Similarities – Christianity and Buddhism The development and spread of Christianity and Buddhism before 600 C.E. had

many common characteristics Both Christianity and Buddhism were outgrowths of other religions – Christianity

evolved from Judaism and Buddhism evolved from Hinduism Both were aided in their spread by existing trade networks – whether

Mediterranean trade routes or Silk Road trade routes – trade helped spread ideas And both developed monastic orders open to women – yes, both Christianity and

Buddhism provided alternatives to marriage for women – for women could become nuns

However, they did NOT share the belief that the founders of both presented themselves as divine – Buddha always claimed to be a man, although an enlightened man

Christianity in Ethiopia and Egypt Christianity had an early presence in Ethiopia and Egypt King Ezana of Axum [present-day Ethiopia] converted to Christianity in the 300s

C.E. [around the same time as Emperor Constantine] Even with the arrival of Islam, a Christian presence can still be found in these lands Yes, after the expansion of Islam into Africa, an organized Christian presence

remained in Egypt and Ethiopia Christianity first arrived in North Africa, in the 1st or early 2nd century C.E. The Christian communities in North Africa were among the earliest in the world Legend has it that Christianity was brought from Jerusalem to Alexandria on the

Egyptian coast by Mark, one of the four evangelists, in 60 C.E. This was around the same time or possibly before Christianity spread to Northern

Europe In the 7th century Christianity retreated under the advance of Islam but it remained

the chosen religion of the Ethiopian Empire and persisted in pockets in North Africa

Similarities – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam These Abrahamic faiths are monotheistic The share a belief in monotheism and ethical and moral conduct Jews, Christians, and Muslims recognize Jewish Prophets such as Abraham and

Moses Yes, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share the following belief: these religions all

recognize the existence of Adam and of Moses Three of the world’s major religions – the monotheist traditions of Judaism,

Christianity, and Islam – were all born in the Middle East (Southwest Asia) and are all inextricably linked to one another

Christianity was born from within the Jewish tradition, and Islam developed from both Christianity and Judaism

A Major Feature of the Neolithic Revolution People learned to farm and domesticate animals during the Neolithic Revolution As a result of farming and domesticated animals, people settled in villages

Sedentary village communities were established A reliable food source developed Population increased Class and gender divisions emerged Epidemic diseases occurred due to proximity to animals Yes, a major feature of the Neolithic Revolution in the Middle East was the

establishment of sedentary village communities

Point of View in History History is a record of the past but the recording of the past is influenced by the

person recording it In other words, historians recount stories from the past from certain points of view The African proverb, “Until the lions have their historians, tales of hunting will

always glorify the hunter,” conveys this idea and suggests that history usually reflects the viewpoint of the victors

Students of history must take into account the “recorder” of history For example, a peasant might view the Communist victory in China in 1949

differently than a landowning aristocrat Historical records do not always include all points of view [i.e. conquerors often

write history from the perspective of the victors as opposed to the vanquished] It is important to examine the historian writing the history to discover the

historian’s point of view and what the historian has emphasized and possibly ignored in the recounting of history

Beliefs of Judaism Judaism is the world’s first lasting monotheistic religion Judaism is based on the belief in a covenant between God and the Hebrew people The Jewish people believe that the one God has chosen them to live moral and

ethical lives according to God’s Commandments According to the covenant, if the Jews obey God’s Commandments, they will be

blessed by God but if they forsake God’s Commandments, they will be punished The Jews, according to Judaism, are to be an ethical and righteous people

Similarity – Christianity and Islam From the founding of each religion, Christians and Muslims shared a belief in a

single omnipotent deity Deity is another word for God and omnipotent means all-powerful Christians and Muslims are monotheists and believe in one, all-powerful God “Islam” means submission to the will of God and a Muslim is an individual who

submits to the will of God Muslims and Christians believe in a single omnipotent deity

Significant Beliefs of Buddhism Buddhism developed in the Indian subcontinent, South Asia Its founder was a Hindu prince, Siddhartha Gautama, who went in search of the

cause of suffering and the end of suffering

Upon achieving enlightenment, according to Buddhists, he formulated the Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths are 1- Life has suffering2- Desire causes suffering3- Suffering can end (nirvana)4- Follow the Noble Eightfold Path or eight actions to end suffering (Right Speech, Right Concentration, etc.)

Like Hinduism, Buddhists accept the concepts of reincarnation (Samsara) and karma

Buddhists, however, reject the Hindu caste system And Buddhists allow monastic opportunities for men and women (monks and nuns) Yes, the founder of Buddhism developed a religion centered on the elimination of

desire and suffering

Effects of Bantu Migration The Bantu originally lived in West Africa but as they learned to farm, they began to

migrate throughout sub-Saharan Africa As farmers, the Bantu needed more land as population increased As the Bantu migrated, they spread agriculture, iron-making and their language to

the lands and peoples of sub-Sahara The spread of Bantu-speaking peoples over southern African can be best explained

by their knowledge of agriculture It was agriculture that led to the Bantu migration The Bantu migration is dated from approximately 1000 B.C.E. to 1000 C.E.

