( i f ; eeo the r s i m i l e ) a r e i n e s c a p a b l e i n i d e n t i f y i n g t h e t i ? a i . ( 9 9 2 )

Those who know t h e grammar of p o e t r y s a y t h a t u l l u r a i w i l l have a l l t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e pc? t i cu l a r t i ~ a i e x c e p t t h e d e i t y . ( 9 9 3 )

The i m p l i e d s e n s e which has been d e s i g n e d t o c o r r e s p o n d e x a c t l y t o U ; i u r a i Uvamai is t o b e i n f e r r e d f rom i t . ( 9 9 4 )

The o t h e r s i m i l e is s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y . ( 9 9 5 )

A.K. Ramanujan 's i n f e r e n c e s f rom t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s

a r e q u i t e i l l u m i n a t i n g . C a l l i n g u t ? u r a i s i n s e t s , he

a t t e m p t s a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i r u n i q u e n a t u r e and

f u n c t i o n :

( a ) An i n s e t i s a c o r r e l a t i o n of t h e l a n d s c a p e s and t h e i r c o n t e n t s ( k a r u ) t o t h e human s c e n e ( u r i ) . ( b ) Un l ike metaphor i n o r d i n a r y l a n g u a g e , an i n s e t is a s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e w i t h i n t h e poen; i t i n t e g r a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n t e l e m e n t s of t h e poem and s h a p e s i ts message . ( c ) U n l i k e me taphor and s i m i l e , it o f t e n l e a v e s o u t a l l t h e e l e m e n t s of compar i son and a l l e x p l i c i t m a r k e r s o f compar i son ( e . g . " l i k e " , " a s " ) ; s u c h an o m i s s i o n i n c r e a s e s m a n i f o l d t h e power of t h e f i g u r e . ( d ) The i n s e t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a "metonymy", an i n p r e s e n t i a r e l a t i o n s h i p , where b o t h t e r m s a r e p r e s e n t , where t h e s i g n i f i e r and t h e s i g n i f i e d b e l o n g t o t h e same u n i v e r s e , s h a r e t h e same " l a n d s c a p e " . Bo th a r e p a r t s of one s c e n e . Suoh a metonymy, r a t h e r t h a n me taphor , is t h e f a v o u r i t e p o e t i c f i g u r e o f

t h e o l a s s i c a l Tami l s

Adap t ing a remark of Kenneth B u r k e ' s (1845:6-7) i n a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , we may s a y ,

"The re is i m p l i c i t i n t h e q u a l i t y o f a s c e n e t h e q u a l i t y of t h e a c t i o n i m p l i c i t i n i t . . . one cou ld deduce t h e d e t a i l s of t h e a c t i o n f rom t h e d e t a i l s of t h e s e t t i n g . T h i s k ind o f "metonymous me taphor" , ba sed on an e n t i r e form61 schemy, is a s p e c i a l f e a t u r e of c l a s s i c a l Taluil f o rms" .

I n "Uvamaviyal" a l s o T o l k x p p i y a r s p e a k s of t h e two

t y p e s of s i m i l e s . S i n c e t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i n t h e

u!?u~aiuvamai is n o t made e x p l i c i t b u t i s used by t h e p o e t

i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e a n c i e n t t r a d i t i o n ,

i t s r e a l i m p l i c a t i o n can be i n f e r r e d by t h o s e w e l l v e r s e d i n t h e a r t of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . ( 1244)

Uvamappoli i s of f i v e k i n d s . ( 1 2 4 5 )

I f t h e e x c e l l e n c e of uJJuyaiuvamai i s s o u g h t , i t is t o be found i n t h e t e r m s of compar i son t h a t r e f e r t o a c t i o n , r e s u l t , s h a p e , c o l o u r and b i r t h . ( 1246)

A l l compar i sons , a c c o r d i n g t o ~ o l k g p p i y a m , a r e Lased

on a c t i o n , r e s u l t , c o l o u r o r s h a p e . F o r u;!u_railivamai,

b i r t h may a l s o be a compar i son .

" P o r u i i y a l " ha s f i v e more aphor i sms t h a t i n d i c a t e

t h e f i v e t y p e s of uJ!u;ai.

The m e d i a t o r s between l o v e r s e x p r e s s t h e i r v i e w s e x p l i c i t l y . T h e i r u t t e r a n c e s w i l l have no h idden meaning. (1187)

Ullurai, a t r a d i t i o n a l l y p o l i t e mode of ex 'p ' rcss ion, i s of f i v e k i n d s : U t a n u r a i , u l i u y a i uvaxiam, c u t t u , n a k a i , and c i r appu : 71188)

U t a n u r a i ( t h e s e n s e t h a t is found w i t h i n ) , U l i u r a i ~ ; a z a % ( i n s e t t h a t s e r v e s a s a s i m i l e ) , C u t t u ( m e t a p h o r i c a l u l l u r a i ) , Haka i ( i n n e r s e n s e h idden i n s a r c a s m ) , ~ i i i p p u ( a g g r a n d i s m e n t ) .

