How to Foster Learner Autonomy by Teachers and Students

Graduation Thesis

Presented to

the Faculty of the Department of

English Language and Literature

Notre Dame Seishin University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirement for the Degree

Bachelor of Arts

by

Shoko Fujimoto

2015

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Contents

Abstract

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Introduction·····································································1

1.2 What is Learner Autonomy?·························································2

1.2.1 Definition of Learner Autonomy

1.2.2 The Characteristics of Autonomous Learners

1.2.3 Responsibility of Autonomous Learners

1.3 How Can Learner Autonomy Be Helpful for Students?

1.3.1 Advantages of Learner Autonomy

1.3.2 Disadvantages of Learner Autonomy

1.3.3 How Can Learner Autonomy be Promoted?

1.4 The Effect of Learner Autonomy on Student Performance

1.5 Learner Autonomy in the Japanese School Environment

1.6 Research Questions

1.7 Conclusion

Chapter Two: The Questionnaire

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Questionnaire

2.2.1 Method

1) Subject

2) Test Design

3) Procedure

2.3 Results

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2.4 Summary

Chapter Three: The Discussion

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Summary of the Results

3.3 Discussion of the Results

3.3.1 The Awareness of Students

3.3.2 Motivation

3.3.3 Objectives

3.3.4 Reflection

3.3.5 Self-control

3.3.6 Collaboration

3.3.7 Strategy

3.3.8 Teacher

3.3.9 Class

3.3.10 Technology

3.4 Research Questions

3.5 Implications

3.6 Limitations of the Questionnaire

3.7 Further Research

3.8 Conclusion

References

Appendix

Appendix A: The Questionnaire of English version

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Appendix B: The Questionnaire of Japanese version

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Abstract

The author went to junior high school for the teaching practice and saw many

students follow their teacher’s instruction and study while sitting and keeping silent.

However, some of them did not listen to the instructions and did not study in class, just

sleep or do different things. If they have the high quality of learner autonomy, they

must be able to study or learn something useful for them and utilize the learned contents

by themselves. Therefore, we will research learner autonomy which is helpful for

students.

In Chapter One, we will look at various definitions of learner autonomy, the

characteristics of autonomous learners, how learner autonomy can be helpful for

students, the effect of learner autonomy on student performance, and the environment of

learner autonomy in Japanese school. Then, we will have three research questions to

investigate.

In Chapter Two, we will look at the result of the Questionnaire about learner

autonomy. We have three sections in the Questionnaire; whether subjects know the

concept of learner autonomy, how autonomous a learner they think they are, and what

factors and activities can make them autonomous for subjects.

In Chapter Three, we will discuss the result of the Questionnaire. We will find

out that factors and activities which can be helpful for learners to develop learner

autonomy.

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Chapter 1 Learner Autonomy

1.1 Introduction

So far, the center of education in Japan has been on teachers. Teachers had

control inside the classroom, so students were always likely to follow the teacher’s

instructions in class. In Europe, however, the center of education has been shifting

gradually from teachers to students. The concept of learner autonomy was developed in

the 1960’s in order to raise independently-minded responsible citizens. At that time,

democracy was becoming important, so it was believed that responsible citizens could

develop the society from then on. Moreover, it was thought that autonomy is not only

for students but also for adults. Holec (1981) started mentioning the need for learner

autonomy in adult education. After Holec, other researchers began thinking about

learner autonomy and how learners can develop their autonomy. The concepts of

learner autonomy has been developed in Europe last two decades, and it slowlys is

coming to Japan little by little.

1.2. What is Learner Autonomy?

Learner autonomy is generally defined as “the ability to take charge of one’s

own learning” (Holec 1981, cited in Barillaro 2011). It is a ‘buzz-word” within the

context of language learning (Little 1991, cited in Thanasoulas). According to

Farquharson (2011), autonomous learning can take place without having a teacher, tutor,

and facilitator physically present in all instances of learning. If teachers or students can

foster learner autonomy, students can be independent and can freely decide what they

do. While it is said that learner autonomy is very important, there are various

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definitions of learner autonomy so it is difficult to define it. In the next section, we will

look at the definitions of learner autonomy with various researchers’ views.

1.2.1 Definitions

As we saw in Section 1.2, Holec (1981) the father of learner autonomy, defined

it as “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning”. But it is quite a vague

definition. Here are some other definitions about learner autonomy.

Little (2007) defined Autonomy as “essentially a matter of the learner’s

psychological relation to the process and content of learning.”

Dickinson (1993) said that “Autonomy is a situation in which the learner is

totally responsible for all the decisions concerned with his [or her] learning and the

implementation of those decisions.”

Benson (1997) said that, “Autonomy is recognition of the rights of learners

within educational systems.”

Benson & Voller (1997) defined learner autonomy in five ways:

1. for situations in which learners study entirely on their own

2. for a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning

3. for an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education

4. for the exercise of learners’ responsibility for their own learning

5. for the right of learners to determine the direction of their own learning.

Aoki (2006) said “Learner autonomy means the freedom, responsibility, and

ability that learners can select what to do for their learning, make plans how they learn,

practice the plans, and assess the progress by themselves according to their hope or

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needs.

According to Franc Lacey (2007), there could be eight principles of learner

autonomy;

1. Autonomy means moving the focus from teaching to learning

2. Autonomy affords maximum possible influence to the learners

3. Autonomy encourages and needs peer support and cooperation

4. Autonomy means making use of self/ peer assessment

5. Autonomy requires and ensures 100% differentiation

6. Autonomy can only be practiced with student logbooks which are a

documentation of learning and a tool of reflection

7. The role of the teacher as supporting scaffolding and creating room for the

development of autonomy is very demanding and very important

8. Autonomy means empowering students, yet the classroom can be restrictive,

as are the rules of chess or tennis, but the use of technology can take students outside of

the structures of the classroom, and the students can take the outside world into the

classroom.

As we saw above, there are various definitions. However, the common

awareness is that the focus is shifting from teacher to students but the teacher’s role is

also important to develop learner autonomy.

1.2.2 Characteristics of autonomous learners

In this section, we will look at the characteristics of autonomous learners.