Beliefs of Daoism Daoism is a Chinese philosophy that developed during the “Age of Warring States”

period of the Zhou dynasty During this time of warfare and disorder, Chinese philosophers sought for ways to

restore peace and harmony to China and the great Chinese philosophies of Confucianism, Daoism and Legalism were created

The Daoist solution to creating peace and harmony in society was to live naturally and to live close to nature

Daoists believed that people who lived naturally would be happy people and happy people would live in harmony with one another

A key philosophical and religious element of Daoism is an emphasis on harmony between humanity and nature

When people live naturally and in harmony with nature, peace results Daoists also believe that the government that governs least and allows individuals

the freedom to live naturally governs best Daoists love nature and the Daoist influence is clearly seen in Chinese painting as it

emphasizes mountains, rivers and nature Similarities – Judaism and Hinduism

At first glance, Judaism and Hinduism seem quite different

Jews worship one God while Hindus worship many gods – yet believe that the many gods are all aspects of the cosmic spirit called Brahman

Hindus believe in reincarnation (samsara) and Jews do not believe in reincarnation Hinduism has a caste system and Jews believe that all Jews are equal in the eyes of

God Yet both religions have sacred texts and rules for living a good and moral life Yes, before 500 C.E. Judaism and Hinduism were similar in that both had written

scriptures and an ethical code to live by The Torah or the first five books of the Jewish Bible are the most important of the

sacred scriptures for Jews and the Ten Commandments establish moral and ethical rules for living

The Vedas, Upanishads, and the Bhagavad-Gita are Hindu sacred texts and karma (the belief that all actions have consequences) and dharma (the rules of caste) encourage Hindus to act in moral and ethical ways

Examination System under the T’ang Dynasty China under the Tang government filled positions in the bureaucracy by means of

merit examinations A bureaucracy is a large group of people who are involved in running a government

but who are not elected In China, the examination system was created by the Han Dynasty as a means of

selecting men for government service All men theoretically could take the examination and therefore the examination

system provided a measure of social mobility – in that a man from a peasant family could pass the exam for government service and become a scholar-gentry, landowner and government employee – but of course, it was difficult for peasant families to pay the money necessary for proper educational training yet a talented peasant might gain the financial support of his village

The examination system was adopted by most Chinese dynasties after the Han and thus, the examination system was a continuity in much of the Chinese dynastic period

Chinese Concept of the Mandate of Heaven The Zhou Dynasty established a belief in the Mandate of Heaven or the idea that the

gods selected the emperor to rule and gave the ruler the mandate or right to rule as long as the ruler ruled righteously and well

In the event of famine, floods, epidemics or too much war and conflict, however, the gods signified that the ruler had lost the mandate or right to rule and that the people could rebel

Thus, the Mandate of Heaven justified rebellion and led to the dynastic cycle in which dynasties claimed the mandate, ruled for a period of time, lost the mandate, rebellion occurred, and a new dynasty was established

The Mandate of Heaven was not permanently granted to a dynasty So, yes, the Chinese concept of “Mandate of Heaven” was sometimes used to justify

rebellion

Extent of the Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea But the Mongols never conquered Japan The Mongols conquered China, Russia and Persia The Mongols conquered lands that encompassed the entire length and breadth of

the Silk Roads Yet it is best to look at a map of the Mongol Empire at its height – a map will clearly

reveal how impressive the Mongol Empire was At its height, the Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire in history –

contiguous means connected throughout in an unbroken sequence

Western Europe after the Fall of Rome The Roman Empire was highly centralized but the western portion of the Roman

Empire collapsed in 476 C.E. – the eastern empire became the Byzantine Empire (at least according to historians) but the western portion entered a period of feudalism and decentralization known as the European Middle Ages

By 600 C.E., Western Europe was the world region that had experienced the most extensive urban decline

As waves of Germanic invaders (known to the Romans as barbarians) entered Western Europe, city life decline as people found safety on manors

A manor was a lord’s land in the countryside and as the lord had an army, people laboring for the lord were protected on his manor

Many peasants became serfs as they agreed to labor for the lord in return for protection – a serf was bound to the lord’s land and could not leave and his children and grandchildren and future descendants were also all bound to the lord

Contribution of the Phoenicians The Phoenicians were a seafaring people from present-day Lebanon The Phoenicians established cities throughout the Mediterranean and were traders

in the region But the most important legacy (handed down from the past) of the Phoenicians their

development of an alphabetic writing system that was adapted by the Greeks In an alphabetic writing system, each letter represents a sound and thus fewer

symbols are needed for writing than when every word has its own character – yes, to this day, when children are taught to read in English (the alphabetic writing system adopted from the Greeks who adopted it from the Phoenicians), they are taught the sounds of the letters – this method for teaching reading is called phonics after the Phoenicians