B e s i d e s convey ing a h idden meaning uf!u_rai c a u s e s immense d e l i g h t . (1189)

Ullurai may c o n s i s t i n p r o p i t i o u s u t t e r a n c e s , w&;dy of a b u s e o r con t emptuous r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e h e r o ' s v a l o u r . (1190)

Anger , i g n o r a n c e , j e a l o u s y and p o v e r t y may go a l o n g w i t h c i r a p p u . (1191)

Some of t h e s e a p h o r i s m s have been i n t e r p r e t e d i n

d i f f e r e n t ways even by t h e s c h o l a r l y commen ta to r s s t e e p e d

i n t h e Sangam t r a d i t i o n . I l l u s t r a t i v e examples may, t o

some e x t e n t , c l a r i f y t h e n a t u r e of e a c h o f t h e f i v e t y p e s

of U i i u r a i . I n u$afiurai u;;urai, t h e h i d d e n s e n s e e x i s t s

w i t h i n t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r of t h e poem.

P l a y i n g w i t h f r i e n d s one t i m e we p r e s s e d a r i p e s e e d i n t o t h e w h i t e s and and f o r g o t a b o u t i t t i l l it s p r o u t e d and when we n u r s e d it t e n d e r l y p o u r i n g s w e e t m i l k w i t h m e l t e d b u t t e r , Mother s a i d , " I t q u a l i f i e s a s a s i s t e r t o you , and i t ' s much

b e t t e r t h a n y o u , " p r a i s i n g t h i s l a u r e l t r e e .

we a r e e m b a r r a s s e d

t o l a u g h w i t h you h e r e 0 man of t h e s e a s h o r e w i t h g l i t t e r i n g w a t e r s

where w h i t e conch s h e l l s , t h e i r s p i r a l s t u r n i n g r i g h t ,

sound l i k e t h e s o f t music of b a r d s a t a f e a s t

Y e t , i f you w i s h , t h e r e ' s p l n t y of shade e l s e w h e r e . %

( N a r ~ i n a i 1 7 2 )

T h i s s t a t e m e n t i s made by t h e h e r o i n e ' s g i r l f r i e n d

t o t h e h e r o when he comes by d a y l i g h t . She t e l l s him t h a t

t h e h e r o i n e f e e l s s h y t o meet him unde r t h e v e r y t r e e t h a t

has been t r e a t e d a s h e r younger s i s t e r by t h e f a m i l y . The

i m p l i e d meaning of t h e a p p a r e n t l y i n n o c e n t u t t e r a n c e is

t h a t t h e i r mother may come t o know o f t h e i r f r e q u e n t

m e e t i n g s and t h a t t h e t ime has come when t h e h e r o s h o u l d

t h i n k of m a r r y i n g h i s b e l o v e d .

I n U v a m a u ~ ~ u ~ a i t h e n a t i v e e l e m e n t s (Karu ) a r e

c a r e f u l l y chosen t o c o n s t i t u t e a complex and e l a b o r a t e

s i m i l e . I n an ~in'ku~unii'u poem a l a d y compla ins a g a i n s t

h e r l o v e r ' s c r u e l ways w i t h o u t e x p l i c i t l y s t a t i n g t h e wrong

he h a s done t o h e r .

I n t h e f i e l d s o f h i s l and f a k e s f l o w e r l i k e r e a l c a n e s ; Shy of p r o c l a i m i n g h i s c r u e l t y I s a y he is good . But my t e n d e r s h o u l d e r s s a y , by weaken in%, he is no good .g

( ~ i ; k u ~ u n F ~ u 1 2 )

I t i s i n t h e Ufluf la iuvamai t h a t t h e h e r o ' s h e i n o u s deed i s

h i n t e d a t . I f i n h i s f i e l d s f a k e s u g a r c a n e s f l o w e r l i k e

r e a l ones and b o t h a r e t r e a t e d a l i k e , h e , i n h i s h e a r t , h a s

g i v e n e q u a l p l a c e t o h i s s w e e t h e a r t and h i s c o n c u b i n e s .

Ur+ura iuvamai s a r e marked by t h i s k ind of one - to -one

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . I n Ku~untokai we come a c r o s s more

e l a b o r a t e l y worked c u t s i m i l e s of t h i s n a t u r e .