Likewise Section 1.2.1, we will see the various views of it.

According to Mackness (2011), autonomous learners have various

characteristics, and here we will see some of the characteristics:

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1. They are responsible for their own learning

2. They have initiative

3. They can monitor and evaluate their own learning

4. They are reflective and show high levels of metacognition

5. They are self-aware in relation to their own learning

6. They are intrinsically motivated

7. They are life-long learners

8. They can managed and regulate their own learning

9. They are adept at taking or making decisions

10. They have specific skills and strategies for managing their learning online

11. They are adaptable and flexible in their approach to learning

12. They are good at filtering and selecting the information which they need

According to Benson (2001), autonomous learners can control their own

learning all the three levels of learning management, cognitive processes, and learning

content. Also he said that these levels are not independent, it is thought that they

interrelate with each other.

The first level, learning management includes setting a goal for learning,

selecting the learning path, strategies for learning, and monitoring and the pace for

learning, and evaluating learners’ process. This level is visible. The second level,

cognitive processes is invisible in contrast with control for learning. This level includes

the process of thinking which learners reflect, infer, analyze, and pay attention to their

learning. The third level, learning content means the control for the contents to learn.

However, it is almost impossible for learners to control what they learn in the

curriculum in the school. Therefore, Benson said that the institute of education or

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teachers should take account of making learners choose the tasks as they want in

classes. Also he claimed that the utilization of self-access center can foster learners’

autonomy.

There are more another characteristics within the context of education

according Omaggio (1978):

1. Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and strategies

2. They take an active approach to the learning task at hand

3. They are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all

costs

4. They are good guessers

5. They attend to form as well as to content, that is, place importance on

accuracy as well as appropriacy

6. They develop the target language into a separate reference system and are

willing to revise and reject hypotheses and rules that do not apply

7. They have a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language

Through these characteristics above, ideal autonomous learners are responsible

for their own learning, be able to utilize the strategies for their learning, be high-

motivated intrinsically, and reflective for their learning. However, learner autonomy

cannot be fostered by themselves, so the roles of teachers and schools are also important

to develop autonomous learners.

1.2.3 Responsibility of Autonomous Learners

We found out that many researchers said that learners should be responsible for

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their own learning. However, what is their responsibility? Here, we will look at what

their responsibility is. Chan (2001) states that the following areas should be their

responsibility of the autonomous learner:

1. Setting learning goals

2. Identifying and developing learning strategies to achieve such goals

3. Developing study plans

4. Reflecting on learning (which includes identifying problem areas and

means of addressing these problems)

5. Identifying and selecting relevant resources and support

6. Assessing one’s own progress (which includes defining criteria for

evaluating performance and learning)

These above are the responsibility of autonomous learners. To be an

autonomous learner, learners should make decisions by themselves about what their

goals for learning is, how to learn, what strategies they learn, and reflect their learning.

1.3 How Can Learner Autonomy be Helpful for Students?

Here, we will look at how learner autonomy can be helpful for students. There

are advantages of learner autonomy but, on the other hand, there are disadvantages of

learner autonomy too. Let us see them in this section.

1.3.1 Advantages of Learner Autonomy

According to Swift (2011), the key benefit of learner autonomy is that

autonomous learners will take more responsibility for learning and are likely to be more

effective than learners who are reliant to the teacher overly.

According to Gremmo (1995), “there are a shift in focus from the teacher to the

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learner, from specific focus on how improve teaching to inclusive concern for how

individual learners go through their learning.”

Zhe (2009) said, learner autonomy was started in adult education, but has

confirmed that the development of learner autonomy could also be used with young

learners with guided and gradual introduction. European language teachers have highly

accepted this position. Therefore, learner autonomy may be useful for students of all

ages although its application may be tempered by their age and experience.

Jiao (2005) said, there are four substantial reasons in support of learner

autonomy for English learning:

1. It enhances the learner’s motivation and leads to more effective learning

2. It provides learners with more opportunities for English communication

in a non-native environment

3. It caters to the individual needs of learners at all levels

4. It has a lasting influence

At first, the concept of learner autonomy was thought in adult education as we

saw in Section 1.1. However, the focus of education is changing from teachers to

students gradually and it is spread toward the field of education. If students can be

autonomous, the student will be an adult who has responsibility. Moreover, if learner

autonomy is developed, students can not only enhance their motivation but also be

positive for English communication in non-native environment. Learner autonomy can

give learners good effects for their life. Therefore, learner autonomy is helpful for

students.

1.3.2 Disadvantages of Learner Autonomy

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In this section, we will look the misunderstandings of learner autonomy and

problems of learner autonomy.

According to Little (1991), learner autonomy is often misunderstood and there

are five misunderstandings as follow.

1. Learner autonomy is synonym of self-instruction

2. Learner autonomy means that a teacher should give up the initiative and

control for everything in class

3. Learner autonomy is teaching method.

4. Learner autonomy means certain behavior by learners

5. Learner autonomy is the unchanging state which specific learners can

achieve

Let us first look at the first five misunderstandings. Self-instruction means that

there is no room for learners to make decisions by themselves, that is to say, the

materials for self-instruction are made with the assumption that the schedule of the

contents, way to learn, order to go through are already decided, so it is not synonyms of

learner autonomy.

Secondly, the ideal state is that learners can learn without teacher’s help but it

is difficult for learners to be such state until they can develop learner autonomy.

Therefore, a teacher has a lot of things to do for students.

Thirdly, learner autonomy is not fostered only by constant procedure. There

are various approaches to develop learner autonomy and we cannot conclude which the

best is. Therefore, it is not a teaching method.

Fourthly, learner autonomy is not the state but the ability to have responsibility

for their learning, as we saw already so far. The ability depends on individuals so there

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are various behaviors depending on people.

At last, everybody can have this power, learner autonomy. Learner autonomy

is always changing and it may sometimes recede. Therefore, we cannot say that learner

autonomy is the specific state.

As we saw above, there are misunderstandings about learner autonomy, so if

teacher misunderstands it and he or she incorrectly practices it in order to develop

learner autonomy in class, learner autonomy cannot be developed. Therefore, teachers

should have certain knowledge of learner autonomy and should tell about learner

autonomy to students precisely.