Their major cities were Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, and Arwad – all were fiercely independent, rival cities and, unlike the neighboring inland states, the Phoenicians represented a confederation of maritime traders rather than a defined country

The most significant Phoenician contribution was an alphabetic writing system The Phoenician alphabetic writing system became the root of the Western alphabets

when the Greeks adopted it The main natural resources of the Phoenician cities in the eastern Mediterranean

were the prized cedars of Lebanon and murex shells used to make the purple dye

The name Phoenician, used to describe these people in the first millennium B.C.E., is a Greek invention, from the word phoinix, possibly signifying the color purple-red and perhaps an allusion to their production of a highly prized purple dye

Reasons for the Collapse of the Roman and Han Empires Invasions by borderland peoples contributed significantly to the fall of both the

western Roman and Han empires The quality of Han emperors began to decline around 88 C.E. – at the same time,

conditions for the peasantry deteriorated, as large landowners began to monopolize control over the agricultural system and impose serfdom – peasant unrest transformed into a Daoist revolutionary movement by the Yellow Turbans in 184 C.E. – although Han generals suppressed the rebellion, they set themselves up as regional rulers – nomads from the Asiatic steppes invaded China and established their own regional kingdoms – in this period of political disintegration, Buddhism spread into China

The Han Dynasty collapsed in 220 C.E. The Roman Empire also collapsed due to invaders and internal problems The population of the later Roman Empire declined, diminishing the recruitment

base for the armies – the economy was less able to support taxation – politically, the quality of emperors also worsened – the onset of decline coincided with the end of imperial expansion around 180 C.E. – with the end of imperial conquest came the end of the ready supply of slaves on which the empire depended – because the empire never established a principle of succession, there were constant civil wars over who should be emperor – when the Germanic migrations began in the fifth century C.E., the western half was able to offer almost no resistance

Effects of New Varieties of Rice (i.e. Champa Rice) in East Asia A rapid increase of East Asian populations was an important long-term

demographic impact of the spread of new rice varieties in East Asia during the period circa 600 C.E. to 1200 C.E

Early maturing varieties of rice with their ability to escape droughts, avoid floods and in some localities open up the opportunity for double cropping increased the amount of rice grown and therefore increased the number of calories people consumed thereby leading to more people living rather than starving

During Song times, new developments in rice cultivation — especially the introduction of new strains of rice from what is now Central Vietnam, along with improved methods of water control and irrigation — spectacularly increased rice yields – rice was used primarily as food – so, Champa Rice was really important

Demographic means the number of people in a society and Champa rice increased the number of people living in an area because it reduced mortality due to starvation

Improved seeds means greater cultivation Thus, better rice – rice that can be grown and survive even in difficult places and

times – means more people or a demographic change as population increases

Impact of Islamic Civilization on Medieval Europe

The transmittal of Greek and Arab learning is the most important effect of Islamic expansion on the civilization of medieval Europe

When Rome fell, learning declined in the early centuries of the Medieval period in Western Europe and many of the classical books written by Greeks and Romans were destroyed during the Germanic invasions

Yet the classical ideas of the Greeks and Romans were preserved in the libraries of the Byzantines (formerly Eastern Roman Empire peoples) and the Islamic kingdoms

So, when the Crusaders traveled to the Holy Land – they not only encountered Muslim armies but their own books in the libraries of Muslims

The introduction to their own ideas eventually transformed the people of Western Europe and by 1350, the Renaissance or “rebirth” of classical ideas in the West occurred

Conversion of Slavs by Byzantine Missionaries The Byzantine Empire greatly affected the culture of the Russian people Byzantine missionaries – Cyril and Methodius – brought Orthodox Christianity to

Russia In addition, as the Russian language did not have an alphabet, the monks created a

Russian alphabet in order to write the Bible in Russia – that alphabet is known as the Cyrillic alphabet (named for the monk who created it and introduced Orthodox Christianity to the Slavs of Eastern Europe)

Yes, the Cyrillic alphabet owes its name to the 9th century Byzantine missionary St. Cyril, who, along with his brother, Methodius, created the first Slavic alphabet – the Glagolitic – in order to translate Greek religious text to Slavic – it is on the basis of this alphabet that the Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 10th century C.E. by the followers of the brothers, who were beatified (given a title to mark as good and holy people) as saints

The Byzantine Empire influenced Russia by bringing Orthodox Christianity, the Cyrillic alphabet, and the concept of a Caesar or “Tsar” in Russian – the idea of an absolute ruler – to the Russian people

Yes, the Byzantine Empire achieved the conversion of many Slavic peoples to Christianity

Facts about the Mongol Empire The rise of the Mongol Empire contributed to the following: an empire that

extended across parts of Europe and Asia, an unsuccessful attempt to conquer Japan, the spread of the plague, and the growth of trade across Central Asia