I d o n ' t d i s a g r e e w i t h him; I do a g r e e w i t h him

I n t h e h i l l of h i s l a n d , from t h e ~ d A k a i t r e e , u p r o o t e d by an e l e p h a n t g y p s i e s on t h e i r f e e t p i c k i ts f l o w e r s t o ado rn t h e i r heads ;

I d o n ' t d i s a g r e e w i t h h i e x c e p t i n g i n one m a t t e r . y 0

(Kurun toka i 208)

T h i s one m a t t e r i s t o be i n f e r r e d from t h e i n s e t

which s e r v e s a s a s i m i l e . The n a t i v e e l e m e n t s b r o u g h t i n

h e r e a r e t h o s e of ~ u : i Z j i t t i ? a i . The VQrikai t r e e thrown

down by t h e t h o u g h t l e s s e l e p h a n t c o n t i n u e s t o blossom and

i t s b r a n c h e s a r e e a s i l y r e a c h e d by t h e g i r l s . The l a d y

whose g r i e v a n c e is v o i c e d i n t h e poem h a s had p h y s i c a l

un ion w i t h t h e h e r o who is now unaware of t h e harm done t o

h e r b e c a u s e he h a s been d e l a y i n g t h e wedd ing . She h a s

become an e a s y v i c t i m o f p u b l i c s l a n d e r .

I n what i s c a l l e d Cu;;u Uf!u~ai, one t h i n g is

p o i n t e d a t t o y i e l d a h idden s e n s e

H a i l Thee! 0 Cloud, Would you scoop wa te r f rom t h e s e a , bend t h e d a r k v a u l t i n g w e l k i n , t h u n d e r l i k e a war drum , and g l i t t e r l i k e t h e sword unshea thed i n a f i g h t a g a i n s t f o e s f o r m i d a b l e by k i n g s j u s t and compe ten t , o n l y t o end i n sound and f u r y ? Or would you s a v e by r a i n t h e m i l l e t f i e l d gua rded by t h e gypsy g i r l moving g a i l y w i t h h e r f r i e n d s wea r ing V s i k a i f l o w e r s d e n s e l y l i n e d and f i r e - l i k e ceyalai l e a v e s s c a r i n g p a r r o t s by sound and s tone? ' '

(Akanzninu~u 188)

The h e r o i n e ' s g i r l f r i e n d a s k s t h e c l o u d i f it i s

g o i n g t o t h u n d e r i n v a i n o r i t w i l l s a v e t h e m i l l e t c r o p by

r a i n i n g . The message i s , i n f a c t , meant f o r t h e h e r o who

is e x p e c t e d t o s a y whe the r t h e s l a n d e r caused by h i s

f r e q u e n t v i s i t s w i l l b e a l l owed t o c o n t i n u e o r whe the r he

w i l l p u t an end t o it by m a r r y i n g t h e l a d y . Though

o s t e n s i b l y an a p o s t r o p h e t o t h e c l o u d , i t i s a d d r e s s e d t o

t h e h e r o and hence f a l l s w i t h i n t h e c a t e g o r y of Cu$)u

Ullurai . . I n Nakai U;!usai, t h e r e is a t i n g e of humour i n t h e

admoni t ion t h a t t h e h e r o has t o t h i n k o f an e a r l y wedd ing .

H i s pa lms s p o t l e s s a s t h e p e t a l

a t t h e p o l l e n c e n t e r o f l o t u s e s t h a t grow i n o l d w a t e r s where o t h e r s p l a y , h i s mouth l o v e l y a s c o r a l , making s w e e t baby t a l k n o t y e t u t t e r e d by t o n g u e , he makes e v e r y o n e l a u g h

E n c h a n t i n g e v e r y o n e , he was p l a y i n g a l o n e i n t h e s t r e e t w i t h h i s t o y c h a r i o t , o u r s o n w e a r i n g g o l d o rnamen t s -

when t h a t woman o f y o u r s ,

bu rdened w i t h g o l d , t e e t h s h a r p and l o v e l y , s e e i n g y o u r l i k e n e s s i n h im, t h i n k i n g t h e r e was no o n e w a t c h i n g , b e n t down h a p p i l y and c a l l e d o u t t o him, "come h e r e , my l o v e ! " and c l a s p e d him t o h e r young b r e a s t s b o r n e down w i t h n e c k l a c e s .