Next, we will look at the problems of learner autonomy. There are problems

which teaches may encounter when developing learner autonomy in class. Here, we

will look at the problems which Țurloiu and Stefánsdóttir (2011) mentioned below;

1. Teacher cannot see clearly that students make progresses

2. It takes a great deal of time when students plan their own works

3. It is difficult for a teacher to manage a large number of learners

4. Learners do not like writing and do see the benefit of the logbooks

5. Working in group can success only within particular group

6. It is difficult for students to maintain motivation in a mixed-ability

environment when they use the target language

7. Parents are an important fact for students because parents’ attitude toward

teaching and learning is directly related to students so a teacher should the

understanding of autonomous classes.

These above are the problems when a teacher confront with the difficulties to

practice the autonomous classes.

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Moreover, we will look at the problems how a teacher should manage the

difficulties in classroom about the differences between students’ levels. According to

Case (2009), there are various students in classroom, e.g., who are very good at English,

who are not good at English, who are keen, who are not interested in English and so on.

Also the interesting points which each student has are of course different. Therefore,

some students may go ahead, read, practice, and use the textbooks sometimes, some

who do not like English may not join the activities e.g., writing and seeing the benefit

the logbooks. Therefore, teachers are asked to provide the conditions for autonomous

classes which can suit each student.

As we saw above, there are good and bad points of learner autonomy.

However, it is absolutely important and helpful to make students autonomous for

themselves, so teachers should grasp the difficulties to practice and practice with

students to develop learner autonomy in classroom.

1.3.3 How Can Learner Autonomy be Promoted?

We already looked at the advantages and disadvantages of learner autonomy.

Then, let us look at how learners can promote learner autonomy. According to

Thanasoulas (2000), “To posit ways of fostering learner autonomy is certainly to posit

ways of fostering teacher autonomy, as '[t]eachers' autonomy permeates into [learners']

autonomy' (Johnson, Pardesi and Paine, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 51).”

However, the main focus will be on what the learners can do in order to reach a

considerable degree of autonomy, although the success of the learners is determined by

the educational system and the requisite role of the teacher.

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According to Farquharson (2011), there are also two ways how learner

autonomy can be promoted by a teacher. One is to foster an awareness of the skills that

are involved in learning and demonstrate the learning strategies in use through the

activities that they plan during the course, and second is to “transfer some of the

decision making and choices gradually to the learners in order to develop their

awareness and confidence for making decisions.

Through these progresses, learners can develop their learner autonomy step by

step. At that time, teachers should play an important role in fostering learner autonomy

while making learners be aware of the concept of learner autonomy, and then increasing

the opportunities which students can make decisions by themselves gradually.

1.4 The Effect of Learner Autonomy on Student Performance

Next, we will look at the effect of learner autonomy on student performance.

There are many relationship between various factors and learner autonomy, so let us

now look at how the factors affect learner autonomy.

Motivation: This is the biggest factor for learners when they learn. Actually,

there is no clear concept of motivation but this is thought as a set of various concepts. It

is thought that motivation is affected by some conditions among individuals and it is

always changing under the condition. If the motivation is higher, learners can be more

autonomous for their learning. Especially, intrinsic motivation is most important for

learners because learners can modify their behavior by themselves when they are

motivated internally.

Self-determination: Self-determination means choosing their way for learning,

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the learning goals, the learning processes, and how to learn. Moreover, it is said that the

self-determination is likely linked with intrinsic motivation if the degree of self-

determination is higher.

Objectives: Having objectives for learning is very effective for learners because

they can regulate themselves toward the objectives and it is less likely that learners miss

what they should do or what they learn. Also if learners have objectives, they can keep

their motivation.

Self-regulated learning: This is known as the learning theory which learners

direct their own learning like learner autonomy. Learners can regulate themselves

depending on their own learning process with meta-cognition, with motivation, and

behaviorally.

(Self-)Reflection: Reflection can be important for learners to monitor what they

did and what they learned. Through reflection, they can realize what they need or their

process of learning. Therefore, reflection is effective and by repeating reflection learner

autonomy can be fostered gradually.

Self-control: learner autonomy means the ability to have a responsibility for

their own learning, so learners needed to control themselves. Learners should grasp

their level, conditions, and what they need for learning, and then, they need to adjust

their learning along with their level and condition. Also, it is important to control their

emotions for their learning.

Cooperative learning and Collaborative learning: Cooperative learning is the

establishment of reciprocal interdependence among learners and it must be a state

whereby the same group members help each other at that same time. Collaborative

learning is the clarification of individual responsibility, which means that each learner

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should fulfill their responsibilities in the group. The distinction of cooperative of

learning and collaborative learning is not clear, but in many cases cooperative learning

often means the activities which are decided by a teacher in advance, while in

collaborative learning, it is likely for students to have discretion. It is thought that these

learning activities can develop learner autonomy in some ways. In terms of cooperative

learning, learner autonomy can be promoted through students have a democratic

leadership, and in collaborative learning, learner autonomy can be developed by

students having authority to decide, recognizing what they decided by themselves,

having responsibility about their own decisions, and learning with other members.

Therefore, these learning activities are effective for learner autonomy.

Strategies: Strategies means the various ways which learners practice their

learning effectively. There are cognitive strategy which is related to the direct process

for input, an affective strategy is related to control for emotions, and social strategies

which are related to communication with native speakers, other learners, and teachers.

Learners utilize some strategies to achieve their goals which they set.

Teacher’s role: The teacher’s role has a big influence to learners. If a teacher

can support and help their learning with appropriate advice and instruction, students can

be motivated and encouraged and their learning will be smoother than teacher-centered

teaching. Also communication with learners is very important.

Class: Classes also have an influence on learners. So far, classes have focused

on a teacher, but it is said that students should be the focus in order to develop learner

autonomy more than a teacher in class. These days, the activities which students can be

active are needed so classes should have variety of activities and should allow students

to make decisions by themselves.

