COURSE :III BBM CASUBJECT : RESEARCH METHODS FOR MANAGEMENTSEMESTER : V

SYLLABUS_____________________________________________________________________________________Research – Definition – Importance – Advantages and limitations. The research process – Problem identification – Design of research – Types of design – Sampling process and selection – Sample types – Sample size and sampling errors._____________________________________________________________________________________Reference BooksResearch Methodology – C.R.Kothari

INTRODUCTION- MEANING OF RESEARCH Research refers to a search for knowledge. Research is an art of scientific investigation. Research is considered as a movement from known to unknown. The term research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

Definitions of Research: Redman & Mooney – Research is “a systematized effort to gain new knowledge” Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English: - It lays down the meaning of research as “a

careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge”

Clifford Woody – Research comprises defining and redefining problems formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions: collecting, organizing and evaluating data: making deductions and reaching conclusions: and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

Objectives of research:The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific

procedures. Aim is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. We may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings.

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (Exploratory / Formulative research studies)

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (Descriptive studies)

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (Diagnostic research studies)

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables ( Hypothesis testing research studies)

Motivation in Research:1. Desire to get a research degree2. Desire to face the challenge in solving problems3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work4. Desire to get responsibility

Nature of research:(1) Research is fact-finding exercise.(2) It is directed to identify and solve problems.(3) It is based on systematic enquiry or observation.(4) It carries out scientific analysis of information and drawing logical conclusions.(5) Conclusions are used for generalizations and theoretical formulation.

Types of researchThe basic types of research are as follows:

1. Descriptive research Vs Analytical researchThe purpose of descriptive research is description of state of affairs as it exists at the present. It

includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. Descriptive research for social sciences and business research is called Ex post facto research.

The researcher has to use facts and information already available and analyze them to make a critical evaluation of the material.2. Applied research Vs Fundamental research

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Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an organization.

Fundamental research is also called pure or basic research. It is mainly concerned with generalizations and with formulation of theory.

Copy research - It is one of the applied researches. It is aimed in finding out whether certain communications will be read and understood.

3. Quantitative research Vs Qualitative research Quantitative research is based on measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to

phenomenon that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research is the phenomenon relating to or involving quality or kind. There are

many types of qualitative research. Motivational research aims at discovering under lying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for that purpose. Attitude or opinion research is designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution.

4. Conceptual research Vs Empirical research Conceptual research is related to abstract ideas and theory. It is generally used by

philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. Empirical research is a data based research, coming up with conclusions which are

capable of being verified by observation or experiment.5. Some other types of research(a) One-time or longitudinal research

If the research is confined to a single time period it is one-time researchIf the research is carried over several time periods it is longitudinal research

(b) Research can be field – setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.(C) Clinical or diagnostic research

If the research follows case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations it is called diagnostic research.(d) Exploratory or Formulative research

It the objective of research is to develop hypothesis or formulating a problem then it is called as exploratory research(e) Formalized research

Formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested(f) Historical research

If research utilizes historical sources like documents, remains etc to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time(g) Conclusion oriented research

While doing conclusion research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes(h) Decision – oriented research

It is used by a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination(i) Operations research

Operations research is an example of decision-oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations\

Significance of research The role of research in several fields of applied economics whether related to business or

to economy as a whole has greatly increased in modern times. Research provides for the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems

of business and industry. Operations research, market research, motivational research, budgeting etc play an important role in various business sectors in making decisions.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationship and seeking answers to various social problems.

Scope of research1. Research provides guidance to social planning. It helps in matching means and ends2. It facilitates control by providing knowledge about hidden facts3. It dispels trust of outworn assumptions, superstitions and stereotypes and promotes

better understanding of facts4. It suggests effective remedial measures and preventive methods5. It is employed in government and business planning

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Research Methods Vs Research MethodologyResearch methods mean all those methods and techniques that are used for the conduction of

research. Research methods can be grouped into 3 groups – (a) methods used for data collection (b) statistical techniques used for establishing the relationship between the data and unknown (c) methods used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

Research methodology means the way to systematically solve the research problem. It not only means research methods but also considers the logic behind the methods we use in a research study and explain why we are using that particular method and not using other methods so that the research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher or others.Criteria of Good research

Scientific research should satisfy the following criteria. 1. Purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.2. Research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to

repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.

3. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings

4. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.

5. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which data provides an adequate basis.

6. Greater confidence is warranted if the researcher is experienced and has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Characteristics of research1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem2. Research emphasis the development of generation of principles or theories that will help in

predicting future occurrences3. Research demands accurate observation and description4. Research involves gathering new data from primary or first hand sources or using existing data for

a new purpose5. Research activities are more often characterized by carefully designed procedures, always

applying rigorous analysis6. Research requires expertise to understand and analyse the data7. Research strives to be objective and logical8. Research requires courage9. Research involves quest for answers to unsolved problems10. Research is carefully recorded and reported

Problems encountered by researchers in India:1. Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for researchers in

our country.2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments and business

establishments, government departments. 3. Most of the business units in our country don’t have confidence in the material supplied by them

to researchers will not be misused. 4. Research studies overlapping with one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate

information. 5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and interuniversity and interdepartmental

rivalries are quite common. So developing a code of conduct becomes essential.6. Many researchers in our country face difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance and

computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion of research studies7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places resulting in wastage of

time and energy of the researchers8. There is also a problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new acts

and rules and other reports published by the government9. There is also difficulty of timely availability of published data from government organizations and

other research agencies10. There is also problem of conceptualization and also problems related to data collection taking

place.

RESEARCH PROCESS

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INTRODUCTION:Research process consists of a series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research

and the desired sequencing of the steps. It also identifies the problematic areas by using systematical and technical procedure. The following order concerning various steps provides useful procedural guidelines regarding the research process:1 . Formulating the research problem :

There are 2 types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. The researcher has to single out the problem he wants to study. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem. They are

(a) Understanding the problem thoroughly and (b) Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those having expertise in the matter. The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted with the selected problem.

After this the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones.2. Extensive literature survey

Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies can be used. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. 3. Development of working hypothesis

After extensive literature survey, the researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. Hypothesis is an assumption to be proved or disproved.

Role of hypothesis: 1) It guides the researcher by delimiting the area of research and keeps him on the right track. 2) It sharpens the thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. 3) It indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.

Hypothesis (a) must be clear, precise, limited in scope and specific (b) must be capable of being tested (c) should state relationship between variables (d) should be stated in simple terms (e) Should be consistent with most known facts (f) Should be capable of being tested within a reasonable time.

How to develop hypothesis – 1) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution

2) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues

3) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems and4) Exploratory personal investigation, which involves original field interviews on a limited scale

with, interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.4. Preparing the research design

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design which is a conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be efficient yielding maximal information. Research purpose may be grouped into four categories, viz (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. 5. Determining sample design

All items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. In such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample is popularly known as the sample design. Merits:

1. Sampling saves time because fewer items are collected and processed2. Reduces cost3. More reliable and accurate results can be obtained because there are fewer chances of sampling

statistical errors4. Sampling provides more detailed information5. If the population is infinite and if the units are destroyed during testing then sampling only can be

employed6. Easy to organize sample survey instead of census survey

Demerits:

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1. If sample survey is not carefully planned and executed conclusions may be inaccurate and misleading

2. To select a sample that represents the universe is difficult3. There may be personal bias when the sample units are drawn4. If the information is for each and every item of the universe then complete enumeration is better

Essentials of sampling:1. It must be representative2. Selected samples from the universe should not have any differences when compared with universe3. To make the results more reliable, adequate number of items are to be included in the sample4. The effort of sampling should get maximum results both in terms of cost and efficiency

6. Collecting the dataData are of two types – primary and secondary data.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment, through survey or one or more of the following ways:

1. By observation2. Through personal interviews3. Through telephone interviews4. By mailing of questionnaires5. Through schedules

Secondary data can be of both published and unpublished nature. If reliable data are readily available the researcher should make use of them. The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.7. Execution of the project

If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such case questions and the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers.8. Analysis of data

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is a procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers.9. Hypothesis-testing

Then the researcher has to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary – has to be identified. Various tests, such as Chi-square test, t-test, F-test have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. Hypotheses testing will result in either accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.10. Generalisations and interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

Finally the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:1. The layout of the report should be as follows: 1. The preliminary pages 2. The main text and 3. The end matter.

In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts: (a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of objective of research and an explanation of methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. (b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language.(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence.(d) Conclusion: At the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. It is the final summing up.

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

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A research problem refers to some difficulty, which a researcher experiences in context of either at theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. Components of a research problem:

1. There must be an individual or a group, which has some difficulty or problem.2. There must be some objectives to be attained if problem does not exist3. There must be alternative means for obtaining the objective one wishes to attain4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to selection of alternatives5. There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains.

Selecting a problem: The research problem taken for study must be carefully selected considering the following points

1. The subject chosen for study must not be a controversial one2. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided3. Subjects which are difficult to throw a new light or overdone should not be normally chosen4. The subject selected for the research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research

material are within one’s reach5. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study when a closely similar

research does not exist.Techniques involved in defining a problem:1. Statement of the problem in a general way:.2. Understanding the nature of the problem:. 3. Surveying of available literature: 4. Developing ideas through discussions: 5. Rephrasing the research problem:

RESEARCH DESIGNIntroduction: A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. It constitutes the blueprint for collection, measurement and analysis of data. The overall research design is split into the following parts:1. Sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study.2. Observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made.3. Statistical design which concerns with question of how many items are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed.4. Operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.FEATURES OF RESEARCH DESIGN1 .It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem.2. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data.3. It is a scheme defining the domain of generalizations 4. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most of the studies are done under these two constraints.NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is needed because it facilitates smooth sailing of various research operations.