S e e i n g h e r , I c o u l d n ' t move b u t when s h e t u r n e d t o me, I h e l d h e r c l o s e and I s a i d , "you young i n n o c e n t , d o n ' t be s h y you t o o a r e a m o t h e r t o him" Her f a c e f e l l a s one c o n f e s s i n g a t h e f t ; s h e s t o o d s c r a t c h i n g t h e g round w i t h h e r t o e n a i l s . Look ing a t h e r s t a t e , d i d n ' t I t o o l o v e h e r t h e n , t h i n k i n g " s h e ' s l i k e t h e p o w e r f u l g o d d e s s i n t h e s k y , g o d d e s s o f c h a s t e w i v e s , and f i t t o b e mo the r t o y o u r son?"12

( ~ k a n z n i i ~ u 16 )

I n t h i s p i e c e , t h e h e r o i s r e p r i m a n d e d by h i s w i f e ,

who, a f t e r m e e t i n g h i s c o n c u b i n e i n s t r a n g e o i r c u m s t a n c e s ,

t e l l s him t h a t t h e o t h e r woman a l s o a p p e a r e d f i t t o be t h e

mother of t h e i r s o n . I n t h e c o u r s e o f h e r l o n g s p e e c h

d e s c r i b i n g h e r e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e c o n c u b i n e , s h e i n d i c a t e s

h e r a w a r e n e s s of h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e l a t t e r and

s a r c a s t i c a l l y c a l l s t h a t u n c h a s t e woman A r u n t a t i , t h e

a r c h e t y p e of c h a s t i t y .

TolkZppiyam m e n t i o n s ' C i r a p p u ' a s one o f t h e r e a s o n s

f o r t h e u s e o f s i m i l e s . " C i r a p p Z N a l a c E " ( 1 2 2 5 ) . H e r e

C i ~ a p p u may be t a k e n t o mean a g g r a n d i s n e n t . The i n t e n s i t y

of t h e l a d y ' s l o v e is s u b t l y e x p r e s s e d i n Cizappu u i i u ~ a i

i n words t h a t a p p a r e n t l y d e n o t e a n g e r , i g n o r a n c e , j e a l o u s y

o r p o v e r t y .

When p o l l e n g r a i n s t h a t f e l l f rom t h e f r a g r a n t h a i r o f c o n c u b i n e s a r e s e e n on y o u r s h o u l d e r s

who a r e you t o t o u c h u s ? a r e t h e y t h a t b e a r n o p a r t i s l a v e s t o t h e h a r d - h e a r t e d ? 'is

(Kalittokai, 88)

The l a d y h e r e f o r b i d s h e r husband t o t o u c h h e r a s he

h a s been away s p e n d i n g h i s t i m e w i t h c o n c u b i n e s . But h e r

a n g r y words f a i ' l t o h i d e t h e f a c t t h a t however c r u e l h i s

i n s e n s i t i v e n a t u r e may b e , s h e is i n c a p a b l e o f b e a r i n g t h e

agony of s e p a r a t i o n f rom him.

Anandava rdhana ' s Dhvanyaloka e x p l a i n s t h e n a t u r e of

d h v a n i and p r e s e n t s i t a s t h e m e e t i n g p o i n t of a l l

p r i n c i p l e s of S a n s k r i t l i t e r a r y t h e o r y . C l a i m i n g t h a t

s u g g e s t i o n i s b o t h t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e of a l l f i r s t r a t e

w r i t i n g s and t h e most b e a u t i f u l p r i n c i p l e of p o e t r y , t h e

g r e a t S a n s k r i t a e s t h e t i c i a n d e f i n e s it i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

manner :

T h a t meaning which w i n s t h e a d m i r a t i o n of r e f i n e d c r i t i c s i s d e c i d e d t o be t h e s o u l of p o e t r y . The ' e x p l i c i t ' and t h e ' i m p l i c i t ' a r e r e g a r d e d a s i t s two a s p e c t s . Of t h e s e , t h e e x p l i c i t is commonly k n o w n a n d it h a s been a l r e a d y s e t f o r t h i n many ways t h r o u g h f i g u r e s of s p e e c h s u c h a s t h e s i m i l e by o t h e r w r i t e r s ; . . . But t h e i m p l i c i t a s p e c t is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f rom t h i s . I n t h e words a f f i r s t r a t e p o e t s it s h i n e s supreme and t o w e r s above t h e b e a u t y o f t h e s t r i k i n g e x t e r n a l c o n s t i t u e n t s even a s charm i n lajlles. T h a t meaning a l o n e i s t h e s o u l of p o e t r y .