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Technology: These days, computer systems for learning have become important

in the field of language learning. For example, the use of computer assisted language

learning (CALL). CALL means that learners can get the positive feedback from the

machine and learners and CALL can help learners’ automation of learners’ grammar and

language knowledge. Also, portfolio methods are getting focus too. Through using

portfolios, students can keep what they learned or did and they can also see the process

of studying toward the objectives. It is thought that these systems can be effective to

develop learner autonomy because learners can be proactive for their learning.

As we saw, in order to develop learner autonomy, there are many factors which

are related to learner autonomy. Also we found that learner autonomy cannot be

fostered not only by learners but also by other people and things, that is, how learners

become positive toward their learning is very important, but teacher’s role, classes, and

communication with other learners also have a big influence to learners.

1.5 Learner Autonomy in the Japanese School Environment

Here, we will look at learner autonomy in the Japanese school environment.

This society is always changing rapidly, so it is proposed there is a “zest for

living” in order to correspond to such society appropriately. The Ministry of Education,

Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan, defines “zest for living” as the ability

to set goals by learners themselves, to decide the ways for the goals, and to make efforts

toward the goals. This ability means learner autonomy, the ability to take charge of

one’s own learning. Therefore, learner autonomy should be fostered in school.

However, there are difficulties to foster learner autonomy. It means that teachers who

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should develop learner autonomy also require autonomy too, however teachers do not

know much about what autonomy is, do not know how to teach the concept of learner

autonomy. So teachers often do not know how to teach their students. Also the CALL

and portfolio is getting introduced to Japanese education, but students do not get used to

them yet. Therefore, it is desirable that a teacher should know what the concept of

learner autonomy and how to teach the learners, and that learners should utilize some

strategies and factors which suit them.

1.6 Research Questions

Now, we know what learner autonomy is, the characteristics of autonomous

learners, and what factors are needed and important to foster learner autonomy. As we

saw above, the first thing to develop learner autonomy is to make learners be aware of

the concept of learner autonomy, and then, learner should have responsibilities

gradually. The author wonders that Japanese students know the concept of learner

autonomy, and how they think their own autonomy, and wonders how learners think

what factors and activities can make them autonomous.

Therefore, the author decided to collect the data about learner autonomy from

the Questionnaire. In Chapter two, we will look at the Questionnaire. The research

questions are below:

1. Do learners know or understand the concepts of learner autonomy?

2: How autonomous a learner do learners think they are?

3. What factors and activities can make learners autonomous?

1.7 Conclusion

In Chapter One, we looked at the definitions of learner autonomy, the

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characteristics of autonomous learners, and the factors which is related to learner

autonomy. There are various views of learner autonomy, but it is obvious that learner

autonomy is essential for learners.

In Chapter Two, we will look at the result of a questionnaire about learner

autonomy which is related to the research questions.

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Chapter 2: The Questionnaire

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will try to find out the subjects’ awareness of learner

autonomy, what the subjects’ thought what is related to their learning and autonomy, and

what factors can make students more autonomous. Also we will look at the role of

teachers as seen from the students’ point of view.

2.2 The Questionnaire

2.2.1 Introduction to the Questionnaire

The aim of this questionnaire was to find out the learner’s awareness of learner

autonomy, the degree of students’ autonomy, and what factors and activities can make

students autonomous. Also we can find out about the teachers’ role for fostering or

improving learner autonomy.

2.2.2 Method

1) Subjects

The subjects who answered this questionnaire were university students. 61

subjects took part in this the study. 5 subjects were sophomores, 14 subjects were

juniors, and 42 subjects were seniors. Their English level was not of concern because

this study was to find out the learner’s awareness of learner autonomy, how autonomous

a learner they think they are, what factors and activities can make students autonomous.

Also we can find out the teachers’ role to foster or improve learner autonomy.

Subjects who took the questionnaire were all English majors and they take

English classes often. They seem to have high motivation and interests for learning

English. However some of them seem not to have clear purpose for learning English.

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2) Test design

The aim was to discover the subjects’ awareness and understanding of the

concepts of learner autonomy, how autonomous they think they are and how to foster

learner autonomy. 38 questions were made and the questionnaire consisted of three

parts and these questions are referred to Dafei (2007) and Hozu (2008). In Part 1,

Question 1 asked their grade and from Question 2 to 11 about their knowledge of the

concept as follows:

Figure 1: The Example of Part 1 of the Questionnaire

Q3.* Please check the check box which you think it is more related to Learner

Autonomy.

1 2 3

decided by you ○ ○ ○ decided by the teacher

From Question 12 to 31 in Part 2, the questions were made to find out what is

related to their English learning and their learner autonomy as follows:

Figure 2: The Example of Part 2 of the Questionnaire

Q12. I think motivation is very important for my learning of English.*

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1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Strongly disagree

From Question 32 to 38 in Part 3, subjects were asked how they think what

factors and activities can foster their autonomy as follows:

Figure 3: The Example of Part 3 of the Questionnaire

Q32. For learning English, teachers should be...*

Multiple answers allowed

o author

o counselor

o resourceful

o facilitator

o ruler

o advisor

o その他:

and they needed to write any factors and activities as they like freely in the textbox.

The English version of the questionnaire is in Appendix A, and the meaning of

the questionnaire is in Appendix B. The Japanese version of the questionnaire for

university students to answer is in Appendix C.

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3) Procedure

This questionnaire was made on Google forms and subjects took it on the

website. Subjects were needed to answer by checking boxes which they think matched

their thoughts the most and by writing freely as they want to write.

The data by subjects answering on check box were automatically analyzed by

Google Drive and the data which subjects wrote freely were translated from Japanese to

English and analyzed by the author.

2.2.3 Results

In this section, we will look at the data of the questionnaire about learner

autonomy. As it was mentioned above, this questionnaire had three parts and subjects

needed to check the check box which suits them most and to write anything as they

want to write.

In Part 1, subjects were asked about their name and grade at first. The

percentage of grade who took the questionnaire is below.

Figure 4: The Data for What is your grade?

8.3%

23.3%

68.3%

Q1. What is your grade?

123

SophomoreJuniorSenior

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8.3% were sophomores, 23.3% were juniors, and 68.3% were seniors.

Also, subjects were asked whether they know the concepts of learner

autonomy. These data are below in Figure 5.