It helps us to make our research efficient by yielding maximum information with minimum expenditure of effort, time and money.

Research design stands for advanced planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data the techniques to be used in their analysis.

CHARACTERISTICS OR FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGNThe design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analysed

is considered a good design. A research design involves consideration of following factors:1. The means of obtaining information2. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff3. The objective of the problem to be studied4. The nature of the problem to be studied5. The availability of time and money for the research work.

ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH DESIGN 1. Saves time2. Directs him to prepare himself for executing the various activities systematically3. Better documentation of the activities while the project is in progress4. Ensures project time schedule5. Instills and builds up confidence in the student

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6. Provides satisfaction and sense of success from the beginning to the completion of every stage of the project

DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNSResearch design in case of exploratory research studies:

The exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies:

Descriptive studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occur or its association with something else. The design in such studies must be rigid and must focus attention on the following:

(a) Formulating the objective of the study(b) Designing the methods of data collection(c) Selecting the sample(d) Collecting the data(e) Processing and analyzing the data(f) Reporting the findings

The layout of the report needs to be well planned so that all things relating to the research study may be well presented in simple and effective style.Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:

In case of experimental studies the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability but will permit drawing inferences about causality. The experimental designs are being used in researches relating to phenomena of several disciplines. Since experimental designs originated in case of agricultural operations is still used in several terms of agriculture.

SAMPLE DESIGNS OR SAMPLE TYPESAll the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a universe or population. A

complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as census enquiry. A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Samples can either be probability or non-probability samples on basis of representation. Probability sampling is based on concept of random selection, whereas non-probability sampling is non-random sampling. On element selection basis, the sample may be either restricted or unrestricted.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLINGIt is also called purposive or deliberate sampling. This method of sampling involves purposive or

deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample, which represents a universe. Convenience Sampling: When a sample is selected on basis of easy access, it is called convenience sampling. Judgement sampling: The researcher’s judgement is used for selecting items for representing the population. Quota sampling: It is an important form of non-probability sampling. In this method the entire population is divided into different strata and the selection of items from each strata is based on judgement of the interviewer.PROBABILITY SAMPLING OR SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING:

This type of Sampling is also known as the chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe has the same probability of being selected. Random numbers can be selected by using Lottery method: for e g., if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct lottery. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING:

In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15 th name of on a list, every 10th house of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as Systematic Sampling. This method is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. Merits:

(1) This is simple and convenient.(2) Time and work is reduced much.(3) Used in infinite population

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Demerits:(1) It may not represent the whole population(2) There exists the element of personal bias of investigator.

STRATIFIED SAMPLING: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group ,

then stratified random sampling is used to obtain representative sample. In this method, the Population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum.Merits:

(1) It is more representative(2) It ensures great accuracy(3) It is easy to administer as the universe is sub divided(4) Greater geographical concentration reduced the time and expenses

CLUSTER SAMPLING: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups of the clusters

rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Merits

(1) It introduces flexibility in sampling method.(2) It is helpful in large scale survey where the population of list is difficult, time consuming and

expensive.(3) It is valuable in underdeveloped countries where no detailed and accurate framework is available.

Demerits: (1) It is less accurate than other methods.MULTISTAGE SAMPLING:

This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerable large geographical area like and entire country. Under multistage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns.SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING:

This is a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses.

SAMPLING PROCESS AND SELECTIONCensus and Survey

All items in any field of enquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or population. A complete enumeration of all items in the population is known as a census inquiry. The selected respondents constitute a ‘sample’ and the selection process is called ‘sampling technique. The survey so conducted is ‘sample survey’.Implications of a sample design

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may lay down the number of items to be included in the sample. Need for Sampling

Sampling is used in practice for a variety of reasons such as 1. Sampling can save time and money2. Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study and is generally

conducted by trained and experienced investigators.3. Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many members4. Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item under

study5. Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists in obtaining

information concerning some characteristic of the population.Steps in sampling design

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:1. Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically called the universe to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite2. Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical unit like state, village etc or a construction unit such as flat or house etc or it may be a social unit such as family, club etc or it may be the individual.3. Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It contains the names of all items of a universe in case of finite universe only. The source must be the representative of population as possible.4. Size of sample: This refers to number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample. The size of sample should be neither large nor too small. It should be optimum

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5. Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of the specific population parameters, which are of interest6. Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample.7. Sampling procedure: Finally the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the technique or procedure to be used for selecting the items for the sample.Characteristics of a good sampling design:

1. Sampling design must result in a truly representative sample2. Sampling design must be such which results in small sampling error3. Sampling design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.4. Sampling design must be such that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way

SAMPLING ERRORS

ERRORS IN RESEARCH PROCESS1. SAMPLING ERRORS:

The difference between the sample value and the corresponding population value is known as the sampling errors. The errors, which arise due to the use of sample surveys, are known as sampling errors.Sampling errors are of two types namely biased and unbiased. Biased errors: Biased errors are those, which arise as a result of any bias or prejudice of the person in selecting a particular sampling method. It is also known as cumulative errors or non-compensating errorsUnbiased errors: They arise due to chance differences between the members of the population included in the sample and those not included. It is known as random sampling error It is also known as non-cumulative errors or compensating errorsCauses of biases: 1. Faulty process of selection

2. Faulty work during the collection of information 3. Faulty method of analysis.

Methods of reducing Sampling errors:1. Manageable and specific problem selection2. Systematic documentation of related research3. Intensive study, verification and reporting of methodological; biases4. Greater investment in enumeration5. Effective pre-testing6. Replication7. Use of complementary research methods.

PREVIOUS YEARS UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS

One mark Questions:1. Pure Research is also known as _______.2. When all the units are studied, such complete coverage is called a _____________.3. Simple random sampling is also called as ______________.4. Under _____________ method, data are collected from each and every unit of the population.5. The behavior and instruments used in selecting and constructing research technique is called

_________.6. A definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population is called __________.

Short answer Questions:7. Write down the objectives of research?8. What are the merits and demerits of Quota sampling?9. What is research problem?10. Why is sampling used?11. What are the characteristics of a good sample?12. Explain the criteria for a good research design?

Long answer Questions:13. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of sampling?14. Explain the importance and limitation of research?15. Discuss the various types of research?16. Explain the research process in detail?17. Briefly explain the probability sampling methods?

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RESEARCH METHODS FOR MANAGEMENT

UNIT: II_____________________________________________________________________________________SYLLABUSData collection - Methods – tools – Questionnaire - Interview schedule – kinds of data - Attitude measurement and scaling techniques – Editing, coding and tabulation.

INTRODUCTIONData collection is an important activity in any research, especially in social science research. The

purpose of study of this unit is to learn the basic theoretical knowledge and to develop the practical skill of using that knowledge in the areas of data collections, the tools used, editing, coding and tabulation of data for further investigations.DATA COLLECTION

After a research problem has been defined and the research design or plan has been chalked out, the task of data collection begins. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mend two types of data viz., primary and secondary. The primary data are those, which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. The secondary data are those which have already been collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. The researcher has to decide which sort of data he would be using for his study and accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of data collection. COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

. There are several methods of collecting primary data. Important ones are observation method, interview method, through questionnaires, through schedules and other methods.

Can be studied through determine

Observation Under this method the investigator collects the data personally. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under this method the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. The investigator must be a keen observer, tactful and courteous in behaviour. While observing the researcher should keep in mind what should be observed? How the observations should be recorded? And how the accuracy of the observation can be ensured?Merits

i. Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accuratelyii. Information obtained relates to what is currently happening

iii. This method is independent of respondent’s willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents.

iv. Original data are collectedv. Misinterpretations, if any on the part of the informant can be avoided.

Possible relationships between the data and the unknowns in the universe

Economic psychological others

Surveys Experiments

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Demeritsi. Information provided by this method is limited

ii. Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational taskiii. It is unsuitable where the area is largeiv. It is expensive and time - consuming.v. An untrained investigator will not bring good result.

Characteristics of observation1. It is a physical and mental activity2. It is selective and purposeful in the sense that one does not observe anything and everything3. Observation is purposive and not random4. Observation has to be efficient5. It is a classical scientific method where the researcher makes the direct study6. The investigator first observes and then collects the data.

Interview methodThe interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral question and in terms of oral

verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral – verbal responses.Objective of interview

The main purpose is 1. To gather data extensively and intensively 2. To exchange ideas and experiencePersonal interview

Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. This interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be an indirect personal investigation or it may be an indirect oral investigation. TYPES OF INTERVIEW

I. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FORMALITYStructured interview or Formal interviews:

The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a structured way. As such we call the interview as structured interviews. This interview involves the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording. The interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid down asking questions in a form and order prescribed Unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach to questionnaire. Unstructured interview do not follow a system of predetermined questions and standardized techniques of recording information. In non – structured interview the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask.II. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE NUMBERSPersonal interview:

In a personal interview a single individual is interviewed. It helps to establish close personal contacts between the interviewer and the interviewee and by this means the detailed knowledge about intimate and personal aspects of the individual can be had. The aim is to probe into the inner life and feelings of an individual.Group interview:

Here two or more persons are interviewees. The group interview’s aim is to gather routine information. It economises time and money III. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSEDiagnostic Interview:

The interviewers try to understand the cause or causes of a malady.Treatment interview:

If the cause of psychological malady is diagnosed as non – physical, further interviews are held to bring to fore – conscious of the patient that his malady is due to this or that mental complex or faulty style of lifeResearch interview:

These interviews are held to gather information pertaining to a certain problemIV. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SUBJECT – MATTERQualitative interview:

The qualitative interviews are about complex and non – quantifiable subject – matterQuantitative interview:

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The quantitative interviews are those in which certain set facts are gathered about a large number of personsFocused interview:

Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the respondents and its effects. The interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in which the questions would be asked and has also the freedom to find out reasons and motives.Clinical interview:

The Clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of individuals’ life experience.Merits of personal interview

1. More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained2. Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any of the respondent3. There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always

there, specially in case of unstructured interviews4. Observation method can as well as be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions5. Personal information can as well as be obtained easily under this method6. The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal

characteristics and environment which is often great value in interpreting results.Demerits of personal interview

1. It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken

2. There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as the respondent, there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers

3. Certain types of respondents such as important officials, executives or people in high income groups may not be approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate

4. This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large and re-calls upon the respondents are necessary

Telephone interviewThis method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself.