The i m p l i c i t meaning is e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t f rom t h e

e x p l i c i t meaning; a t t i m e s one may be of t h e n a t u r e o f a

p r o h i b i t i o n and t h e o t h e r of a p o s i t i v e p r o p o s a l . The

f o l l o w i n g s h o r t poem is g i v e n a s one of t h e examples t o

i l l u s t r a t e t h e p o i n t :

Mother- in- law l i e s h e r e , l o s t i n s l e e p ; And I h e r e ; t h o u s h o u l d s t mark These b e f o r e it is d a r k . 0 t r a v e l l e r , b l i n d e d by n i g h t , Tumble n o t i n t o o u r b e d s a r i g h t . 1 5

Anandavardhana o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e i n n e r meaning o f a

poem is n o t unde r s tood by a mere knowledge of grammar and

d i c t i o n a r y . I t is unde r s tood o n l y by t h o s e who have an

i n s i g h t i n t o t h e t r u e s i g n i f i c a n c e of p o e t r y . The

s u g g e s t e d meaning f l a s h e s sudden ly a c r o s s t h e minds of

p e r c e p t i v e c r i t i c s when t h e y move away f rom t h e l i t e r a l

meaning. Only t h a t k ind of p o e t r y i n which c o n v e n t i o n a l

meaning r e n d e r s i t s e l f s econda ry and s u g g e s t s t h e i n t e n d e d

meaning is d e s i g n a t e d by t h e l e a r n e d a s Dhvani o r

s u g g e s t i v e p o e t r y . S i n c e s u g g e s t i o n i s c o n d i t i o n e d by o n l y

t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e s u g g a s t e r and t h e s u g g e s t e d , it

canno t be subsumed unde r t h e s o u r c e of b e a u t y i n t h e

e x p r e s s e d and t h e e x p r e s s i o n . I n f i g u r e s of s p e e c h s u c h a s

condensed metaphor , p a r a l e i p s i s , metonymy, p e r i p h r a s i s ,

f a n c i e d d e n i a l , e l l i p s i s imp ly ing a s i m i l e and merging of

f i g u r e s , s u g g e s t i o n is n o t p o s s i b l e because t h e s u g g e s t i v e

e l emen t i s n o t e x o l u s i v e l y i m p o r t a n t i n them. I n p l a c e s

where we have j u s t a glimmer of t h e i m p l i e d , o r where t h e

imp l i ed i s j u s t handmaid t o t h e e x p r e s s e d , o r where i ts

p r imary impor t ance is n o t c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e , t h e r e is no

s u g g e s t i v e p o e t r y .I6

R e j e c t i n g t h e view t h a t s u g g e s t i o n is n o n - e x i s t e n t ,

Anandavardhana p o i n t s o u t t h a t s u g g e s t i o n is t w o f o l d :

(1) a v i v a k s i t a v&ya ( w i t h u n i n t e n d e d l i t e r a l i m p o r t . ( 2 )

v i v a k s i t a n y a p a r a - vgcya ( w i t h i n t e n d e d b u t f u r t h e r

e x t e n d i n g l i t e r a l i m p o r t ) . These a r e i l l u s t r a t e d

r e s p e c t i v e l y by t h e f o l l o w i n g two poems:

(1) T h r e e p e r s o n s w i l l g a t h e r F lower s of g o l d f rom t h e e a r t h : The b o l d , t h e l e a r n e d , And he who knows how t o s e r v e .

( 2 ) On which moun ta in and f o r h o ~ l o n g Did t h i s one p e r f o r m penance? And what might be i t s name? F o r , t h e young p a r r o t p e c k s The f r u i t s o r e d a s you r l i p s ? 1 7

The S a n s k r i t p o e t - c r i t i c f u r t h e r a s s e r t s t h a t

i n d i c a t i o n s h o u l d n o t be m i s t a k e n f o r s u g g e s t i o n b e c a u s e

t h e r e is a v i t a l d i f f e r e n c e i n n a t u r e be tween t h e two .

I n d i c a t i o n i s mere ly m e t a p h o r i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n .

T h i s bed of l o t u s l e a v e s bespeaks The t o r m e n t of t h e damse l t h a t s l e p t t h e r e o n . Faded a t i t s two e n d s w i t h p r e s s u r e Of h e r buxom b r e a s t s and b u r l y h i p s . The p a r t t h a t spanned h e r s l e n d e r w a i s t Remains g r e e n w i t h o u t s u c h p r e s s u r e . And h e r e i t i s i n d i s o r d e r By t h e movements of h e r t e n s e c r e e p e r - l i k e arms.''

I n t h i s poem, t h e word " b e s p e a k s " is an i n s t a n c e o f

i n d i c a t i o n . No word i n t h e poem is p r e g n a n t w i t h

s u g g e s t i v e f o r c e and hence it i s n o t a f i t i n s t a n c e o f

s u g g e s t i v e p o e t r y a c c o r d i n g t o Anandava rdhana . S i n c e

i n d i c a t i o n is based on t h e p r i m a r y d e n o t a t i v e f o r c e o f

words it is t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f rom s u g g e s t i o n whose s o l e

s u p p o r t is s u g g e s t i v i t y .