Figure 5: The Data for Do you know or understand the concepts of learner autonomy?

6.7%

13.3%

80.0%

Q2. Do you know or understand the concepts of learner autonomy?

1:Yes2:I have heard of it even once3: No

The answers which subjects can choose were “Yes,” “I have heard of it even

once” and “No.” 80% of the subjects answered “No,” so most of them do not know the

concepts of meaning. 13.3% answered “I have ever heard of it even once” and they

major in English education seminar so they have ever read the concepts or name of

learner autonomy.

Questions 3 to 11, the questionnaire asked subjects to choose one out of three

choices with thinking what learner autonomy means.

In this section, subjects were asked to check the check box which they think it

suit most while thinking what the meaning of learner autonomy is. So we will look at

from Question 3 to Question 11 below on Table 1.

Table 1: The Data from Question 3 to Question 11

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1

2:

Neutral 3

Q3 decided by you 77.0% 13.1% 9.8% decided by the teacher

Q4 self-instruction 34.4% 37.7% 27.9% attending school

Q5

student

freedom 67.2% 23.0% 9.8% teacher controlled

Q6 solo work 44.3% 36.1% 19.7% group/ collaborative work

Q7 motivation 90.2% 3.3% 6.6% no motivation

Q8 setting a goal 90.2% 8.2% 1.6% no plan

Q9 teachers 20.0% 46.7% 33.3% classmates

Q10 competence 21.3% 24.6% 54.1% confidence

Q11

depends on me 78.7% 9.8% 11.5%

depends on others or

something

In Question 3, 77% of the subjects thought that learner autonomy is related to

making decisions by oneself rather than teacher’s decision, while 10% thought that it is

related to the teacher.

In Question 4, the answers were about equal but many more subjects thought

that self-instruction is more related to learner autonomy.

In Question 5, 67% chose “student free” so most of them thought that freedom

and autonomy are related to each other than controlled situations. However, some of

them thought that “teacher controlled” is related to autonomy.

In Question 6, most subjects answered “solo work” is more related to learner

autonomy than “group/ collaborative work” but there were subjects who chose “no

opinion”.

In Question 7, 90% said that “motivation” is related than “no motivation.”

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This means that most subjects think that motivation is more important than no

motivation.

In Question 8, most of them chose “setting a goal”. Few chose “no opinion”

and “no plan”.

In Question 9, 47% of the subjects answered “no opinion” about which is

related, “teachers” or “classmates”. Compared with “teachers” and “classmates”, the

choice “classmates” got higher score than “teachers”.

In Question 10, 55% of the subjects thought that learner autonomy is

“condition” and those who chose “competence” are minor.

In Question 11, 78% chose “depends on me” than “depends on others or

something”, so many of them thought that learner autonomy is related to me. In Part 2,

the Questionnaire asked subjects to answer about their learning of English from

Questions 12 to Question 30. The questions were randomly ordered in the questionnaire

but there were certain categories of questions. Here, we will look at the data of each

category. Subjects needed to check a box which suits them most. The choices were 1:

Strongly agree, 2: agree, 3 no opinion, 4: disagree, and 5: Strongly disagree. The data

of Part 2 are below.

Table 2: The Data for Question 12 and Question 13 about motivation

Questions 1 2 3 4 5

Q12. I think motivation is very important for

my learning of English.

80.0

%

20.0

%

0.0

%

0.0

% 0.0%

Q13. I have internal energy for learning

English.

56.7

%

33.3

%

6.7

%

1.7

% 1.7%

Question 12 and Question 13 were made to find out the relationship between

23

learning English and motivation.

In Question 12, all of the subjects answered “Strongly agree” and “agree” so

we can see that motivation is very important for learning. In Question 13, 90% follow

their internal energy for learning English.

Table 3: The Data for Question 14, 21, and 24 about objectives

24

Questions 1 2 3 4 5

Q14. I have clear purpose for learning

English.

18.3

%

53.3

%

13.3

%

13.3

% 1.7%

Q21. I don't have clear objectives for

learning English.

10.0

%

20.0

%

18.3

%

36.7

%

15.0

%

Q24. I often plan how to study English and

set a goal to achieve it. 6.7%

38.3

%

20.0

%

25.0

%

10.0

%

Three questions above are about relationship between objectives and learning

English. Questions 14 and Question 21 show that more than half of them have a clear

purpose for learning English but some of them do not have a clear purpose. Also, we

can find out that 45% often make a plan how to study English but setting a goal depends

on each person.

Table 4: The Data for Question 15 about reflection

Questions 1 2 3 4 5

Q15. I often preview what I learned,

before class, at home, outside the class. 8.3% 10.0% 38.3% 38.3% 5.0%

This question is about the relationship between their reflection and learning

English. From Question 15, we can find that about 43% of the subjects do not often

preview their learning but some of them do.

Table 5: The Data for Question 16 and Question 20 about self-control

25

Questions 1 2 3 4 5

Q16. I am good at controlling myself. 5.0% 40.0% 33.3% 18.3% 3.3%

Q20. I know what I should do, but I don't

often follow my own advice. 15.0% 56.7% 15.0% 10.0% 3.3%

These questions are about the relationship between self-control and learning

English. But we can see from Question 16 that 45% can control themselves but some

people cannot do it. In Question 20, however, about 71% do not often follow their own

advice when they have things to do.

Table 6: The Data for Question 17, 18 and 19 about collaboration

Questions 1 2 3 4 5

Q17. I am aware of peer pressure to

conform. 15.0% 43.3% 20.0% 15.0% 6.7%

Q18. I am aware of collaborative needs. 60.0% 33.3% 6.7% 0.0% 0.0%

Q19. I often get inspiration from my

classmates and it motivates me. 41.7% 43.3% 10.0% 5.0% 0.0%

These questions above are about the relationship between collaboration and

learning English. We can find that about 58% feel peer pressure to conform from

Question 17. However, Question 18 shows that about 93%are aware of collaborative

needs, and 85% often get inspiration from their classmates and it motivates them

according to Question 19.