The Mongols conquered a vast empire from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea but never conquered Japan

The Mongol Empire extended across Eurasia and included the length and breadth of the Silk Roads

The Mongols created a time of peace in their empire known as the Pax Mongolia – this time of peace and security reduced bandit attacks on the Silk Roads and therefore increased trade

With trade flourishing on the Silk Roads, disease spread too – as more contact between more people allowed for the spread of bubonic plague or the Black Death

And the Mongols never conquered Japan – although the Mongols tried twice to conquer it

But the Mongols did NOT contribute to the spread of Christianity The Mongols were religiously tolerant and did not spread their shamanistic religion

or Christianity – they did not spread the Christian religion

Similarities – Islamic and Chinese Civilizations in the Postclassical Era Islamic and Chinese empires in the postclassical period (700 C.E. – 1200 C.E.)

shared the following characteristic: extensive urbanization and maritime trade In the postclassical period, Islamic and Chinese empires were prosperous and

flourishing and as a result, trade increased and city life increased Urbanization means movement to cities and these empires had many people living

in cities And of course, trade prospered – yes, even maritime trade or sea trade – in the

Indian Ocean trade network, Muslim merchants dominated Indeed, during the Song Dynasty, Chinese maritime trade exceeded Silk Road trade,

and Chinese porcelain has been found as far away as the Swahili coast of Africa

Facts about Afro-Eurasian Urban Centers before 600 C.E. The following accurately describes a characteristic shared by Afro-Eurasian urban

centers before 600 C.E.: cities served as centers of commercial activity Yes, urban centers or cities were centers of commercial activity In Afro-Eurasia, cities grew and multiplied partly because they developed

increasingly strong commercial ties with one another, sometimes across long distances

About 100 C.E., the world’s two biggest cities were almost certainly Rome, with a population nearing one million, and Luoyang in China’s Han empire

The urban downswing that occurred from the third century C.E. was certainly related to the decline of the Han and Roman Empires

Most cities served as centers of government, religion, trade, manufacturing, education, and artistic display

In some cities, such as Rome or Alexandria (in Egypt), all these functions operated simultaneously

Other cities had more specialized purposes, for example, towns of the Mediterranean coast or Inner Eurasia, which functioned chiefly to transship goods along routes of trade

Facts about Paleolithic Age The Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Era) occurred from the beginning of human

existence until around 12,000 years ago During this Paleolithic age, humans used stone to make tools Paleolithic is a word that comes from the two Greek words palaios, meaning old,

and lithos, meaning stone During the Paleolithic age, humans did NOT know how to farm and those had to

find food as foragers and hunters

Hunting and gathering societies were highly mobile and nomadic as people moved from place to place in search of food

Archaeological evidence indicates that Paleolithic hunter-gatherer societies used the controlled use of fire for warmth and as an aid in hunting and foraging

Fire was really important for the hunters and gatherers of the Old Stone Age or Paleolithic Era – it kept humans warm; it provided a means for cooking food, and it could be used to keep animals away from camps

Beliefs of Confucius – Particularly on Importance of Education Confucius was a Chinese philosopher who lived during the “Age of Warring States”

period of the Zhou Dynasty During this time period, China descended into warfare as lords competed against

the Zhou dynasty for power and many Chinese suffered as a result of the violence and chaos

Confucius sought to restore peace and harmony to China and believed that order was the key to establishing peace and harmony

Confucius taught that society consisted of unequal relationships between inferiors and superiors and that if inferiors obeyed and respected superiors and superiors ruled benevolently and well then peace and harmony would be restored

Confucius therefore believed that individuals had to know their proper roles in society and act accordingly

Confucius argued that education is essential to becoming a refined gentleman Yes, to Confucius, the most accomplished man was the educated man – Confucius

believed that men were pretty much equal but education set them apart This is why the examination system became a prerequisite for government service

when the Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism as its official philosophy

Chinggis Khan The man who united all the Mongol tribes into a single confederation in 1206 was

Chinggis Khan or Genghis Khan Between 1206 and his death in 1227, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan conquered

nearly 12 million square miles of territory – more than any individual in history Chinggis Khan was proclaimed leader of the Mongols at a tribal meeting known as

a “kurultai” – while “Khan” is a traditional title meaning “leader” or “ruler,” historians are still unsure of the origins of “Genghis” – it may have may have meant “ocean” or “just,” but in context it is usually translated as “supreme ruler” or “universal ruler”

Genghis Khan often gave other kingdoms a chance to peacefully submit to Mongol rule, but he didn’t hesitate to bring down the sword on any society that resisted