The a v i v a s i t a - v z c y a t y p e of d h a v a n i is s u b d i v i d e d

i n t o two v a r i e t i e s : (1) a t y a n t a t v a s k r t a - v z c y a (where t h e

l i t e r a l s e n s e is c o m p l e t e l y s e t a s i d e ) , and ( 2 ) ,--. arthandtarasamkramita-vgcya (where t h e l i t e r a l meaning is

Y

s h i f t e d ) . The f o l l o w i n g poem by Va lmik i i l l u s t r a t e s t h e

f i r s t :

A l l t h e charm t o t h e sun h a t h f l e d And t h e o r b is h i d i n snow; L i k e a m i r r o r by b r e a t h b l i The moon now d o e s n o t g l o w . ?aed ,

The word ' b l i n d e d ' c o n t a i n s t h e s u g g e s t i o n h e r e . Fo r t h e

second v a r i e t y , Anandavardhana c i t e s h i s own poem.

M e r i t s become m e r i t s i ndeed When c r i t i c s o f c u l t u r e ho ld them s o ; L o t u s e s w i l l be l o t u s e s Only when s u n s h i n e s h e l t e r s them.*'

Here ' l o t u s e s ' means ' l o t u s e s i n t h e f u l l s e n s e of t h e

word; l o t u s e s t h a t a r e wor thy of b e i n g c a l l e d l o t u s e s . ' *

The second d i v i s i o n o f dhvani, vivaksjitanya- J -

paravacya is a l s o d i v i d e d i n t o two s u b - v a r i e t i e s :

Samlaksyakrama-vyangya where t h e s t a g e s of r e a l i z i n g t h e

s u g g e s t e d s e n s e f rom t h e e x p r e s s e d s e n s e can be w e l l

p e r c e i v e d and asamlaksyakrama -vyangya where t h e s t a g e s i n

t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e s u g g e s t e d s e n s e a r e i m p e r c e p t i b l e .

The f i r s t t y p e is a g a i n s u b d i v i d e d i n t o vastu-dhvani where

a f a c t i s s u g g e s t e d and a l amkara -dhvan i where t h e sug -

g e s t e d e l emen t i s a f i g u r e of s p e e c h . From a n o t h e r p o i n t

of v i ew, i t may a l s o be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h a t based on

words sabda-sakt imi7la and t h a t based on t h e mean ings

a r t h a s a k t i m r l a . I n t h e fo rmer t h e words used a r e v i t a l t o

t h e s u g g e s t i o n , w h i l e i n t h e l a t t e r t h e c o n t e x t u a l f a c t o r s

and t h e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l background a r e i m p o r t a n t i n

b r i n g i n g o u t t h e s u g g e s t i o n . When s u g g e s t i o n i s based on

b o t h it i s c a l l e d u b h a y a s a k t i m ~ l a - d h v a n i .

S e n t i m e n t , emot ion , t h e semblance of s e n t i m e n t o r

mood and t h e i r r i s e and t h e i r c e s s a t i o n e t o . a r e a l l of

t h e second t y p e , asamlaksyakrama-vyangya. Anandavardhana

h e r e adds t h a t o n l y when t h i s v a r i e t y is p rominen t do we

have t h e v e r y s o u l of s u g g e s t i o n . Abhinavagupta l a t e r

c l a r i f i e d t h a t r a s a - d h v a n i a l o n e is t h e s o u l of p o e t r y

whereas vas tu -dhvan i and a l amkara -dhvan i u l t i m a t e l y

t e r m i n a t e i n t h e development of r a s a .

Anandavardhana a s s e r t s t h a t o f a l l t h e s e n t i m e n t s

t h e e r o t i c i s t h e most d e l e c t a b l e and t h a t t h e p o e t r y t h a t

i s f u l l of t h i s s e n t i m e n t is c e r t a i n t o p l e a s e . We a r e

reminded of t h e Akam c o n v e n t i o n s of ~ a i k a m p o e t r y when h e

o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e e r o t i c s e n t i m e n t f a l l s i n t o t h e two - f o l d

d i v i s i o n of l ove - in -un ion and l o v e - i n - s e p a r a t i o n , t h e f i r s t

of which may b e spoken i n t e r m s o f (1) exchange of l o v e -

g l a n c e s , ( 2 ) d a l l i a n c e , ( 3 ) honeymoon, and s o on and t h e

second of which may be g rouped i n t o (1) d e s i r e , ( 2 )

j e a l o u s y , ( 3 ) s e p a r a t i o n , ( 4 ) j o u r n e y , and s o f o r t h .