Table 7: The Data for Question 22 about strategy

Question 1 2 3 4 5

26

Q22. I choose books, exercises which suits

me, neither too difficult nor too easy. 25.0% 56.7% 11.7% 6.7% 0.0%

This question is about strategy and learning English. About 81% can choose

the appropriate books and exercises which suit their level but some of them do not

know, or cannot choose, the appropriate materials.

Table 8: The Data for Question 23, 25, 28 about the teacher

Questions 1 2 3 4 5

Q23. I gain positive recognition from

teachers in lecture-type lessons. 1.7% 33.3% 31.7% 18.3% 15.0%

Q25. I like such an English teacher

that motivates and help me to learn

English. 51.7% 43.3% 3.3% 0.0% 1.7%

Q28. I have different attitude and

behavior depending on the teacher's

explanation and type of class. 58.3% 38.3% 1.7% 0.0% 1.7%

These questions are about the relationship between teacher and learning

English. From Question 23, 35% of the subjects like lecture-type lessons but about

33% do not like such lessons as well. From Question 25, we can find that 95% like an

English teacher motivating and helping them to learn English. In Question 28, about

97% answered that they have different attitude and behavior depending on the teacher’s

explanation and type of class.

Table 9: The Data for Question 26 and 27 about class

Questions 1 2 3 4 5

27

Q26. Class is important for learning

English. 43.3% 40.0% 11.7% 5.0% 0.0%

Q27. I think class is an important

opportunity for my English learning. 55.0% 28.3% 11.7% 5.0% 0.0%

These questions are about the relationship between classes and learning

English. From Question 26 and Question 27, most of the subjects think that classes are

important for their learning English.

Table 10: the Data of Question 29 and Question 30 about technology

28

Questions 1 2 3 4 5

Q29. I like such a class that utilizes

CALL. 26.7% 36.7% 25.0% 6.7% 5.0%

Q30. I often utilize computer system for

learning English. 8.3% 13.3% 13.3% 46.7% 18.3%

These questions are about the relationship between technology and learning

English. From Question 29, we can find that many of subjects like using CALL system,

but from Question 30 many of them do not use computer system for learning English.

At the end of Part 2, subjects were asked how autonomous a learner they think

they are and the choices were 1: Very autonomous, 2: autonomous, 3: normal, 4: not

autonomous, and 5: Not at all autonomous. The data are shown in Figure 14.

Figure 6: The Data for How autonomous a learner do you think you are

21.7%

48.3%

26.7%

3.3%

Q31. How autonomous a learner do you think you

are? 1: Very autonomous2: autonomous3: normal4: not autonomous5: Not at all auton-omous

No one chose “Very autonomous”. About half of the subjects considered

themselves as “normal”. Some of them thought that they are “autonomous”, others

29

thought that they are “not autonomous”.

In Part 3, the questionnaire asked what factors and activities can make students

more autonomous. Subjects were asked to check the check boxes as they want to and

also asked to write freely about factors and activities.

Chart1: The Data for For learning English, teachers should be…

autho

r

counce

llor

resour

ceful

facilit

ator

ruler

adviso

roth

ers0

20

40

60

Question 32. For learning English, teachers should

be...

In Question 32, “resourceful” teacher got the highest points. Also “advisor”

teacher got higher points. From this chart, helpful teacher is preferred. This question

allows subjects to answer as many times as they want.

Chart 2: The data for What kind of teachers can make you autonomous?

30

unders

tand s

tudent

sfun

ny

give s

tuden

ts adv

ice

have a

lot of

know

ledge

take c

are of

stude

nts alw

ays

do not

push

teache

rs' opi

nion

smart

have i

dentity

make c

lass in

terest

ing

respec

t stude

nts' o

pinion

s

make c

lass e

asy to

under

stand

polite

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Q33. What kind of teachers can make you autonomous?

In Question 33, subjects needed to write freely about teachers who can make

students autonomous. In Chart 2, there are only data which got more than 2 points so

the rest of data which got 1 point are below (Table 13).

Table 11: The Data for What kind of teachers can make you autonomous?

31

Teach the delight of learning 1

Evaluate what students are done 1

Have wide view 1

Give students stimulus 1

Have various perspectives 1

Scold students at right time 1

Big-hearted 1

Do no scold so much 1

Make students think by themselves 1

Were not good at English 1

Keep studying 1

Not disagreeable 1

Teach students useful information about learning

English 1

Speak English fluently and aloud 1

Kind 1

Sometimes strict 1

Chat sometimes 1

Make students decide what or how to do 1

Many of the subjects answered that teachers who “understand students” can

make them autonomous. In this answer, subjects also requested teachers not to judge

students from their learning ability, to always think the best ways which suit each

student’s development, characteristics, and levels. Such teachers who can understand

students from various perspectives were preferred. Also subjects mentioned the

teachers’ characteristics and the top of characteristic was “cheerful”. Subjects thought

32

that “cheerful” and “funny” teachers can make classes interesting and make students

motivated. Teachers who “have a lot of knowledge” were preferred and some of the

subjects wanted teachers to give some advice with such knowledge. Some of the

subjects who answered “communicate with students” also required teachers to

communicate with students equally, seriously, and often. The answer of “give some

tasks” implied that teachers should make students check their learning process and their

level through the tasks.

Through this data, we can find out that teachers who are very humane and have

a lot of knowledge and experiences and who have reliable leadership can help make

students autonomous.

Chart 3: The Data for For learning English, class should be…

0102030405060

Question 34. For learning English, class should be...

In Question 34, “lively and active” classes got highest points and

“comfortable” classes got the second highest points. From this chart, we can find out

33

that comfortable, active and student-centered classes were preferred. This question

allowed subjects to answer as many times as they want.

Chart 4: The Data of What kind of classes can make you autonomous when learning

English?

Intere

sting

Comfor

table

communi

cative

focuse

d on s

peakin

g

studen

ts-cen

tered

motivat

ing

practi

cal

group

work

some t

asks

active

05

1015202530

Q35. What kind of classes can make you autonomous when

learning English?

In Question 35, subjects needed to write freely about classes which can make

students autonomous. In Chart 4, there are only the data for items which got more than

2 points so the rest of data which got 1 point are below (Table 12).

