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Majoritarian and consensus democracy? Varieties of electoral systems: Winner-take-all Proportional representation Mixed Dimensions for evaluating institutions Normative Positive Endogenous electoral rules

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The complex relationship between social cleavages, issue preferences, electoral systems, and party systems

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WestminsterConsensus Democracy 1) Concentrated executive powerPower sharing in the executive (coalition) 2) Cabinet DominanceExecutive/Legislative Balance 3) 2-partyMultiparty 4) Plurality ElectionsProportional Representation 5) Pluralist interest groupsCorporatism, peak associations, etc. 6) Unitary Decentralized 7) Unicameral legislatureStrong Bicameralism 8) Constitutional FlexibilityConstitutional Rigidity 9) No judicial reviewStrong role for judicial review 10) Central Bank controlled byCentral Bank independence executive

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A single-member district plurality (SMDP) system is one in which individuals cast a single vote for a candidate in a single-member district. The candidate with the most votes wins. Examples: United Kingdom, India, Canada, Nigeria, Zambia

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http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/interactiv e/2010/may/10/proportional-representation- alternative-vote-plus http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/interactiv e/2010/may/10/proportional-representation- alternative-vote-plus

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A two-round system (TRS) has the potential for two rounds of elections. Candidates or parties are automatically elected in the first round if they obtain a specified level of votes, typically an absolute majority. If no candidate or party wins this level of votes, then a second round of elections takes place. Those candidates or parties that win the most votes in the second round are elected.

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Examples: Most presidential elections in Latin America French legislative and presidential elections

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A proportional, or proportional representation, electoral system is a quota- or divisor-based electoral system employed in multimember districts. The rationale behind PR systems is to produce a proportional translation of votes into seats. Proportional electoral systems can be divided into those that use party lists and those that do not.

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How would a PR system work in the UK?

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In a list PR system, each party presents a list of candidates for a multimember district. Parties receive seats in proportion to their overall share of the votes. These seats are then shared among candidates on the list in various ways.

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List PR systems differ in important ways: 1. The precise formula used to allocate seats to parties 2. The district magnitude 3. The use of electoral thresholds 4. The type of party list employed.

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Some are more proportional, some more friendly to larger parties

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However, the key variable for determining the proportionality of an electoral system is the district magnitude. The district magnitude is the number of representatives elected in a district. The larger the district magnitude, the greater the degree of proportionality.

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Although all PR systems use multimember districts, the average size of these districts can vary quite a lot. In the Netherlands and Slovakia, the average district magnitude is 150. In Chile, the average district magnitude is 2.

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Thresholds (e.g. Germany) Open vs. Closed Lists

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In a closed party list, the order of candidates elected is determined by the party itself, and voters are not able to express a preference for a particular candidate. In an open party list, voters can indicate not just their preferred party but also their favored candidate within that party.

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The electoral formula determines how many seats a party wins. In a closed list system, these party seats are allocated according to the order of the party list. Example: If a party wins 10 seats, then the top 10 candidates on the party list are elected.

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The electoral formula determines how many seats a party wins. In an open list system, these party seats are allocated according to whichever party candidates win the most votes. Example: If a party wins 10 seats, then the top 10 vote-winners on the party list are elected.

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Implications?

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An electoral tier is a level at which votes are translated into seats. The lowest electoral tier is the district level. Higher tiers are constituted by grouping together lower tier constituencies; they are typically at the regional or national level. Many mixed electoral systems have multiple electoral tiers, with majoritarian formulas used in a lower tier and proportional formulas used in a higher tier.

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Dimensions for evaluating electoral institutions

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Protection of liberty Protection of minorities Decisiveness, especially under stress Credibility of commitments Stability Quality of democracy Representativeness Accountability Rent-seeking and corruption

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Public versus private goods Broad versus targeted programs and expenditures The extent of redistribution Budget deficits Size of government as a share of GDP

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PR and minorities

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Are coalition governments less decisive? What about minority governments?

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Again, coalition versus single-party government

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Weimar Germany?

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What can go wrong under PR? What can go wrong under SMDP?

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Clarity of responsibility How important are districts?

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Barriers to entry Party lists

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Geography and marginal districts Core support vs. swing district models. Do small districts encourage pork?

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Functionalist arguments about social heterogeneity Colonial and historical legacies Strategic elites Boix Calvo Strategic fools?