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Neuroscience of Prayer: Current Research

James A. Van Slyke

+Prayer and the Reward Systems of the Brain (Schjodt et. al. 2008) Research from the University of Aarhous, Denmark

Participants Protestant Danish Christians 20 participants (mean age 25.4)

6 males 14 females

Experimental Conditions Two Different forms of prayer analyzed

Formal prayer (Ritualistic, scripted) = Lord’s Prayer Informal prayer (Low structure, improvised)

+Prayer and the Reward Systems of the Brain (Schjodt et. al. 2008) Control Conditions

Well known rhyme (Control formal) Asking for gifts from Santa Claus (Control informal) Baseline (Counting back from 100)

Procedure Each participant went through both the experimental and

control conditions Tasks were prompted by headphones and lasted 30 seconds

(repeated 6 times) Tasks were performed silently using internal speech

+Prayer and the Reward Systems of the Brain (Schjodt et. al. 2008) During the Tasks brain activity was assess using fMRI

MRI – Magentic resonance imaging Provides structural layout of the brain Similar to an X-ray

fMRI – (functional magnetic resonance imaging) Estimates areas of the brain active during a task BOLD response Measures the amount of blood oxygenation levels in the

brain Higher oxygenation = higher levels of brain activity

+Reward Systems of the Brain: Striatum, Caudate Nucleus and Putamen

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Reward Systems both anticipate and estimate future rewards May be involved in both early and later stages of addiction May play a role in habitual behavior in terms of reward

Caudate Nucleus Instrumental conditioning

Reward systems increase the likelihood of repeating certain behaviors learned through experience

Damage to this area may induce symptoms of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

OCD has been linked with increased activity in the caudate

Reward Systems of the Brain: Striatum, Caudate Nucleus and Putamen

+Prayer and the Reward Systems of the Brain (Schjodt 2008)

Hypothesis: Prayers will activate the reward systems of the brain (Caudate nucleus)

Results Both prayer conditions showed increased activity in the

caudate and decreased activity during controls Formal prayer showed a slightly higher activation Participants self-reported as strong believers Self-reported as involved in a weekly practice of prayer

(Lord’s prayer mean = 4.75; Personal prayer mean =19.75

+Social Cognition and Prayer (Schjoedt et. al. 2009)

Follow up analysis

Used same set of experimental and control conditions

Expanded fMRI analysis to include areas of the brain used in social cognition

Hypothesis: Personal (non-formal) prayer activates areas of the brain used in social cognition

Praying to God is an intersubjective experience similar to general aspects of interpersonal interaction between persons

+Understanding Social Cognition

Social and Affective Neuroscience Areas of the brain seem to be

specialized for dealing with social relationships

Emotional evaluation; Estimating levels of trust

Areas of the brain from this study Precuneas

Higher order cognitive functions

Often involved in self-referential behavior (information important for the self

Schjodt et. al. interpretation Prayer involves information

important for the self (i.e. desires or problems

+Understanding Social Cognition

MPFC (Medial Prefrontal Cortex)

+The Famous Case of Phineas Gage

Before accident Intelligent capable worker excellent manager responsible family man upstanding citizen

After Accident Maintained his general intelligence Unreliable and capricious Socially Inappropriate Lost his family and fortune

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+ Case of Elliott

Before good husband and father high level job at business firm had attained an enviable social

status

Post surgery, tumor removed in orbital frontal area irresponsible unable to manage his time flawed decision making Divorced; entered unwise

marriage lost his job

+Case of Elliot

Laboratory test results maintained superior IQ (WAIS) flawless memory superior language ability normal on lab tests of financial and ethical

decision making normal lab ability to generate solutions to

social problems Could predict social consequences

+ Galvanic Skin Response (Measures Moisture in skin)

Iowa Gambling Task

+Gambling game

Test of decisions and consequences

normal individuals develop anticipatory evaluative autonomic response (mini emotional response)

Elliot was never able to develop a discriminatory anticipation while choosing from the bad decks

+ Follow up study to Elliott

NORMALS In normal participants (no MPFC lesions), anticipatory skin conductive

responses (SCRs) occurred at around 20 deck choices when selecting from the “bad” decks, despite participants not forming a conscious “hunch” until around 50 selections.

Generally by card 80, normal participants could articulate what was occurring with respect to “good” decks and “bad” decks

30 % did not have a conceptual understanding of the task but still made advantageous decisions.

VMPFC LESION PARTICIPANTS The few participants who made it to the conceptualization phase still were

making disadvantageous decisions

No anticipatory SCRs were experienced by any of the participants with VMPFC damage

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+Other regions of interest

Temporopolar region Associated with autobiographical memory Processing of social narratives Personal prayer requires memory of how God has answered

prayers in the past (Schjoedt interpretation)

Temporo-parietal junction Analyzing behavior Processing social causation and goal attribution Praying to God may be a type of negotiation; hoping to

change God’s intentions toward a situation (Schjoedt interpretation)

+Findings

For each one of the areas of the brain selected for analysis there was a higher level of activation in relation to personal prayer than the other conditions

Theory of Mind Many of the areas investigated have also been linked with

TOM TOM is the ability to understand the thoughts and

intentions of others (Mind-Reading) Important part of social life Deficit in persons with Autism

+Power of Charisma (2010)

Participants (n=37) Males = 15 Females = 22 Christians = 18 (mean age 23)

Pentecostal Frequent prayers (intercessory for 12 years; 33 times per

month) Secular = 18 (mean age 26.4)

No belief in God No belief in the effect of prayer

+Power of Charisma (2010)

Procedure Participants listened to 18 different prayers performed by

males Prayers were listed in three categories

Non-Christian (6) Christian (6) Christian known for being able to heal through prayer (6)

In reality all prayers were recorded by a single group of Christians and than randomly assigned to each group

Each prayer lasted 30 s

+Power of Charisma (2010)

Results Christians rated speakers charisma and presence of God for

all three conditions Highest for “healing powers” lowest for “non-Christians” God was reported as present in all conditions

Non-Christians showed a similar but lower pattern for charisma, but no real difference for experiencing God’s presence

+Power of Charisma (2010)

Results Secular participants – no real difference in brain activation

for the three groups Christian groups

Cascade effect from non-Christian (N-C) to healing powers (HP) group

Higher levels of activation for N-C and lower levels for Christian and HP group

Different areas of the brain – Prefrontal cortex; temporoparietal junction; inferior temporal cortex; temporopolar/ orbitofrontal; cerebellum

+Power of Charisma (2010)

Discussion Watching pictures of loved ones can deactivate executive

system (Bartels and Zeki 2000; 2004) Could be neural subsystem involved in trust? Takes more cognitive power to override prayer given by

NC group Schjoedt interpretation

Intercessory prayer similar to hypnosis “Handing over” of executive function to the leader Power of prayer based on the perceived charismatic

authority of healer or leader (Max Weber 1922)

+Critiques (Spezio 2011)

The problem of reverse inference Prayer activity linked with a brain area Other studies link the area with some function Thus, the same function is present in current study

Without specific test in experiment for assumed function, it is difficult to make causal interpretations

Most areas of the brain participate in numerous overlapping functions; difficult to limit areas of the brain to one function

fMRI studies should be taken seriously, but still tentatively