It plays important part in industrial surveys particularly in developed regions.Merits:-

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.3. Recall is easy: callbacks are easy and economical4. There is higher rate of response than that of mailing method. The non-response is generally very

low5. No field staff is required.6. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily

Demerits:- 1. Little time is giver for respondent to answer. Interview is conducted within five minutes in most cases.2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost consideration.4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where detailed answers are required to various questions.5. Questions have to be short and to the point problems are difficult to handle.Guidelines for successful interviewing1. Interviewer must plan in advance and should fully know the problem under

consideration.2. He must choose a suitable time and place so that the interviewer may be at ease during

the interview period.3. Interviewer’s approach must be friendly and informal. The purpose of the interview

should be explained.4. All possible efforts should be made to establish proper rapport with the interviewer;

people are motivated to communicate when the atmosphere is favourable.Do’s and don’ts to interviewersDo’s1. Always carry proper identification.2. Interview strangers, not friends unless specially told to interview people you know.3. Sell yourself to the respondent.

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4. Conduct interview in a relaxed friendly way.5. Make entries accurate and legible.Don’ts1. Don’t ever compromise with quality. If the interviewer completes an assignment he should notify it to

supervisor but should not rush interviews.2. The interviewer should not deviate from a business attitude while calling on respondents.3. Personal problem of interviewer should not interfere with work.4. Interviewer should not take anyone when he interview.5. He should not interpret questions. If the questions are not understood he should reread them and ask

respondent to interpret them.Collecting data through questionnaire

This method is popular in case of big enquiries. It is used by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by courts. A questionnaire is sent by post to the concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure responses to certain questions.

In this method a questionnaire consisting of a list of questionnaire consisting of a list of questions pertaining to the enquiry is prepared. There are blank spaces for answers. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. Purpose

1. To collect information who are scattered in a vast area2. To achieve success in collecting reliable and dependable data

Meritsi. Of all the methods the mailed questionnaire method is the most economical.

ii. It can be widely used when the area of investigation is large.iii. The information about certain problems can be best obtained through questionnaire methodiv. It saves money, labour and time.v. Respondents who are not easily approachable can also be reached conveniently

vi. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliableDemerits

i. In this method, there is no direct contact between the investigator and the respondent. Therefore we cannot be sure about the accuracy and reliability of the data.

ii. This method is suitable only for literate people. In many countries, there are illiterate people who cannot understand and reply the questionnaire.

iii. There is long delay in receiving questionnaires duly filled iniv. People may not give the correct answer and thus one is led to false conclusionv. It can be used only when respondents are cooperating

Points to be considered while framing the questionnaire:-1. The questionnaire should be brief2. The questions should be simple to understand 3. Questions should be arranged logically4. There must be choice:- There are three types of questions

a) Simple alternative questions: such questions must be answered in ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, etc.,b) Multiple choice questions: In this type of questions, many answers are written and the informant should mark against any one of them.c) Specific information questions: This type of questions is used when the investigator needs some specific information.

5. Proper words should be used in the questionnaire6. Questions of a sensitive and personal nature should be avoided.7. Necessary instructions should be given to the informant8. Questions should be capable of an objective answer.Collection of data through schedules It is like collection of data through questionnaire but the difference is that the enumerator who is specially appointed for the purpose is filling in schedules. The main reason for using this method is a very high rate of response because of personal contact of the enumerators. This method requires selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selectedMerits

i. This method is very useful in extensive enquiries.ii. It yields reliable and accurate results, because the enumerators are educated and trained

iii. Even if the respondents are illiterate this technique can be widely used.iv. As the enumerators personally obtain the information, there is less chance of non-response.

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Difference between questionnaire and scheduleQuestionnaire Schedule

The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in a covering letter

The research worker or the enumerator who can interpret questions when necessary generally fills out the schedule.

To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical.

To collect data through schedule is relatively more expensive.

Non response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and many return the questionnaire without answering all questions

Non response is generally very low in case of schedule because these are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all questions.

In questionnaire the identity of respondent is not known In schedule the identity of respondent is known.

The questionnaire method is very slow as respondents take own time to respond.

In case of schedule the information is collected well in time as enumerators fill them.

Personal contact is not possible in case of questionnaire Personal contact is possible in case of schedule.

Questionnaire method can be used only when respondent are literate.

In case of schedule the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate

In questionnaire method wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible

In schedule there are difficulties in sending enumerators over relatively wider area

In questionnaire there is risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the questionnaire method particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly

In case of schedule the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerator help the respondent to understand the questions.

The success of questionnaire method lies on the quality of questionnaire itself

In case of schedule the success much depends upon honesty and competence of enumerator.

Observation cannot be done in case of questionnaire Enumerator can do observation when schedule is used.

Some other methods of data collection1. Warranty cards

Warranty cards are usually postal sized card, which are used by dealers of consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information needed is printed in the form of questions on the warranty cards, which is placed inside the package along with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.2. Distributor or store audit

Distributors as well as manufacturers through their salesmen perform distributor or store audit at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing pattern etc… The advantage of this method is it offers, the most efficient way of evaluating the effect on sales of variations of different techniques of in store promotion.3. Pantry audit

Pantry audit techniques are used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the consumer level. The investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of commodities consumed.

The objective of pantry audit is to find out what type consumers buy certain products and certain brand. The limitation of pantry audit approach is that at times it may not be possible to identify consumers’ preference from audit data alone particularly when promotion devices produce a market rise in sales.4. Consumer panel

An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as consumer panel. A set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to maintain detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to investigator on demands.Consumer panel are of two types

1. A transitory consumer: is set up to measure the effect of particular phenomenon. Such a panel is conducted on a before and after basis.

2. A continuing consumer panel: is often set up for an indefinite period with a view to collect data on a particular aspect of consumer behaviour over time.

5. Use of mechanical devices Eye camera: Eye camera are designed to record the focus of eyes of a respondent on a specific

portion of a sketch or diagram or written material

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Pupilometric camera: Pupilometric cameras record dilation of the pupil as a result of a visual stimulus. The extent of dilation shows the degree of interest aroused by the stimulus.

Psychogalvanometer: Psychogalvanometer is used for measuring the extent of body excitement as a result of visual stimulus.

Motion picture camera: Motion picture cameras are used to record movement of body of buyer while deciding to buy a consumer good from a shop or a big store

Audiometer: Audiometers are used by some TV concern to find out the types of programme as well as stations preferred by people.

6 Projective techniques These tests are used to find underlying motives urges or intensions, which are such that the

respondent either resists revealing them or is unable to figure out himself.(i) Word association test:-

These tests are used to extract information regarding such words, which have maximum association. In this test the respondent is asked to mention the first word that comes to mind immediately without thinking as the interviewer reads out each word from a list. (ii) Sentence completion test:-

Here informants may be asked to complete a sentence to find association of khadi clothes with certain personality characteristics. Several sentence of this type might be put to the informant on the same subject. This technique helps in developing hypothesis and in construction of questionnaire.7 Depth interview

Depth interviews are those interviews that are discovered underlying motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents. Depth interviews require great skill on the part on interviewer and at same time involve considerable time.8 Content analysis

Content analysis consist of analyzing the contents of documentary material such as books magazines news papers and content of all other verbal material which can be either spoken or printer.

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATASecondary data are already available. It refers to the data, which have already been collected and

analysed by someone else. When researcher uses secondary data he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. Secondary data may be published data or unpublished data. Published data are available in;

(a) Various publications of central state and local governments.(b) Various publication of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary

organization(c) Technical and trade journals(d) Books, magazines and newspapers.(e) Reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry,

bank stock exchange etc.,(f) Reports published by research scholars, universities, economists, etc in different fields

and(g) Public records and statistics: historical documents and other sources of published

information.The sources of unpublished data are

1. Diaries2. Letters3. Unpublished bibliographies and autobiographies4. Also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations,

labour bureau and other public or private individuals and organisationsThe researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. Must make a minute scrutiny because

it is just possible that secondary data may be unsuitable or inadequate in the context of the problem, which the researcher wants to study.Characteristics to be checked before using secondary:-(1) Reliability of data:-

Finding out the following information like can test the reliability(a) Who collected the data?(b) What were the sources of data?(c) Where the collected by using proper method?(d) At what time were they collected?(e) Was there any bias of the compiler?(f) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?

(2) Suitability of data:-

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The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not be suitable for another enquiry. The researcher must examine carefully the definition of various terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the primary source originally. The object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be studied. If the researcher finds difference in these the data will remain unsuitable.(3) Adequacy of data:-

If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose of present inquiry they will be considered as inadequate for the purpose of present inquiry they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the researcher.

SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry:-

This method selected should be such that it matches the enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher.

This factor decides whether primary data is to be used or secondary data is to be used.2. Availability of funds:-

The availability of money for the research helps to decide the method for data collection. Finance is great constraint in practice and the researcher has to decide within the finance available.3. Time factor:-

Available time is to be considered for data collection. Usually primary data collection of data take more time whereas secondary data collection take less time. The time available for the researcher plays important role in selecting the method of data collection.4. Precision required:-

The level of accuracy decides the method of data collection each method has its own precision level.Telephone interview: - If funds are restricted time is also restricted and the data is to be collected in respect of few items with or without precision.Mail questionnaire: - If time is ample funds are limited and much information is to be gathered with no precision the mail questionnaire is appropriate.