Everyone of t h e s e may g e t d i f f e r e n t a s s o c i a t i o n s of

s t i m u l i of s e t t i n g , emo t iona l r e s p o n s e s and p a s s i n g moods.

And s i n c e d i f f e r e n c e s of c i r c u n s t s n c e s s u c h a s t i m e and

p l a c e a r e a l s o i n v o l v e d , he f e e l s t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o

list a l l t h e v a r i e t i e s and s u b v a r i e t i e s of a s i m p l e

s e n t i m e n t .

A f t e r d i s c u s s i n g t h e name and n a t u r e of d h v a n i ,

Anandavardhana t u r n s h i s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s u g g e s t e r . Both

t h e v a r i e t i e s of s u g g e s t i o n may be made by i n d i v i d u a l words

o r by whole s e n t e n c e s . Asamlaksyakrama-vyangya, where t h e

s t a g e s i n t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e s u g g e s t e d s e n s e a r e n o t

d i s c e r n i b l e , may f l a s h f o r t h i n l e t t e r s , words , s e n t e n c e s

and i n t h e work a s a whole . P r o p e r p o r t r a y a l of t h e r i s e

and f a l l of t h e s e n t i m e n t s u s t a i n i n g t h e u n i t y of t h e

p r i n c i p a l s e n t i m e n t f rom b e g i n n i n g t o e n d , and d i s c r e t e u s e

of f i g u r e s of s p e e c h a r e t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t gove rn t h e

s u g g e s t i v e n e s s of a whole work of a r t . Only one o f t h e

many s e n t i m e n t s i n a l i t e r a r y work s h o u l d be made dominan t

by t h e p o e t who a ims a t g r e a t n e s s . Only t h e poem i n wh ich

t h e s u g g e s t e d s e n s e is e x c l u s i v e l y i m p o r t a n t d e s e r v e s t h e

name of d h v a n i . When t h e i m p l i e d s e n s e is s u b o r d i n a t e t o

t h e e x p r e s s e d , what r e s u l t s is gun ibhu ta -vyangya ( i . e . ,

P o e t r y of s u b o r d i n a t e d s u g g e s t i o n ) . The p o e t r y t h a t is

d e v o i d of t h e power t o s u g g e s t and owes i t s e x i s t e n c e o n l y

t o t h e s t r i k i n g n a t u r e of i ts e x p l i c i t mean ings and t h e

e x p r e s s i o n s t h a t d e n o t e them is c a l l e d c i t r a ( p o r t r a i t ) .

Anandavardhana s a y s t h a t i t i s n o t p o e t r y i n t h e s t r i c t

s e n s e of t h e t e r m b u t o n l y an i m i t a t i o n of p o e t r y . Though

many v a r i e t i e s o f s u g g e s t e d - s u g g e s t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e

p o s s i b l e t h e p o e t s h o u l d be ma in ly conce rned w i t h o n l y o n e

of them, i . e . , s u g g e s t i o n of s e n t i m e n t s . T h i s a s s e r t i o n by

t h e g r e a t a e s t h e t i c i a n makes i t c l e a r t h a t t h e r e i s no

c o n f l i c t between t h e t h e o r y o f d h v a n i and t h e t h e o r y o f

r a s a . I f t h e fo rmer u n d e r s c o r e s t h e method of t r e a t m e n t t h e

l a t t e r d e a l s w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e e f f e c t .

Anandavsrdhana h imse l f a n t i c i p a t e s many of t h e

c r i t i c i s m s a g a i n s t h i s concep t of d h v a n i . Some hold t h a t

d h v a n i i t s e l f d o e s n o t e x i s t . Some c l a i m t h a t it i s

subsumed i n l a k s a n a . Some f e e l t h a t it is someth ing beyond

t h e r ea lms of words . The N a i y a y i k a s r e j e c t i n g t h e

s u g g e s t i v e power of words would i n c l u d e d h v s n i u n d e r

i n f e r e n c e . R e j e c t i n g a l l t h e s e a rgumen t s p e r s u a s i v e l y ,

Anandavardhana e s t a b l i s h e s h i s t h e o r y t h a t d h v a n i , n o t t o

b e mis t aken f o r anumana, l a k s a n a o r a b h i d h a , i s t h e s o u l o f

p o e t r y .

D i s c u s s i n g t h e d h a v a n i t h e o r y of S a n s k r i t p o e t r y

George L . Ha r t I11 o b s e r v e s ,

One n a t u r a l l y wonders whether t h i s t e c h n i q u e cou ld have been i n f l u e n c e d i n some way by t h e p o e t r y of Sou th I n d i a , i n which it is found s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e i t s a 3 p e a r a n c e i n S a n s k r i t and P r a k r i t l i t e r a t u r e s .