The Mongols were skilled warriors on horseback – their cavalry was unrivaled The Great Khan had a keen eye for talent, and he usually promoted his officers on

skill and experience rather than class, ancestry or even past allegiances One famous example of this belief in meritocracy came during a 1201 battle against

the rival Taijut tribe, when Genghis was nearly killed after his horse was shot out from under him with an arrow – when he later addressed the Taijut prisoners and demanded to know who was responsible, one soldier bravely stood up and admitted

to being the shooter – stirred by the archer’s boldness, Genghis made him an officer in his army and later nicknamed him “Jebe,” or “arrow,” in honor of their first meeting on the battlefield – along with the famed general Subutai, Jebe would go on to become one of the Mongols’ greatest field commanders during their conquests in Asia and Europe

Unlike many empire builders, Genghis Khan embraced the diversity of his newly conquered territories – he passed laws declaring religious freedom for all and even granted tax exemptions to places of worship – this tolerance had a political side – the Khan knew that happy subjects were less likely to rebel – but the Mongols also had an exceptionally liberal attitude towards religion

Along with the bow and the horse, the Mongols most potent weapon may have been their vast communication network – one of his earliest decrees as Khan involved the formation of a mounted courier service known as the “Yam” – it consisted of a well-organized series of post houses and way stations strung out across the whole of the Empire – by stopping to rest or take on a fresh mount every few miles, official riders could often travel as far as 200 miles a day – the system allowed goods and information to travel with unprecedented speed, but it also acted as the eyes and ears of the Khan – the Yam also helped protect foreign dignitaries and merchants during their travels

Silk Roads and Roman and Han Between 200 B.C.E. and 200 C.E., the Silk Roads facilitated commodity trade

between the following pairs of empires: the Roman and Han The Silk Road was the largest overland trade network for much of history At some point during the 1st century B.C.E., silk was introduced to the Roman

Empire, where it was considered an exotic luxury and became extremely popular, with imperial edicts being issued to control prices

Its popularity continued throughout the Middle Ages, with detailed Byzantine regulations for the manufacture of silk clothes, illustrating its importance as a quintessentially royal fabric and an important source of revenue for the crown

Additionally, the needs of the Byzantine Church for silk garments and hangings were substantial

This luxury item was thus one of the early impetuses in the development of trading routes from Europe to East Asia

Mongol Impact on Long-Distance Trade During the 13th century, long-distance trade in Eurasia increased primarily because

the Mongols worked to secure trade routes and ensure the safety of merchants passing through their vast territories

Trade flourished on the Silk Roads during the Mongol Empire Genghis Khan and his Mongol armies rose to power at the end of the twelfth

century, at a moment when few opposing rulers could put up much resistance to them

The vast Mongol empire stretched from China to Europe, across which the Silk Routes functioned as efficient lines of communication as well as trade

Protected under the Pax Mongolica, the Routes were particularly safe from raiders or aggressive tribes in this period, and great expeditions, such as the famous journey of Marco Polo in the late thirteenth century, became possible  

Beliefs of Sikhs Sikhism is a religion that developed in northern India – a region where Hindus and

Muslims lived The Sikh faith began in the 15th century when Guru Nanak began teaching a faith

that was quite distinct from Hinduism and Islam yet influenced by both religions Like Hindus, Sikhs have the beliefs of karma and reincarnation Like Muslims, Sikhs are monotheists One morning, when he was twenty-eight years old, Nanak went down to the river to

bathe and meditate – it was said that he was gone for three days and when he reappeared, it was believed that he was filled with the spirit of God

It was then that Guru Nanak began his missionary work and the religion of Sikhism was born

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion, and the basic Sikh belief is represented in the phrase Ik Onkar meaning “One God”

Sikhism was founded in the Punjab region in India in the 15th century by Guru Nanak Dev

Sikhism broke from Hinduism due, in part, to its rejection of the caste system The primary source of Scripture for Sikhs is the Guru Granth Sahib, regarded as

the living Guru, after the final Guru in human form, Guru Gobind Singh, passed away

A Sikh place of worship is known as the gurdwara – the word gurdwara means “doorway to God”

The Five Ks are the articles of faith that Sikhs wear as ordered by the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh

The Five Ks are Kesh or unshorn long hair, a kangha or a small wooden comb meant to keep the hair combed twice a day, a kara or an iron bangle to be worn on the hand used most, a kachera is a specific undergarment for modesty, and a kirpan or short dagger

Sikhs believe in defending the right of all peoples to religious freedom Caste in India yet Confucianism and Limited Mobility in China

The caste system is the fixed social class system of India – it is fixed in that a person is born into his caste and remains in his caste throughout his lifetime – a person cannot change his caste in this lifetime – thus there is no social mobility

In dynastic China from the Han Dynasty to the last dynasty (the Qing) but excluding the Yuan or Mongol Dynasty, there was limited social mobility

A poor man could pass the examination for government service in China and thereby rise in the class system – he could become a scholar-gentry or a landowning, government worker – yes, he could rise from the peasant class to the gentry class