MEASUREMENT AND SCALING TECHNIQUESMeasurement

Measurement is a relatively complex and demanding task, especially so when it concerns qualitative or abstract phenomena. By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to objects or observations, the level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the numbers are assigned. It is easy to assign numbers in respect of properties of some objects, but it is relatively difficult in respect of others. Measurement Scales

The most widely used classification of measurement scales are:1. Nominal scale:

Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label them. Such numbers cannot be associated with an ordered scale for their order is of no consequence: the numbers are just convenient labels for the particular class of events and as such have no quantitative value. It provides convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events. The counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation when a nominal scale is employed. 2. Ordinal scale:

The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent scales and are frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. The use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ without our being able to state how much greater or less. 3. Interval scale:

In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as a basis for making the units equal. Interval scales have an arbitrary zero, but it is not possible to determine for them what may be called an absolute zero or the unique origin.

The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic. 4. Ratio scale:

Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero for measurement. With ratio scales involved one can make statements like ‘A’s typing performance was twice as good as that of ‘B’. The ration involved does have significance and facilitates a kind of comparison, which is not possible in case of an interval scale. Ration scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical dimensions like weight, etc are examples.

IMPORTANT SCALING TECHNIQUES

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Rating ScalesThe rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or of

traits of a person. When we use rating scales (or categorical scales), we judge an object in absolute terms against some specified criteria. These ratings may be in such form as “like-dislike”, “above average, average, below average”, etc. There is no specific rule whether to use a two-point scale, three-point scale or scale with still more points. In practice 3 to 7 points scales are used for the simple reason that more points on a scale provides an opportunity for greater sensitivity of measurement.

Rating scale may be either a graphic rating scale or an itemized rating scale.(a) The graphic rating scale is simple and commonly used in practice. Under it various points are

usually put along the line to form a continuum and the rater indicates his rating by simply making a mark at the appropriate point on a line that runs form one extreme to the other.

(b) Itemized rating scale or numerical scale: It presents a series of statements from which a respondent selects one as best reflecting his evaluation. These statements are ordered progressively in terms of more or less of some property.

Advantages of rating scales: 1. The results obtained from their use compare favourably with alternative methods2. They require less time, are interesting to use and have a wide range of applications

Limitations of rating scales:If the respondents are not very careful while rating, errors may occur. Three types of errors are

common namely The error of leniency: The error of leniency occurs when certain respondents are either

easy raters or hard raters. The error of central tendency: When raters are reluctant to give extreme judgements, the

result is the error of central tendency. The error of halo effect: The error of halo effect or the systematic bias occurs when the

rater carries over a generalized impression for the subject form one rating to another. Ranking Scales

Under ranking scales or comparative scales we make relative judgements against other similar objects. There are two approaches of ranking scales. They are:

(a) Method of paired comparisons: Under it the respondent can express his attitude by making a choice between two objects. But when there are more than two stimuli to judge, the number of judgements required in a paired comparison is given by the formula: N = n(n – 1) / 2 N= number of judgments, n = number of stimuli or objects to be judged.

(b) Method of rank order: Under this method of comparative scaling, the respondents are asked to rank their choices. This method is easier and faster. The problem of transitivity is also not there.

PROCESSING OF DATAEditing

Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. Editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires or schedules. It is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as complete as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.It refers to inspecting correcting and modifying the collected data. Editing is of two types:

(ii) Field editing(iii) Office editing

Field editingWhen personal interviews are involved for collection of data, the field editing becomes important,

because it is not possible for the interviewer to fill up the entire questionnaire during the interview. The interviewer uses brief notes or symbols to record the answers just after the interview he reviews corrects and makes answer more specific on the questionnaire. Central or office editing The office editing is carried out at some central place where all interview schedules, mail questionnaire or telephone survey responses are brought together or collected. The office editing is more important in case of mail survey. This type of editing implies that forms should get a thorough editing by a single editor or a tem of editors. Guidelines for editors

Editors should keep in mind several points while performing their work:1. They should be familiar with instruction given to the interviewers and coders as well as with the editing instructions supplied to them for the purpose2. While crossing out an original entry for one reason or another, they should just draw single line on it so that the same may remain legible3. They must make entries on form in some distinctive colour in a standardized form

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4. They should initial all answers, which they change or supply5. Editors initial and the date of editing should be placed on each completed form or schedule.

Problems in editing1. Fictitious interviews2. Inconsistencies or contradictions3. Illegible responses4. In correct answers5. Don’t know and no answers.

CodingIt refers to assigning numbers or other symbols so that the responses can be put into a limited

number of categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They must also possess the characteristics of exhaustiveness and also that of mutual exclusivity which means that a specific answer can be placed in one and only cell in a given category set. Another rule to be observed is that of uni-dimensionality which is meant that every class is defined in terms of only one concept. Coding involves two important operations – deciding the categories to be used and allocating individual answers to them.Rules for coding

1. Give code numbers for each respondent for identification2. Give code numbers for each question3. Give code numbers for each response4. Give numbers for qualitative responses also5. Do not delegate the work of categorization to others6. Prepare the coding frame7. Decide the instructions to coders8. Prepare and supply coders, instruction manual9. Take the services of trained coders with close supervision10. Scrutinize every coded item in the initial stages of coding11. Afterwards have a random checking of the coded names.

ClassificationMost research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into

homogenous groups, if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be the process of assigning data in group or classes on the basis of common characteristics. A good classification should have the characteristics of clarity, homogeneity, equality of scale, purposefulness and accuracy.Objectives of classification1. Through classification, complex, scattered, haphazard data is organised into concise, logical and intelligible form2. Through classification, it is possible to make the characteristics of similarities and dissimilarities clear3. Through classification, comparative study is possible4. Through classification understanding of the significance is made easier and there by good deal of human energy is saved5. Underlying unity among different items is made clear and expressed6. Data is so arranged that analysis and generalization becomes possibleRules for classification

Following principles may be observed for a good classification:

1. Classification must be exhaustive and there should not be any room for doubt or confusion regarding the placement of the observation in the given class.

2. The classes must not overlap3. In order to draw meaningful result, classification must be stable.4. Classification should be in accordance with the objective of the inquiry

TabulationWhen a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the

same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is called tabulation.The process of tabulation involves combining and totaling of collected data. The researcher may

use computer or do tabulation work manually. It is a process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form for future

analysisTabulation may be classified as

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1) Simple tabulation: Simple tabulation gives information about one or more group of independent questions. Simple tabulation results in one-way tables, which supply answers to, questions about one characteristic of data only.

2) Complex tabulation: Complex tabulation shows the division of data in two or more categories and as such is designed to give information concerning one or more sets of inter-related questions. Complex tabulation usually results in two – way tables, 3-way tables or still higher order tables also known as manifold tables which supply information about several interrelated characteristics of data.

Generally accepted principles of tabulation1. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference2. Every table should be prepared in just adequate number of columns and rows3. The column headings (captions) and row headings (stabs) of the table should be clear and brief.4. The units of measurement under each heading or sub-heading must always be indicated5. Explanatory foot notes concerning the table should be placed directly beneath the table, along with

their reference symbols used in the table6. Sources from where data have be obtained must be indicated below the table7. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference8. The columns whose data are to be compared should be kept side by side.9. Abbreviations should be avoided to the extent possible and ditto marks should not be used in

tables10. Total of rows should normally be placed in extreme right column and of rows at the bottom11. Tables should be as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible

PREVIOUS YEARS UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS

One mark Questions:18. ________ is a list of questions that will be asked from the respondents in person by an interviewer

who will also record the answers given.19. _________ data are directly collected by researcher from their original sources.20. The procedure by which numbers or scores assigned to the various degree of opinions, attitude and

other concepts, known as ____________.21. Data can be obtained through a statistical __________.22. Before the questionnaire is finally printed it should be ________________.

Short answer Questions:23. What are data? Explain the different types of data?24. What do you understand by scale?25. What is meant by coding?26. What is data processing?27. Distinguish between editing of data and coding of data?28. Explain the different scaling techniques used?

Long answer Questions:29. Distinguish between questionnaire and schedule?30. What do you mean by tabulation? Explain different types of tables?31. Discuss the merits and demerits of questionnaire method of data collection?32. Explain the factors to be considered while drafting a questionnaire?33. Briefly explain the different methods of data collection?

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RESEARCH METHODS FOR MANAGEMENT

UNIT: III

SYLLABUS:

Statistical Data Analysis – Hypothesis – its sources – formulation and testing of Hypothesis – Z test, T test – Chi – square test (Simple problems only)Reference BooksResearch Methodology – C.R.Kothari HYPOTHESIS

MEANING:A hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS : Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. (ii) Hypothesis should be capable of bring tested. (iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational hypothesis.(iv)Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. (v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.(vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts (vii)Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not use even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for one cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.(viii)Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation.

BASIC CONCEPTS CONCERNING TESTING OF HYPOTHESES

(a)Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis : In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk about null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. If we are to compare method A with method B about its superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption is termed as the null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that the method A is superior or the method B is inferior, we are then stating what is termed as alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is generally symbolized as Ho and the alternative hypothesis as Ha. Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that the population mean (µ) is equal to the hypothesized mean (µHo) = 100. Then we would say that the null hypothesis is that the population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100 and symbolically we can express as:

Ho: µ=µHo=100

If our sample results do not support this null hypothesis, we should conclude that something else is true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as Alternative hypothesis. In other words, the set of alternatives to the null hypothesis is referred to as the alternative hypothesis. If we accept H o, then we are rejecting Ho and if we reject Ho, then we are accepting Ho. For Ho: µ = µHo =100, we may consider three possible alternative hypothesis as follows”:

Alternative hypothesis To be read as follows

Ho: µ ≠ µHo (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is not equal to 100 i.e., it may be more or less than 100)

Ho: µ > µHo The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is greater than 100)

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Ho: µ < µHo (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is Less than 100)

(b) The level of significance: This is an important concept in the context of hypothesis testing. It is always some percentage (usually 5%), which should be chosen with great care, thought reason. In case we take the significance level at 5 percent, then this implies that Ho will be rejected when the sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring if Ho is true. In other words, the 5 per cent level of significance means that researcher is willing to take as much as a 5 per cent risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it (Ho) happens to be true. Thus the significance level is the maximum value of the probability of rejecting Ho when it is true and is usually determined in advance before testing the hypothesis.