On c l o s e examina t ion , i r a i c c i a p p e a r s t o b e more

a k i n t o d h v a n i t h a n u l l u r a i , t h e one v i t a l d i f f e r e n c e

between t h e Tamil and S a n s k r i t c o n c e p t b e i n g t h a t d h v a n i

may n o t depend on s i m i l e s o r me taphor s . When Karupporu; i s

used t o s u g g e s t a h idden s e n s e i t is c a l l e d i ~ a i c c i which

is more broad-based t h a n u f i u ~ a i . '&irupporul s e r v e s a s t h e

b a s i c m a t e r i a l f o r u ; f u r a i s a l s o . The main d i f f e r e n c e - between i r a i c c i and u i f u r a i l i e s i n t h e way t h e y a r e p u t t o - u s e . I n U!?uyai, t h e r e is a one- to-one c o r r e s p o n d e n c e

between t h e Karupporu i i t e m s and what t h e y s t a n d f o r i n t h e

imp l i ed meaning of t h e poem. I r a i c c i d o e s n ' t demand t h i s - k ind of co r r e spondence . I t is f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t u;;urai

is c o n s i d e r e d more a r t i f i c i a l t h a n i r a i c c i and d h v a n i ,

though t h e fo rmer d i s p l a y s g r e a t e r s c h o l a r s h i p t h a n t h e

l a t t e r . 2 2 Whereas i ~ a i c c i i s c o n f i n e d t o akam p o e t r y a l o n e

dhvan i i s a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l k i n d s of s u b j e c t m a t t e r . But

Anandavardhana is a l s o of t h e view t h a t t h e e r o t i c

s e n t i m e n t is i n t r i n s i c t o d h ~ a n i . ~ ~ Hos t of t h e examples

t h a t he g i v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e 5 of d h v a n i

a r e poems t h a t t r e a t l o v e and l o v e r s ' moods and e m o t i o n s .

When he s a y s t h a t d h v a n i may be u n d e r s t o o d and a p p r e c i a t e d

o n l y by ma tu re r e a d e r s , when he s p e a k s of l ove - in -un ion and

l o v e - i n - s e p a r a t i o n and when he d i s c u s s e s i n d e t a i l t h e

q u e s t i o n of decorum and p r o p r i e t y i n e r o t i c p o e t r y , one

c a n n o t h e l p f e e l i n g t h a t Anandavardhana might have been

f a m i l i a r w i t h and i n s p i r e d by t h e Tami l c o n c e p t s of i r a i c c i

and u l l u r a i .

NOTES AND REFERENCES

'813 Tolk&piyam S u t r a s a r e from TolkZppiyam(Madurai : S i d d h a r t h a P u b l i s h i n g House , l978)

2 ~ o r d i s c u s s i o n s i n Tamil on I r a i c o i and u l l u r a i s e e T a m i l a n n a l , I r a i c c i ( H a d u r a i : H i x a t c i ~ u t t a k a " ~ i l a i y a m , 1986';;T.P ~eensd j t sh i sunda ran , Tamil I l a k k i y a Vara1Zru:Carjka m l a m (Madura i : C a r v o t a y a I l a k k i y a p p a n n a i , 1 9 6 1 ) ,

A.K Ramanujan 's t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e p i e c e f rom ~ i j i k u ~ u n i i ~ u i n Poems of l o v e and war ( D e l h i : Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1965) . p . 6 0 .

4 ~ r a n s l a t i o n mine

ransl slat ion mine .

ransl slat ion mine

? A . K . Ramanujan, Poems o f l o v e and war, p p . 246-47.

* A . K . Ramanujan 's t r a n s l a t i o n i n Poems of l o v e a n d war, p . 3 3 .

9~ranslation mine.

10~ranslation mine

ll~ranslation mine.

12A.K Ramanujan's translation in P o e m s of l o v e and w a r , p p . 103-04.

13~ranlsation mine.

1 4 d n a n d a v a r d h a n a .s D h v a n y a l o k a , t r . K .Xrishnamurthy (Dharwar: Karnatak University, 1974), p p . 7-13.

2 1 ~ e o r g e L . Hart, T h e Poeius o f A n c i e n t T a m i l ( B e r k l e y : University of California Press, 1975), p . 1 6 9 .

2 2 ~ .P. Meenakshisundaran, T a m i l I l a k k i y a V a r a l r r u , p . 6 2 .

23Anandavardhana's D h v a n y a l o k a , P. 6 1