But this was limited because most poor men could not afford the education needed to pass the test

Yet a village must sponsor a talented peasant and pay for his education – after all, it is good to have friends in government service

Thus, the following is a major difference between the social structures of China and India between 600 B.C.E. and 600 C.E.: the Confucian social hierarchy privileged government officials

Yes, in the Hindu caste system, the most privileged men were Brahmins or priests – the highest caste – individuals who had been born into the privileged caste

But in dynastic China, the most privileged group was the group of men known as the scholar-gentry, men who had passed the examination for government service and were rewarded with lots of land

Rules for Islamic Art The following is an accurate statement about Islamic art and architecture: Islamic

art focused on abstract geometric patterns and ornate calligraphy in Arabic Islamic art seeks to portray the meaning and essence of things, rather than just their

physical form Calligraphy is a major art form because writing has high status in Islam Geometry and patterns are important People do not appear in specifically religious art The Muslim artist does not attempt to replicate nature as it is, but tries to convey

what it represents – this lets the artist, and those who experience the art, get closer to Allah or God

For Muslims, beauty has always been and will always be a quality of the divine – there is a hadith or saying of the Prophet Muhammad that says: “Allah is beautiful and he loves beauty.”

Last Prophet According to Islam Muhammad is recognized by Muslims as the last prophet Muslims believe that Islam is a faith that has always existed and that it was

gradually revealed to humanity by a number of prophets, but the final and complete revelation of the faith was made through the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century C.E.

The traditional story of the Qur’an tells how one night in 610 Muhammad was meditating in a cave on the mountain when he was visited by the angel Jibreel who ordered him to recite

Once Jibreel mentioned the name of Allah, Muhammad began to recite words which he came to believe were the words of God

During the rest of his life Muhammad continued to receive these revelations The words were remembered and recorded, and form the text of the Holy Qur’an or

the Muslim scriptureReasons for Sunni and Shi’a Split

The split between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims occurred as a result of disagreement over leadership succession issues

Muhammad died unexpectedly without naming a successor The majority of Muslims are Sunni Muslims and they believe that any pious and

capable Muslim man may lead the umma or Islamic community

Shi’a believe that the leader of the umma must be a descendant from the Prophet Muhammad’s family through his beloved son-in-law, ‘Ali

The Prophet Muhammad had no sons that survived to adulthood and thus, ‘Ali, the beloved son-in-law of his beloved daughter, Fatima, was the family line through whence the next leader would come

This division has created tension in the Islamic world as Sunnis and Shi’a greatly differ on the issue of leadership succession

Facts about Islamic Spain Islamic Spain, known as al-Andalus, was controlled by Muslim Berber conquerors

but NOT part of the Abbasid Empire It was also the source of a failed invasion of France and the home of Ibn Rashd

(Averroes) – Averroës was an influential Islamic religious philosopher who integrated Islamic traditions with ancient Greek thought – at the request of the caliph, he produced a series of summaries and commentaries on most of Aristotle’s works (1169–95) and on Plato’s Republic, which exerted considerable influence in both the Islamic world and Europe for centuries

In 711 C.E., Muslim forces from the Umayyad Dynasty invaded Spain and in seven years conquered the Iberian peninsula

Muslim Spain became one of the great Muslim civilizations; reaching its summit with the Umayyad caliphate of Cordova in the tenth century – although the Umayyad had been long conquered by the Abbasid Dynasty by then, it continued to rule Islamic Spain

Muslim rule declined after that and ended in 1492 when Granada was conquered. The heartland of Muslim rule was Southern Spain or Andalusia

Five Pillars of Islam and Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism The Five Pillars are to Muslims as the Noble Eightfold Path is to Buddhists The Five Pillars are five obligations of Muslims: to believe in only one God; to pray

five times a day facing the holy city of Mecca; to give charity to the poor; to fast from sunrise to sunset during the month of Ramadan; and to take the pilgrimage to Mecca once in one’s lifetime if able

The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to the end of suffering in Buddhism and provides eight actions to reduce suffering: Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Contemplation

Both the Five Pillars and the Noble Eightfold Path provide frameworks for living Both the Five Pillars and the Noble Eightfold Path provide guidelines for living and

are specific actions for how to live as a pious Muslim or a practicing BuddhistSufis

Sufis are Islamic mystics – they seek spiritual union with God Sufis were very effective missionaries because they focused on loving God as

opposed to the rules of religion and were very flexible in teaching people new to Islam

Sufis sought and emotional and mystical union with Allah – this is really the essence of a mystical religious experience

Sufis used emotional sermons and song and dance to encourage devotion – Whirling Dervishes are Sufi mystics who whirl for hours to achieve spiritual union with God

Sufis tolerated observances of some non-Islamic customs because their focus is on loving God and not solely the rules of religion