(c) Decision rule or test of hypothesis: Given a hypothesis Ho and an alternative hypothesis Hα, we make a rule which is known as decision rule according to which we accept Ho (i.e., reject Hα) or reject Ho (i.e., accept Ha). For instance, if Ho is that a certain lot is good (there are very few defective items in it), against Ha that the lot is not good (there are too many defective items in it), then we must decide the number of items to be tested and the criterion for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. We might test 10 items in the lot and plan our decision saying that if there are none or only 1 defective item among the 10, we will accept Ho otherwise we will reject Ho (or accept Hα). This sort of basis is known as decision rule.

(d) Type I and Type II errors : In the context of testing of hypotheses, there are basically two types of errors we can make. We may reject Ho when Ho is true and we may accept Ho when in fact Ho is not true. The former is known as Type I error and the latter as Type II error. Type I error is denoted by α (alpha) known as a error, also called the level of significance of test; and Type II error is denoted by β (beta) known as β error. In a tabular form the said we errors can be presented as follows:

(e) Two-tailed and One-tailed tests : A two-tailed testy rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the hypothesized value of the mean of the population. Such a test is appropriate when the null hypothesis is some specified value and the alternative hypothesis is a value not equal to the specified value of the null hypothesis. Symbolically, the two-tailed test is appropriate when we have Ho: µ= µ Ho and Hα: µ ≠ µ Ho which may mean µ> µHo orµ <µHo. Thus, in a two-tailed test, there are two rejection regions, one on each tail of the curve, which can be illustrated as under:

But there are situations when only one tailed test in considered appropriate. One tailed test would be used when we are to test, say, whether the population mean is either lower than or higher than some hypothesized value.

If our µ=100 and if our sample mean divides significantly from 100 in the lower direction, we shall reject Ho, otherwise we shall accept Ho at a certain level of significance. If the significance level in the given case is kept at 5 % then the rejection region will be equal to 0.05 of area in the lefty tail as been shown in the above curve.

In case our Ho: µ=µHo and Hα; µ >µ Ho, be are then interested what is known as one tailed test (right tail) and the rejection region will be on the right tail of the curve as shown below.

It should always be remembered that accepting Ho, on the basis of the sample information does not constitute the proof that Ho is true. We only mean that there is no statistical evidence to reject it but we are certainly not saying that Ho is proof (although be as if Ho true)

PROCEDURE FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Accept Ho Reject Ho

Type I error(α error)

Correctdecision

Correctdecision

Type II error(β error)

Ho (false)

Ho (true)

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To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data the researcher has collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypotheses testing the main question is whether to accept in null hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis.

The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below:(i) Making a formal statement:

This step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho) and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha) this means that hypothesis should be clearly stated considering the nature of the research problem.The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must be accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of the problem under consideration it also indicates whether we should use a one tailed test or a two tailed test but when Ha is of the type” whether greater or smaller” then we use a two tailed test(ii) Selecting a significance level:

The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and as such the same should be specified. Generally, in practice either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose. (iii) Deciding the distribution to use:

After deciding the level of significance the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution the choice generally remains between normal distribution and the t-distribution. The rules for selecting the correct the distributions are similar to those, which we have stated earlier in the context of the estimation (iv)Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value:

Another step is to select a random sample (s) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the rivet distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data (v) Calculation of the probability:

One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as I has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true (vi) Comparing the probability:

Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the specified value for α value in case of one –tailed test (and α/ 2 in case of two –tailed), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis, but if the calculated probability, but if the calculated probability is greater, then accept the null hypothesis,. In case we rejected Ho, we run a risk of (almost the level of significance) committing an error of Type I, but if we accept Ho then we run some risk (the size of which cannot the specified as long as the Ho happens to be vague rather than specific) of committing an error of Type II.FLOW DIAGRAM FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Yes No

Sample a random sample(s) and workout an appropriate value from sample data

Specify the level of significance (or the a value)

Decide the correct sampling distribution

Calculate the probability that sample result would diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if Ho were true

Is this probability equal to or smaller than a value in case of one-tailed test and a/2 in case of two-tailed test?

Reject Ho Accept Ho

State Ho as well as Ho

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TESTS OF HYPOTHESISAs has been stated above that hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption

(technically described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose between two conflicting hypotheses about the value of a population parameter. Hypothesis testing helps to decide on the basis of a sample data, whether a hypothesis about the population is likely to be true or false. Statisticians have developed several tests of hypotheses (also known as the tests of significance) for the purpose of testing of hypotheses which can be classified as: (a) Parametric tests or standard tests of hypothesis; and (b) Non-parametric tests or distribution-free test of hypothesis.

Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent population from which we draw samples. Assumptions like observations come from a normal population, sample size is large, assumptions about the population parameters like mean, variance, etc., must hold well before parametric test can be used.

The important parametric tests are: (1) z-test; (2) t-test; (3) X –test, and (4) F-test). All these tests are based on the assumption of normality i.e., the source of data is considered to be normally distributed.

Z-test is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the significance of several statistical measures, particularly the mean. Z-test is generally used for comparing the mean of a sample to some hypothesized mean for the population in case of large sample, or when population variance is known.

Z-test is also used for judging the significance of difference between means of two independent samples in case of large samples, or when population variance is known. Z-test is also used for comparing the sample proportion to a theoretical value of population proportion or for judging the difference in proportions of two independent samples when n happens to be large. Besides, this test may be used for judging the significance of median, mode, coefficient of correlation and several other measures.

t-test is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging the significance of a sample mean or for judging the significance of difference between the means of two samples in case of small sample(s) when population variance is not known (in which case we use variance of the sample as an estimate of the population variance). In case two samples are related, we use paired t-test (or what is known as difference test) for judging the significance of the mean of difference between the two related samples. It can also be used for judging the significance of the coefficients of simple and partial correlations. The relevant test statistic, t, is calculated from the sample data and then compared with its probable value based on t-distribution.

F-test is based on F-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the two-independent samples. This test is also used in the context of analysis of variance (ANOVA) for judging the significance of more than two sample means at one and the same time. It is also used for judging the significance of multiple correlation coefficients. Test statistic, F, is calculated and compared with its probable value (to be seen in the F-ratio tables for different degrees of freedom for greater and smaller variances at specified level of significance) for accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis.

CHI-SQUARE TEST (χ2- test)Chi-square is an important non-parametric test and as such no rigid assumptions are necessary in

respect of the type of population. We require only the degrees of freedom (implicitly of course the size of the sample) for using this test. As a non-parametric test, chi-square can be used (i) as a test of goodness of fit and (ii) As a test of independence.

In order that the may apply the chi-square test either as a test of goodness of fit or as a test to judge the significance of association between attributes, it is necessary that the observed as well as theoretical or expected frequencies must be grouped in the fame way and the theoretical distribution must be adjusted to give the same total frequency as we find in case of observed distribution. χ2 is then calculated as follows

Where Oij = observed frequency of the cell in ith row and jth column.Eij = expected frequency of the cell in ith row and jth column.As already stated, degrees of freedom play an important part in using the chi-square distribution and the test based on it, one must correctly determine the degrees of freedom. If there are 10 frequency classes and there is one independent constraint, then there are (10-1)=9 degrees of freedom. Thus, if ‘n’ is the number of groups and one constraint is placed by making the totals of observed and expected frequencies equal, the d.f. would be equal to (n-1). In the case of a contingency table (i.e., a table with 2 columns and 2 rows but more than two columns or a table with more than two rows and more than two columns), the d.f. is worked out as follows:

d.f.=(c-1) (r-1)

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where ‘c’ means the number of columns and ‘r’ means the number of rows.

Conditions for the Application of χ2TestThe following conditions should be satisfied before χ2 test can be applied:(i) Observations recorded and used are collected on a random basis.(ii) All the items in the sample must be independent.(iii) No group should contain very few items, say less than 10. In case where the frequencies

are less than 10, regrouping is done by combining the frequencies of adjoining groups so that the new frequencies become greater than 10. Some statisticians take this number as 5, but 10 is regarded as better by most of the statisticians.

(iv) The overall number of items must also be reasonably large. It should normally be at least 50, howsoever small the number of groups may be.

(v) The constraints must be linear. Constraints which involve linear equations in the cell frequencies of a contingency table (i.e., equations containing no squares or higher powers of the frequencies) are known as linear constraints.

Characteristics of Chi-square test1. It is based on observed frequencies only and not on the parameters like mean and

standard deviation.2. It is a technique for testing hypothesis.3. This test of hypothesis has additive property.4. It is used in complex contingency table with several classes.5. This test involves less mathematical detail and there is no need of any parameter

values.

Steps Involved in Applying Chi-square TestThe various steps involved are as follows :

(i) First of all calculate the expected frequencies on the basis of given hypothesis or on the basis of null hypothesis. Usually in case of a 2x2 or any contingency table, the expected frequency for any given cell is worked out as under:

Expected frequency of any cell = (Row total of the row of that cell) X (Column total of the column of that cell)

(Grand total)

(ii) Obtain the difference between observed and expected frequencies and find out the squares of such differences i.e., calculate (Oij-Eij)2

(iii) Divide the quantity (Oij – Eij)2 obtained as stated above by the corresponding expected frequency to get (Oij-Eij)2/Eij and this should be done for all the cell frequencies or the group frequencies.