34

Table 12: The Data of What kind of teachers can make you autonomous?

35

Teacher-centered 1

Grammar with tense atmosphere 1

Changing atmosphere depending on

classes 1

Incentive 1

Various style class 1

Setting goals 1

High-motivated class 1

Students have responsibility 1

Teachers' chat 1

Evaluating 1

Well-balanced class 1

Positive attitude 1

Audio-lingual class 1

Games 1

Achievement 1

Worthwhile 1

Keeping the class rule 1

From this data, we can find out that “interesting” classes got the highest points.

Subjects who answered “interesting” classes needed classes to not being bored, and not

only just interesting but also sometimes with tense atmosphere. Also, subjects thought

that the “comfortable” atmosphere is important for them. “Comfortable” also implied

that it is easy to talk about students’ opinion, students should not be afraid of making

mistakes, it is not tense, and it is easy to ask teachers and classmates. “Communicative”

36

classes implied that students can communicate with classmates, that there are sometimes

different ways of sitting; sitting in circle, and that students can communicate with

foreigners directly. “Student-centered” classes implied the classes like that students can

think positively and are responsible for their learning with using four skills.

“Motivating” classes can be made by students motivating each other and by only using

English in class. “Practical” classes implied that students can get a lot of input and

make a lot of output, and that students are allowed to only use English in class. “Some

tasks” implied that teachers should give interesting tasks to students, and that teachers

should give feedback to each student after giving tasks.

Through this data, we can find out that student-centered classes were needed

much more than teacher-centered, and communicative and practical classes were also

preferred. However, teacher-centered class was raised as an answer.

Chart 5: The Data for What kind of activities can make you autonomous when learning

English?

0153045

Question 36. What kind of activities can make you autonomous?

From this chart, “solo study”, “group work”, “collaborative work” got higher

37

points for making subjects autonomous. However, the “activities controlled by

teachers” were not preferred. This question allowed subjects to answer as many times as

they want.

Chart 6: The Data of What kind of activities can make you autonomous for learning

English?

discus

sion

game

free t

alkdeb

ate

presen

tation

listeni

ng

mini-te

sts

solo s

tudy

communi

cation

group

work

watchin

g movi

es

making

a spe

ech

invest

ivativ

e lear

ning

collab

orativ

e stud

y048

1216

Q37. What kind of activities can make you autonomous for learn-

ing English?

In Question 37, subjects needed to write freely about activities which can make

students autonomous. Chart 6 shows only the data which got more than 2 points so the

rest of data which got 1 point are below (Table 13).

Table 13: The Data for What kind of activities can make you autonomous for learning

English?

38

Interesting activities 1

Using 4 skills 1

Conversation 1

Study for tests 1

Pair work 1

Students-centered activities 1

Introduction 1

Writing some comments about

class 1

Big-tests 1

Reading books 1

Writing daily, letters 1

Activities with objects 1

Quiz 1

From these data, “discussion”, “game”, “free talk”, and “debate” got more than

10 points. Subjects who answered “game” implied such games like word puzzles for

increasing vocabulary, using what students learned, and memorizing. Subjects who

answered “free talk” implied such activities like using some topics about seasonal

events, time, and place. Also “free talk” with native speaker was raised as an answer.

“Listening” implied listening to songs and taking a dictation of them. “Mini-tests”

implied tests with open rankings, and word tests. In the answer of “solo study”, both

solo study by oneself and solo study by motivating each other were raised as an answer.

Subjects who answered “investigative learning” implied the learning individually and

the learning with group. “Study for tests” was raised as for TOEIC and EIKEN.

39

“Students-centered” activity which teacher’s instruction at first and then students join

the activity freely was raised. In “Introduction” activity, subject answered that

introduction of what students like is better.

Chart 4: The Data for What is more responsible for your learning?

Teache

rsmyse

lf

classm

ates

textbo

oks

paren

tsfrie

nds

class

conten

tsoth

ers0

20

40

60

Question 38: What is more responsible for your learn-

ing?

From this data, “myself” got the highest points, “class” got the second highest,

and “teachers” did the third highest. Many subjects thought that “myself” is more

responsible for their learning, while other people and things were raised as responsible

for their learning following “myself”.

2.4 Summary

In this chapter, we examined the learners’ recognition about learner autonomy,

and what factors and activities subjects thought can make them autonomous. Most of

the subjects did not know the concept of learner autonomy but they thought that

“myself” and “students-centered” classes and activities are related to learner autonomy.

Also, they thought that teachers should play a role as like a helper for them with

40

cheerful characteristic. In the next chapter, we will look how students and teachers can

make students autonomous in detail from the data.

41

Chapter 3: The Discussion

3.1 Introduction

In Chapter One, we looked at the definitions of learner autonomy. Also we

discussed why learner autonomy is helpful for student and how we should do to foster

learner autonomy.

In Chapter Two, we looked through the data collected by the Questionnaire

which find out the learner’s awareness of learner autonomy, the degree of students’

autonomy, what factors and activities can be effective for learner autonomy, and the

teachers’ role for fostering or improving learner autonomy.

In Chapter Three, we will compare the data collected from university students

and the contents of Chapter One and we will look at the points in common and

differences between the characteristics, definitions and the results from the

questionnaire.

3.2 Summary of the Results

In Chapter Two, we looked at the result of the Questionnaire in three sections;

whether learners know the concept of learner autonomy, how autonomous learners think

they are, and what is related to and what can foster learner autonomy.

As a result, most subjects did not know the concept of learner autonomy.

However, they had vague image about learner autonomy. Also, they needed to check

the check box which suits them most and answer how autonomous they think they are.

Subjects thought that not only “myself” but also “other factors” are important for them

to develop learner autonomy. Subjects thought that “teacher” and “class” are more

important than any other else factors. Resourceful, interesting, and kind teachers are

42

preferred, and active and lively classes are preferred, too. Here, we will discuss the

result of the Questionnaire in more detail.

3.3 Discussion of the Results

Here, we will discuss the result of the Questionnaire. As we saw above, there

are nine categories in the questionnaire, so let us look at the result in each category.