Rights of Women in Islam Women in Islam had many rights such as the right to legally inherit property and

divorce husbands Women in Islam could engage in business ventures Women in Islam were equal to men before Allah and not the property of men The Prophet Muhammad forbade female infanticide or the killing of female infants A woman could testify in court although her testimony was worth half a man’s

testimony A woman could inherit but daughters inherited half of what sons inherited Yet despite these many rights, a woman could NOT take up to four husbands just as

a man could take up to four wives A woman could only have one husband and patriarchy still existed

Caliphs A caliph is a religious and political leader of Islam The early caliphs DEFINITELY accepted Muhammad’s teachings The early caliphs were NOT strictly political leaders; they were political and

religious leaders The early caliphs were NOT unanimously agreed upon by the umma or Islamic

community – after all, there was and is a split in the Islamic world between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims and their differences regarding the legitimate ruler of the community

The early caliphs did NOT concentrate only on religious doctrine and not on expansion – the early caliphs expanded into new lands too

Abbasid Dynasty – Arabs learn art of papermaking from China During Abbasid times, the Arabs learned from China the technique of making

paper Paper making is a Chinese invention – invented during the Han Dynasty Paper was soon widely used in China and spread to the rest of world through the

Silk Road Around 600 C.E., woodblock printing was invented in China and by 740 C.E., the

first printed newspaper was seen in China For a long time, the Chinese closely guarded the secret of paper manufacture and

tried to eliminate other centers of production to ensure a monopoly However in 751 C.E., the T’ang army was defeated by Muslims at a mighty battle at

the Talas River Some Chinese soldiers and paper makers were captured The Arabs learned the art of paper-making from the Chinese prisoners and built

the first paper industry in Baghdad in 793 C.E.

They, too, kept it a secret, and Europeans did not learn how to make paper until several centuries later

Characteristics of Early Civilizations Most early civilizations before 600 B.C.E. shared the following characteristics:

urban centers, growing populations, and writing systems In general, a civilization is a complex society – the word “civilization” comes from

the word “civis” which in Latin means city Civilization typically consists of cities, large populations, government bureaucracy,

class systems, and writing systems Yet some civilizations lack writing systems – many civilizations in the Americas

lacked writing – largely due to isolation Cuneiform, the world’s first writing system, developed in Mesopotamia but spread

throughout Eurasia and parts of Africa

Bantu and Iron A major effect of the Bantu migrations was the diffusion of iron metallurgy in sub-

Saharan Africa The Bantu originated in West Africa but learned to farm and as their population

grew, went in search of new agricultural lands Thus, the Bantu migrated throughout sub-Saharan Africa – they began their

migration around 1000 B.C.E. and continued until 1000 C.E. The Bantu spread agriculture, iron-making and the Bantu language The Bantu provided a common linguistic (relating to language) base in sub-Saharan

Africa as many languages in the region are Bantu-based languages

Hanseatic League The Hanseatic League was a trading association that dominated trade in the Baltic

Sea region The Hanseatic League was also called Hansa The Hanseatic League was an organization founded by north German towns and

German merchant communities abroad to protect their mutual trading interests The league dominated commercial activity in northern Europe from the 13th to the

15th century Hanse was a medieval German word for “guild,” or “association” A guild was a medieval association of craftsmen or merchants and it often had

considerable power The Hanseatic League largely controlled trade on the Baltic Sea

Reasons for the Crusades The Crusades were a series of holy wars between Christians and Muslims for

control of the holy land (Jerusalem) from 1095 to 1291 Pope Urban II called for a Crusade when rumors circulated that Muslims had

denied Christian pilgrims access to the Holy Land The Christian Crusaders fought seven major wars but never permanently gained

control of the Holy Land and as such the Crusades are often referred to as “successful failures” – a failure in that it did not achieve the goal of permanent

control of the land but a success in that the Christian Crusaders learned new ideas from Muslims and the golden age of Islam as well as rediscovered the works of classical Greek and Roman thinkers in Muslim libraries and tasted new foods and products such as lemons and coffee

There were many reasons for the Crusades such as religious motivations, racial and religious prejudice, geopolitical conflict between Europe and the Middle East, religious fervor, and the personal greed of many Europeans to gain wealth and land

But the Black Death was NOT a reason for the Crusades – the dates of the Crusades reveal why – the Crusades occurred from 1095 to 1291 and the Black Death entered Western Europe in 1347 as a result of trade flourishing on the Mongol controlled Silk Roads – the date of the Black Death is long after the Crusades

Capital of the Abbasid Dynasty The capital of the Abbasid Caliphate was Baghdad The Abbāsid Dynasty was the second of the two great dynasties of the Muslim

Empire of the Caliphate The Abbasid overthrew the Umayyad caliphate in 750 C.E. and reigned as the

ʿAbbāsid caliphate until destroyed by the Mongol invasion in 1258 C.E. The name of the Dynasty is derived from that of the uncle of the Prophet