(iv) Find the summation of (Oij-Eij)2/Eij values or what we call

This is the required χ2alue.The χ2alue obtained as such should be compared with relevant table value of χ2and then inference be drawn as stated above.

Suggested questions:

(1) What do you mean by hypothesis?(2) What are the characteristics of a good hypothesis?(3) Write short notes on parametric and non parametric tests.(4) Write short notes on t test.(5) Write short notes on Z test.(6) Write short notes on f test.(7) Write short notes on chi-square test.(8) What are the steps involved in calculating the chi-Square?(9) How the tests of hypothesis are useful to a researcher?(10) Explain the importance of tests of hypotheses.

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RESEARCH METHODS FOR MANAGEMENT

UNIT: IV

SYLLABUSInterpretation and report writing – steps in writing reports – layout of report, types , principles of report writing – Graphical representation of resultsReference BooksResearch Methodology – C.R.Kothari INTRODUCTION:

Interpretation is the important part of research its drawing conclusions for collected facts. Through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract that works beneath his findings. Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings.

INTERPRETATION Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical or

experimental study.The task of interpretation has two major aspects

(1) the efforts to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those of another and

(2) establishment of some explanatory concepts

Need for interpretation:-1. It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract that works

beneath his findings2. Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concept that can serve as a guide for

future research studies, it opens new avenues for intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge.

3. Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings.

4. The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into hypothesis for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the transaction from exploratory to experimental research.

TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATIONIt involves the following steps:

1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and must try to find out thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his findings.

2. Extraneous information must be considered while interpreting the final results of research study.3. Consultation with frank and honest experts will enhance the utility of research results.4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors

affecting the problem to avoid false generalization.

PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION

1. The researcher must satisfy himself that data is trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences and proper statistical methods have been used for analysis.

2. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that occur in the process of interpreting results.

3. The process of interpretation is very much intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated.

4. Broad generalizations should be avoided and factors hidden should be identified.5. There should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theory

STEPS IN WRITING REPORTS

The steps involved in report writing are:1. Logical analysis of the subject matter2. preparation of the final outline3. preparation of the rough draft

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4. rewriting and polishing5. preparation of the final bibliography and6. writing of final draft

1. Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which primary concerned with the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject

1. logically and 2. chronologically

2. Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing report outlines is framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

3. Preparation of rough draft: This follows logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher study. He will set down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.

4. Rewriting and polishing: This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation.

5. Preparation of the final bibliography: The bibliography which is generally appended to the research report is a list lf books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has been done and consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two parts the first may contain the names of magazines and newspaper articles.

6. Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems” “there may be” and the like ones. While technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the research findings to other.

LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise 1. Preliminary Pages2. Main text3. End matterPreliminary pages

The preliminary pages of the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in form of preface or foreward. It followed by table of contents, list of tables and illustrations.Main text

The main text of the report should have the following sections:1. Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research. A brief summary of other relevant research, hypothesis of study, methodology adopted, statistical analysis adopted and limitation of study should be explicitly stated.2. Statement of findings and recommendations: A summary of findings and recommendations is given in non-technical language.3. Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of tables and charts together with validation of reports. All relevant results must find a place in the report.4. Implications of the results: It has three important aspects* A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in similar circumstances.* The conditions of present study which limit the extent of legitimate generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study.* The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study.5. Summary: To conclude the research report, a brief of major findings and conclusions are given.

End MatterAt the end of the report, appendices, bibliography, index are given to guide the reader.

Bibliography

For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:1. Name of author, last name first.2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.

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3. Place, publishers, and date of publication.4. Number of volumes.

Example:Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978.For news papers and magazines the order may be as under:

1. Name of author, last name first.2. Title of article, in quotation marks.3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.4. The volume or volume and number.5. The date of the issue.6. The pagination.

Example:Robert V. Roosa, “Coping with short-term International Money Flows”, The Banker, London, September, 1971, p.995

2.2 TYPES OF REPORTSResearch reports vary in length and type which is dictated by problems in hand. The results of

research report can be presented in a number of ways:

TECHNICAL REPORTIt is used for record keeping or for public dissemination. A general outline of a technical report

can be as follows:1. Summary of results2. Nature of the study3. Methods employed4. Data5. Analysis of data and presenting of findings6. Conclusions7. Bibliography8. Technical appendices9. Index

POPULAR REPORTIt is used when research results have policy implications. A general outline of popular report:1. The findings and their implications2. Recommendations for action3. Objectives of the study4. Methods employed5. Results6. Technical appendices

ORAL PRESENTATIONOral presentation of results of the study is effective in case of policy recommendations. It leads to

better understanding of findings and their implications. The main demerit is that it fades away from memory before action is taken. Oral presentation may be enhanced by the use of various visual devices.

WRITTEN REPORTSMechanics of writing research report:

1. Size and physical design: The manuscript is written on unruled paper with blue or blue-black ink. The paper should be neat and legible.2. Procedure: The steps involved in report writing are:

Logical analysis of the subject matter Preparation of the rough draft Rewriting and polishing Preparation of the final bibliography and Writing of final draft

3. Layout: A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise 1. Preliminary Pages2. Main text3. End matter4. Treatment of quotations: It should be placed in quotation mark and double spaced forming an immediate part of the text.

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5. Footnotes: It helps in identifying quotations and supplementary text. They are placed at the bottom of the page and numbered.6. Documentation style: Documentary footnotes give essential facts about the edition used.7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes: Certain English and Latin abbreviations are used in footnotes and bibliographies to avoid repetitions.8. Use of statistics, charts and graphs: They make a presentation self-explanatory, complete, neat and attractive.9. Final draft: Revising and rewriting of rough draft is done before writing the final draft.10. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.11. Index: Index may be both subject index and author index.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

A graph is a visual form of presentation. It shows the information that might be lost amid of tabulation and also shows tendency. Predictions are made glancing the graph. Its advantages are1. Attractive and impressive view2. Simplifies data3. Easy to compare4. No special knowledge required5. It shows trends and direction of changes in trends

PRECAUTIONS IN REPORT WRITINGA good research report is one which communicates the research findings effectively and

efficiently.1. The length of the report should be long enough to cover the subject.2. It should sustain reader’s interest.3. Abstract terms and technical jargon should be avoided.4. Charts, graph and tables may be used for quick knowledge of findings.5. The layout of the research report should be in accordance with the objectives of the research.6. The report should be free from grammatical mistakes.7. The report should present logical analysis of the subject matter.8. A research report should attempt to solve some intellectual problem.9. It must forecast the probable future of the subject.10. Appendices should be enlisted.11. Bibliography is necessary for a good report.12. Index is appended at the end of the report.13. Report must be attractive, neat and clean.14. Confidence limits and constraints should be mentioned.15. Introduction to the report must contain objective of the study, nature of the problem, method

employed and analysis techniques adopted.

RESEARCH METHODS FOR MANAGEMENT

UNIT: V

SYLLABUS

Application of research:- Product research – Price research – motivation research – Promotion research – Distribution research – Sales control research – media research.

PRODUCT RESEARCH:-The term product research deals with the problems facing the product planning. These problems

may include new product development modifications of the existing products, imitating competitors product, formulating and implementing product life-cycle strategies, designing and evaluating packaging and branding strategies, after sales service and guarantee policies.Three types of product research are

(i) New product research(ii) Modification of the existing product(i) Imitating competitor product.(ii) Product life cycle research(iii) Research in branding and packaging(iv) After sales service(v) Warranty/guarantee policies

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A product may be defined as “a complex tangible and intangible attributes, including, packaging, colour, price, and manufacturer’s prestige, and manufacturers and retailers services, which the buyer may accept as an offering for satisfaction of wants or needs.”

Product research encompasses various areas of product-mix such as colour and design package, price of the product: promotional aspects which build an image of the company and product in the buyers mind; distribution system and above all the attitude of the buyer towards the product with regard the satisfaction he gets from that. A firm interested in product research must take into consideration all the aspects concerned with the new product development, its modifications, product life cycle and various other product planning aspects.

Importance of product research1. It enables an advertiser to explain the features of the product in a satisfactory way.2. Product knowledge, which is the result of product research, gives self-confidence to an organism during an

advertising campaign.3. It makes advertising more effective.4. PR assist a prospect in getting complete knowledge of the product.5. It leads to increased sales under markets and higher profile.

Sources of product research1. Colleagues in sales organization2. Books and periodicals3. Factory or workshop or plan4. Competitors5. Consumers

Methods of acquiring product knowledge1. Observation2. Discussion and reading

NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

1. Generation ideas A product idea may be worth lakhs of rupees or it may be worth zero.

Generation of ideas

Idea screening(i) Go error (ii) Drop error

Concept development and testing(i) Analysis testing & (ii)

Business analysis

Product development(i) Branding (ii) Packing (iii) Positioning

Test marketing

Commercialization

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In product research, first all ideas are generated and evaluated to retain the better ones. The ideas can be generated by internal sources or external sources.2. Ideas screening

Screening product ideas is done to retain the ideas which are better. There can be two types of errors which a marketer may commit in screening product ideas.

(i)Go error:- Retaining a wrong or worthless idea for new product development.(ii) Drop error:- Dropping a better ideas while screening the product ideas.The screening can be better conducted b y the product research by specifying different attributes

required in an idea and collecting information by asking a sample of consumers or raters to give percentage weight out of 100 marks to each of the product attributes.

(3) Concept development and testingAfter screening of ideas the remaining ideas are developed into concepts of the products. For example, Health Drink

What sort of drink it will be? Who will be the consumers? Whether it will be the sold locally or nation wide?

After several other questions of this nature are to be answered and concepts are developed on these line.

The developed concept is to be tested by interviewing a sample of customers. There should be technical testing as well as consumer testing of a new product concept. In technical testing the manufacturer technically compares his product with competitors product. In technical testing there are two phases

(i)Analysis testing(ii) Performance testing

Analysis testing – Analysis composition of the product and exactly how the product.(i) Concept testing(ii) Pretesting the product

4. Business analysis The cost, sales and profits are estimated for the new product. The data of a similar product are considered and those are applied to estimate cost, sales and

profits of new product. While analysing the price, volume of sales and price following should be considered. The market potential and share of competitor. Replacement or repeat sales.

5. Product developmentA prototype of product is developed on ideas which are retained after the business analysis.Three major product aspects are investigated and finalized in this stage.(i) Branding(ii) Packaging and(iii) Positioning Branding

A brand name which is easy to pronounce, shorter in spelling, attractive and associated with meaning of product is selected.

Branding can be conducted after consulting a sample of customers on company’s existing product or potential customer of new product.

PackagingRegarding packaging of new product potential customers are conducted by the researcher and asked which colour, size, design and style of the package they like most from available alternative and it is selected.Respondents are asked whether they would like to have convenience packaging or promotional packaging.Before finalizing various tests such as engineering tests, visual tests, dealer test and consumer test are required to be conducted.PositioningTo position the product in view of competitions product marketing mix elements of product are considered.6. Test marketing

Test marketing refers to testing the new product marketing plan on a miniature basis by introducing the product into a few selected markets. This is done before the product is finally launched for the purpose of commercialization. This is made in the assumption that the test marketing results will be project able to the entire market for commercializing the product.The test help in discovering the product fault, which escaped attention in the product development stage.7. CommercializationFirst step in test marketing is to develop a test market plan.The major decisions in test market may include (1) The number of cities to be selected for testing the product.

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(2) The length of time for which test should run.(3) The type of information to be gathered.(4) The action to be taken on the basis market result.At the final launching stage, the company should finalize all the attributes and package design for the new product. Promotional tools are used for promotion.

Product life cycle researchFour distinct stages of the product life cycle. They are:

(i) Introduction stage, (ii) Growth stage, (iii) Maturity stage and (iv) Decline stage.Introduction stage

During the introduction stage, the information on product acceptance, production image and distribution system are needed.

Expenditure on promotion is required to be more so price can be fixed in such a manner that other expenses get compensated.

Profits are low at this stage. Research is conducted to yield more at the introduction stage;

Growth stage At this stage the product starts yielding very good profit but there is a threat from the competitions that try

to enter the market and snatch the market share. Gather information on the competitor’s product attribute, market share, price structure, discount and

allowance in pricing policies, distribution policies promotional programs, etc. For providing more exposure to the product, shifting from informative advertising to persuasive

advertising, lowering price at the right time to attract new price sensitive layer of customers.

Maturity stageThe products sale reaches the highest point but the profit starts declining slowly.

At this stage the number of competitors increases further and they become very tactical and more and more research is needed to note and counter their activities.The maturity stage may exhibit these phases(i) Growth maturity (ii) Saturation maturity (iii) Decaying maturity Product can be saved from dropping out through (I) Market modification by entering into new market segment and searching new markets, increasing usage rate of the product and repositioning of product achieves large brand sales, (ii) Product modification to relaunch the product, it can be carried out through quality improvement, feature improvement and style improvement, (iii) Marketing – Mix modification can be carried out by adjusting all the four P’s of marketing. Decline stageThis exhibits a sharp decline in sales of the product. The firm has to decide whether to drop the product or continue with it. The MR has to gather lot of information. These may be used to

first identify the weak product After identifying the research makes available the information whether the continuation

strategy, concentration strategy will be useful for the firm with regard to the product. The strategies to be carried out depends upon competition more so information on their

strategies pertaining to the product in question are needed to be collected, analyzed and interpreted.

At the final stage the product may be modified so that new re-cycle may begin otherwise the product may be dropped.

Product mix researchA continuous evaluation of package designs, branding policies and after sales service is the essential component of produce research.

1. Package designs must be in conformity with those of the competitors or better than competitors.

2. Both pretesting and post testing are conducted in packaging research3. Paired comparison test are the mostly used type of packaging test.4. The researcher tests designs, colors, shapes, size and symbols.5. Resistance of package for the product handling is also required to be tested individually and in

comparison to the competitor’s product. 6. The researcher may investigate the complaints of the dealers and consumers in this connection

and after analysis of available data suggest some measures to improve the packing aspects of the product.

Branding policies If the brand is appealing it can increase the market share.

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Brand names should be easy to pronounce, explain some small attribute of the product and should be shorter containing only single word.

The researcher task is to investigate whether present branding policy is serving the organizational purpose. If not the reasons are found out and corrective measures are taken.

After sales services After sales service becomes increasing important because of increased competition. Buyers expect that the manufacturer should remain in continuous contact with them according

to the guarantee of warranty given in connection with the product purchased. The researcher must investigate where company’s efforts are lacking pertaining to after sales

service. With regard to consumer product house wives must be contacted and problems as product

performance must be identified, analyzed and solution worked out.SALES CONTROL RESEARCH

Sales control research is described as the identification and measurement of all those variables which individually and in combination have effect on sales. It comprises sales forecasting, market potential, market share analysis, determination of market characteristics and sales analysis.

1. SALES FORECASTINGSteps in forecasting process:

STEP I : Objective of the forecast: The Marketing Research should know as to what will be the use of the forecast that is being conducted.STEP II : The time period: The time period for which forecast is to be made should be selected. Is the forecast for Short-term, Medium-term or long-term? Why should be a particular period of forecast be selected?STEP III : The Method or Technique of forecasting should be selected

One should be clear as to why particular techniques must be selected out of several techniques.STEP IV. The data necessary should be collected

The need for specific data will depend on forecasting technique to be used.STEP V : The forecast is to be made.: This will involve the use of computation procedure. In order to make forecast to be useful to the company, there should be good understanding between Management and Researcher. The management should clearly explain the researcher about the purpose of forecast of how it is going to help the company.Sales forecasting means the predication of sales of a particular product, company, branch office, or other unit for a given period of times.

METHOD OF FORECASTING:Methods of forecasting can be divided into broad categories viz.

- Subjective or Qualitative- Objective or Quantitative Methods

Subjective Methods:1. Field Sales force:

The companies ask their salesman to indicate the most likely sales for a specific period in the future. Usually the salesman is asked to indicate anticipated sales for each account in his territory.2. Jury of Executives:

Jury of executive opinion method and sales force estimate method are subjective methods of sales forecasting. Each of the number of executives makes an independent forecast of sales for the next period usually a year. These forecasts are more than just opinion. Advantage

It is simple and based on different viewpoints as opinions of different executive or sought.Limitation

The executive’s opinions are likely to be influenced in one direction on basis of general business condition.

Users Expectations:Forecast can be based on users expectations or intentions to purchase goods of service. It is

different to use this method when number of users is large. It is most suitable when the number of buyers is small such as in case of industries products.The Delphi Method:

This Method is based on the experts Opinions Here each expert has access to the sales information that is available. A feedback system generally keeps there informed of each others forecast but no majority opinion is

disclosed to them the experts are not brought together. This is to avoid domination of one or more vocal expert on others.

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The experts are given an opportunity to compare their own previous forecast with those or other and revise them. After this three or four experts arrive at final forecast.

The method may involve large number of experts from 10 to 40 so this may delay the forecast.

Quantitative or Statistical MethodTime-Series:

In time-series forecasting the past sales data are extra polated as a linear or curvilinear trend. Time-series forecasting is most suitable to stable situation where the future trends will largely be an

extension of past. Moving average method.

Time series decomposition:i) Trend – long term effect on sales that are caused by such factors as income, population

industrialization & technologyii) Cycle-cyclical component indicate sort of a periodicity in general.iii) Seasonal component reflect: change in sales level due to factors such as

Weather, festival holidays etc.,iv) Erratic movements in data arise on account of events such as strikes,

Lockouts, price wars etc.,1. Sales Analysis: Sales analysis is analyzing actual sales result. Sales analysis enables a company to identity the areas where its sales performance has been good

customers who have bought in bulk, product with higher and low sales volume. A systematic comprehensive and periodical analysis will be helpful to a company to reinforce its sales

effort where it is most needed. Sales analysis is on the basis of four major types viz.

- By territory- By product - By customer- By size of order

The purpose of conducting the sales analysis is to determine the company areas of strength and weakness. These try to find out those products which are producing the greatest volume of sales also the product with

least sales volume.(a) Sales analysis by territory:

The invoice is considered as primary sales record for the purpose of analysis- First geographical control units to be used is decided- District are the typical choice for analysis- Sales are tabulated by territorial units.- The results may be compared with sales potentials previously developed.- The reasons are identified such as(i) Is competition usually high?(ii) Has less selling effort been put there?(iii) Is sales force weak?

(b) Sales analysis by products:- The analysis by product will enable a company to identify its strong or weak products.- The sales analysis by product results are more effective when the analysis is carried out

on details break-up of products such as product variation by size, colour etc.,- When a company finds that a particular product is doing poorly, two opinions are open

to it.- It may concentrate on that product to improve sales

Or- It may gradually with draw the product and eventually drop it all together.

(c) Sales analysis by customers: This analyze would indicate that a relatively small number of customers accounts for large

proportion of sales. One may compare the data with the proportion time spent on the customers i.e., the value

of sale calls. An analysis of this type will enable the company to devote relatively more time to those

customers who collectively account for proportionally large sales. Sales analysis by customer can also be combined with analysis both by area & product.

(d) Sales analysis by the size of the order It may show that a large volume of sales is accompanied by low profit and vice versa. If cost accounting data are available which will indicate the cost of securing and handling an

order, it is possible to determine sales, which are made at loss. This analysis may be pushed to find areas product and customers where small orders are

prevalent.

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This lead to the action of setting a minimum order size in order to train salesman to develop large orders or to drop certain products or areas of customers.