Muḥammad, al-ʿAbbās of the Hāshimite clan of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca The capital was moved to the new city of Baghdad The Umayyad Dynasty had its capital in Damascus in Syria But under the Abbasid caliphate (750-1258), which succeeded the Umayyads (661-

750) in 750, the focal point of Islamic political and cultural life shifted eastward from Syria to Iraq, where, in 762, Baghdad, the circular City of Peace (madinat al-salam), was founded as the new capital

Serfdom versus Slavery Serfdom and slavery are both coerced labor systems – a coercive labor system is

a forced labor system as in slavery or an indentured laborer or serfdom In slavery, the slave is the legal property of the owner and the owner can do with the

slave what he wishes In serfdom, a peasant is bound to his lord’s land and cannot leave the lord’s land –

the lord determines what the serf can and cannot do – however, a serf is not the property of the lord but rather bound to the lord

Thus, serfs had some rights – for example, a serf’s child could not be sold from him but a slave’s child could be sold to another

Thus, serfdom differed from slavery in that technically, serfs had more freedoms than slaves

Chronology of Early Islam This statement places events from Islamic history in the correct order: Gabriel’s

revelation to Mohammed; the Hegira; the split between Sunni and Shiite Muslims; the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate

Clearly, the first step of the correct order is that Muhammad, according to Muslims, heard the word of God

Then Muhammad founded a new religious community, experienced persecution or mistreatment in Mecca, and fled to the city of Medina (Hegira or  Hijrah refers to Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to Medina)

In Medina, the Prophet became a powerful religious and political leader and returned to conquer Mecca and the Arabian peninsula – unifying the Arab tribes with a common religion

When the Prophet died unexpectedly, the community differed over the issue of political succession – Sunni Muslims concluded that any pious Muslim man could lead the umma or Islamic community while the Shi’a believed that the leader must be a descendant of the Prophet’s family through his son-in-law ‘Ali

After the death of the Prophet, four Righteously Guided Caliphs ruled followed by the first Islamic dynasty, the Umayyad Dynasty and then the Abbasid Dynasty

Reasons for Mongol Success The Mongols conquered the largest contiguous empire in world history due to being

highly skilled warriors on horseback and highly disciplined soldiers The Mongols used psychological warfare to frighten their enemies into submission Yes, the Mongols were successful at conquest because they adopted advanced

technology quickly, they organized their armies efficiently, and they were talented cavalrymen or warriors on horseback

Chinggis Khan’s organized units of soldiers were based on the principle of ten He organized his people into units of ten, a hundred, a thousand, and ten thousand,

and the head of a unit of ten thousand would have a strong personal relationship with Chinggis himself

That kind of loyalty was to be extremely important in Chinggis’s rise to power and in his ability to maintain authority over all the various segments of his domain

Chinggis’s military tactics showcased his superiority in warfare One particularly effective tactic Chinggis liked to use was the feigned withdrawal:

Deep in the throes of a battle his troops would withdraw, pretending to have been defeated

As the enemy forces pursued the troops that seemed to be fleeing, they would quickly realize that they’d fallen into a trap, as whole detachments of men in armor or cavalries would suddenly appear and overwhelm them

Another key tactic was the use of the horse in warfare The Mongols were superior warriors and conquered a vast empire stretching from

the Pacific Ocean to the Black SeaWhy Historians Find Myths Useful

Myths are useful to historians because myths provide insights into the values and traditions of their societies

A myth is a story that is told in a culture to explain a practice, belief, or natural occurrence – it is not factual or at least, it cannot be proven but it is believed as an explanation for why things are as they are

Even though myths are not factual, they provide insights into cultures A myth reveals the values of a culture or the practices of a culture By studying myths, historians gain greater understanding of the cultures of the

peoples they are studying

The Umma in Islam The following Arabic term refers to the “community of the faithful” – the Umma The Umma is the Islamic community The Umma is the whole community of Muslims bound together by the ties of the

Islamic religion Umma, in general, refers to Muslim’s global community The concept has derived from Qur’an and was implicated practically by the Prophet

Muhammad for the first time through establishing the first Muslim state of Medina in the seventh century

For Islamic scholars, the Muslim world constitutes an Umma – a universal community based on a shared faith and the implementation of its law

Pax Mongolica The Mongol conquests of much of Eurasia in the thirteenth century tended to

encourage trade along the Silk Roads primarily by decreasing the risk of bandit attacks and reducing the number of local rulers collecting tribute from trade caravans

Yes, trade flourished on the Silk Roads during the Pax Mongolia or Pax Mongolica period (time of peace in the Mongol Empire)

The Mongols controlled the length and breadth of the Silk Road and were able to provide security on the Silk Road

This increased security on the Silk Road reduced bandit attacks and thereby encouraged trade

In addition, the reduction in the number of local rulers collecting tribute from trade caravans also increased trade – as traders now paid fewer fees to travel and trade