3. Sales Potential- Sales potential analysis is also termed as market analysis.

- A set of geographical sales potential can be defined as “relative reassures of total possible sales of a commodity or a group of commodities under specific marketing condition at a stated time in a specified geographical area relative to the total area under consideration. The measure is concerned with the relative level of possible sales.

- Uses of sales potential :1. Defining the sales territories2. Allocating funds for advertising & promotional efforts3. Setting the sales quotas4. Designing the distribution channels 5. Deciding the location & size of the plants new sales office and warehouses6. Determining the strategy for market entry1) Designing and assigning sales territories:

Various factors influencing the optimum sales potential are.1) Travels distance2) Average size of order or geography3) Number of customers4) The product line and its return and5) Nature of competition

The elimination of wear areas and concentration of stronger ones can increase sales and at the sales time reduce the costs.

2) Allocation of sales efforts:- Funds for all selling efforts viz. Sales force, advertising & sales promotion & publicity

should be allocated o9nly after consideration of potentials- In case of national advertising, this can be done by comparing circulation data for media

with market potential.- Advertising can be allocated to each market in proportion to potential- Potential is not the only criteria for allocating sales efforts. The primary usefulness of

market potential is to focus attention on relative worth of individual markets.3) Setting sales quotas:

- Sales quotas must be set for each sales territory.- While setting sales quotas sales potential of concerned territory should be kept in mind.- Before setting quotas the estimate of sales potential, sales performance change to be

made in amount of supporting sales effort during combing year and anticipated activities of competitors must be considered.

- Sales quota is set for each territory and salesman.- Quotas may not be same or of relative size of sales potential for that territory.

4) Designing the distribution channel:- Depending upon the sales potential existing in each sales territory, we can design the

sales channels for different territories.- More middlemen may be needed in large potential territories where as we can resort to

direct selling in small territories with less potential or keep a very limited number of middlemen as compared to large potential territories.

5) Deciding the new plant location and size:- With knowledge of sales potential exact location of plant and its optimum size can be forward

out. - Whether to locate near particular market or at extra place covering all markets.

6) Strategy for Market entry :- By knowing the market potential one can decide about market entry time and positioning or

product in comparison to competitors.- The basic reason for any company’s being in business is to sure consular-to satisfy his needs by

offering him suitable products and services.- All companies’ activities such as production, finance, personnel, purchase, selling etc.,

must be devoted to the satisfaction of consumers, while still making a profit over the long run.

- Basic marketing research thus resolves around the motivations of consumer buying.

DISTRIBUTION RESEARCHDecision making areas.

1. Channel choice-Direct & indirect2. Channel performance measurement

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3. Warehouse location4. Retail outlet location5. Number of sales representation

Channel choices:Comparison of channel cost for distribution-The changes include dealer margin-commission-storage cost freight and forwarding charges. Total cost of distribution of each channel. Will be computed and comprised with each other. Cost effective channel will be computed and compared with each other. Cost effective channel is one which involves the least expenses and least time for distribution.Distribution research consists of

a) Location and design of distribution centers.b) Handling and packing merchandise.c) Cost analysis of transportation methods.d) Dealer supply and storage requirements.

MOTIVATION RESEARCHInformation can’t be obtained by direct message. The researcher cannot simply go up to a consumer and ask him why he prefers one product brand to another and expect to get a correct answer. Generally direct questioning does not it gives correct answers for one of the two reasons: either the consumer does not know his true reasons or he knows but is unwilling to tell them to the researchers or gives illogical reasons.These illogical reasons are because of1. The consumer does not know the “why” of purchase* Consumers are generally unaware of their own “true” reasons for specific brand and product

selections. The consumer may answer due to the influence of the advertisement. The consumers can also

get confused about the brand they actually bought.This happens because of the influence of heavy product identification with a single brand.Eg. Cold cream pondsPhotocopier – XeroxThe heavy product identification is a total disaster in the view of marketing research. In response to direct questioning concerning purchase behaviour, all the researcher gets is the major brand name even if the consumer is buying “off-brand”.

2. The consumer will not tell about their purchase:Reason for incorrect answers lies in the choice made my consumers not to tell the correct answer

even if they know it. This deliberate misrepresentation will occur at any time due to moral sensitivity or status-related. Over estimate their income, their charitable giving and their purchases of branded item and they under estimate their smoking, drinking habits. Respondents will also modify their answer in attempt to appear logical and intelligent.3. The consumer may put forward illogical reasons for their purchaseThe reasons for consumer preferences are seldom logical. The researcher who approaches the respondent in a direct, illogical, and straightforward manner will often obtain very misleading answers. Further since the nature of investigation is subjective, the conclusions produced are often highly speculative and will vary greatly with person performing the research.Kinds of information sought in motivation research:-

AttitudeConsumers are believed to have stable sets of attitudes. These sets are different for different

individual consumers. The stable set of attitude towards a product brand may be favourable or unfavourable. If the customer have positive attitude towards the product. The set of attitude can be changed forming advertising appeals carefully aiming at a particular market segment.

Information

Attitude

Assumptions

Sensations

Images

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AssumptionsConsumer before buying the product create a opinion about the product Consumer have “frames of references” formed out of the information gathered from their experience. They try to “fit” things in the frame of reference. If they do not fit they reject things.It is important to have knowledge of assumption and beliefs held by consumers. Some consumers may use price as an index of quality.Consumers make a number of assumptions regarding products and companioes-often without fact.Assumption and beliefs are closely related to attitudes but it is harder to change than attitudes.SensationsSensation may be defined as the reaction of the mind to either a mental or physical stimulus. Sensation is commonly produced by stimuli, which affect a person’s sight smell., hearing, taste, and touch.ImagesImage is defined as mental pictures that are formed as a result of stimuli. Consumers develop some images about products . These images are built on the basis of salient features of product, which are considered really salient by a particular consumer. These images lead a consumer to buy or not to buy a brand of the product. The images can be changed with the help of improved advertising.MotiveMotive is one of the more impelling determinants of a person’s action. Motivation arises out of tension-systems in consumers mind and thus creates a need for brand of the product directs the individual to a goal.Motive is a need, want, drive or usage in the mind of an individual. Marketer’s task is to develop a tension system in the consumer’s mind and thus create a need for brand of the product.

Motivation Research technique1. Non-disguised-structured techniques2. Non-disguised non-structured techniques3. Disguised-non-structured techniques and4. Disguised-structured techniques.

(i) Non-disguised structured techniques This approach employs a standardized questionnaire to collect data on beliefs, feelings and

attitudes from the respondent. The purpose of the study is clearly explained to respondent. Three types of methods might be employed to collect data as explained below:(a) Single question method

This is the simplest method used to collect data on attitudes. A single question is asked with a variety of given response-choices. The respondent is required to give one answer selected from various choices given to them.

For example, to find out consumer’s attitude towards a given product the following question might be asked. Which one of the following responses best describe your feelings about X brand of product?1. I think it is an excellent product.2. I think it is a very good product.3. I think it is a good product.4. I think it is a fair product.5. I think it is a poor product.6. I think it is a very poor productMerits: The single-question technique has the advantage of being easy to administer and analyse.Demerits The subject matter being specific, it is difficult to construct meaningful categories Specified alternative answers may force the respondent to express an attitude, which he does not

hold.(ii) Multiple question methodIn this method number of questions is asked about the attitudes and total score from all the questions responses give the score or total attitude of the respondent.(iii) Physiological testsLaboratory tests such as galvano skin response, eye moment and pupil dilation are used to measure attitude of people towards product.(2) Non-disguised-non-structured techniques These techniques use an unstandardised questionnaire. The purpose of the study is revealed fully to respondent. Neither the questions asked nor the answers given are predetermined is the most common thing in

various variations of this approach.

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The techniques are also called depth interviews, qualitative interviews, unstructured interviews, non-directive interview, focused-interview and camera action interviews.

3. Disguised-non-structured technique In this technique the purpose of the study is not revealed A list of unstructured question is used to collect data on consumer’s attitudes. The purpose of the research is disguised, this is done because many consumers either do not know

or they are unwilling to reveal or express the reasons of their product purchase. In order to get the true information on the subject under study indirect questions are asked to the

respondents. This act of using disguised and unstructured method is referred to as projective techniques. The projective techniques include several tests given to the respondents. They may be asked to

give their comments on cartoons, pictures, stories, etc. This method compels a respondent to project himself on ‘why’ part of his behaviour.

4. Disguised structural techniquesWhen the researcher is to measure that attitude which respondent might not readily and accurately express, then researcher can use disguised structured techniques. Respondents are given questions, which they are not likely to be able to answer accurately. In such circumstances they are compelled to “guess at” the answers. It is felt that at this circumstance attitude on the subject are assumed to be revealed.Limitation in motivation research(i) Cautions are required to be exercised not only in the application of these techniques but also the resultant data should be analysed and interpreted according to psychological theory.(ii) The designing and administering of these techniques need qualified and

Experienced researchers.(iii) Generally small samples are taken for conducting motivation research

generalizations if drawn on this basis are misleading.

PRICE RESEARCHResearch on pricing of product can be done on the following areas.1. New product pricing2. Pricing for product life3. Competitor pricing4. Price sensitivity research5. Price spread analysis

Data required for pricing research

1. COST DATA : Raw material, labour & overhead cost.2. Govt. regulation on price3. Economic data : Demand and supply of product.4. Competitor production and pricing strategies, 5. Price spread analysis : Price variation between producer and consumer.6. Consumer behaviour and price change.

Major research techniques.1. New product pricing2. Price sensitivity research

NEW PRODUCT PRICING RESEARCH:There are mainly two product-pricing strategies1. Profit oriented pricing2. Share oriented pricing

PRICE SENSITIVITY RESEARCH:Objectives; To study consumer reaction to a given change in price. To study the volume of purchase for a given change in Price. To measure the degree of change in the purchase behaviour for a given change in price.

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