3.3.1 The Awareness of Students

In Question 2, we found that 80% did not know the concept of learner

autonomy. Also, we saw that what subjects think is related to learner autonomy from

Question 3 to Question 11. Through these questions, we found that most subjects did

not know the concept of learner autonomy, and they did not know what is related to

learner autonomy clearly. According to Farquharson, this is the first step to foster the

awareness of the skills that are involved in learning. Therefore, teachers should foster

the awareness of the skills which are effective to develop learner autonomy, and give

students opportunities which they can make decisions by themselves gradually.

3.3.2 Motivation

According to Mackness (2011), intrinsic motivation is one of the important

factors for learner autonomy. In Question 12 and Question 13, we found that 100%

agreed with that motivation is very important for learning English, and 90% said that

they have internal energy for learning English. Learners can make efforts for learning

English because of intrinsic motivation and subjects think that motivation is related to

learner autonomy.

43

3.3.3 Objectives

As Benson and Voller, Aoki, and Chan defined learner autonomy as

determining the direction of their own learning, setting goals, and making plans. For

this category; we have three questions: I have clear purpose for learning English, I

don’t have clear objectives for learning English, and I often plan how to study English

and set a goal to achieve it. Many of subjects said that they have a clear purpose for

learning English and they can make plans with a goal. Also, they like such classes and

activities that set a goal, and keep the class rule. In Question 8, “setting a goal” is

related to learner autonomy that “no plan”. It means that they think they can make

efforts if there are clear purposes or goals.

3.3.4 Reflection

As we saw in Chapter One, autonomous learner can assess, monitor, and reflect

their learning. Then, Question 15 was set in order to find out that subjects do reflection.

Only 18.3% preview their learning, and 43.3% did not preview. Also, they prefer such a

teacher and classes which evaluate students’ activities. When students get feedback

from a teacher or classes, they can reflect by themselves. Therefore, it is shown that

reflection is also important for learners as we saw above.

3.3.5 Self-control

According to Mackness, autonomous learners can manage and regulate their

own learning. Question 16 and Question 20 were set in order to find out whether

subjects can control themselves. From Question 16, 45% can control themselves but

33.3% did not say that they can do. In Question 20, we found that it is difficult for

44

many subjects to control themselves. From this result, it is also important to give

learners opportunities which they can control themselves as a teacher.

3.3.6 Collaboration

According to Lacey, “autonomy encourages and needs peer support and

cooperation.” From Question 6, we found that subjects thought solo work is more

related to learner autonomy than group/ collaborative work. On the other hand, we

found that subjects prefer communicative and group work classes from Chart 4. Also,

when subjects were asked what kind of activities can make them autonomous, they

answered that collaborative work is the most effective than other activities; solo work,

activities controlled by the teacher. The awareness of learners which collaboration is

important is not so high, but they need collaboration and cooperation in order to develop

their learner autonomy.

3.3.7 Strategy

In order to develop learner autonomy, learners should know how to learn, that

is, how to use the materials, how to study with some strategies. Also, autonomy

inquires and ensures 100% differentiation of learners, so each learner should utilize the

strategies which suit him or her. In Question 22, 81.7% said that they choose books,

exercises which suit them neither too difficult nor too easy. From this result, the teacher

should give students opportunities which they can choose the learning materials

matching them, or should teach how to study with appropriate materials for each

student.

45

3.3.8 Teacher

The teacher should help learners study. Until learners become to study by

themselves, the teacher should lead them, that is, teaching them how to study, how to

select materials which suit them, and how to reflect their learning. In terms of learner

autonomy, subjects thought that student freedom is related to learner autonomy than

controlled by teacher. Also in Question 32, we found that the teacher who is author or

ruler in class was not preferred but such a teacher who is resourceful or who is like

advisor was preferred. From Question 33, we could know that the teacher who is like a

helper, or who can understand and respect students is needed, not an author teacher and

not teacher-centered class. But in Question 38, we found out that subjects thought that

teachers are responsible for their learning, so it means that teacher is also one of the

important factors for learner autonomy.

3.3.9 Class

As we saw above, the classes were centered to the teacher, not students.

However, the focus on the education is shifting from the teacher to students, so the

classes should entail the activities which students can be positive for learning. Subjects

answered that class is important for learning English in Question 26. Also they thought

that a class is important opportunity for learning English, too. Then, we got the result

about class from Question 34 and Question 35. In order to develop learner autonomy,

subjects think that lively, active, and interesting classes are better. On the other hand,

the teacher-centered class was not thought as a class which can make students

autonomous.

46

3.3.10 Technology

As we saw above, the technology is getting attention these days; CALL,

portfolio, and so on. By using these systems, it is thought that learners can reflect their

learning and they can know the progress which they done. In Question 29, 63.4%

answered that they like classes which they use CALL system. However, 65% did not

often utilize computer systems for learning English. It means that learners prefer to use

computer system for learning but they do not have an opportunity to use it or they do

not know how to utilize it clearly.

3.4 Research questions

Here, we will look at the result of research questions.

1. Do learners know or understand the concept of learner autonomy?

After taking the Questionnaire, we found out that almost subjects did not know

or understand the concept of learner autonomy. However, when they were asked to

check the boxes which subjects think that it is related to learner autonomy, the data

showed that they have images about learner autonomy at some extent. Also, they have

opinions what factors and activities can make them autonomous.

2. How autonomous a learner do learners think they are?

As a result, about 50% answered that they are normal. Those who chose

“autonomous” and “not autonomous” were the almost same number. Others chose “not

at all autonomous”. However, no body chose “very autonomous.”

3. What factors and activities can make learner autonomous?

For this question, we got various answers. In terms of factor, the teacher who

47

understands and takes care of students, and who is interesting, and who is kind, was

raised as answers from subjects. Also, the interesting, active, and lively classes were

raised in order to develop their learner autonomy. However, many of subjects think that

“myself” is more responsible for their learning. Therefore, it means that the

combination of “myself” and other factors are important to make learners autonomous.

3.5 Implications

The study of learner autonomy is effective for language learners and for

language learning. For language learners, to know the concept of learner autonomy can

give learners some hints how they can learn language, and can give them some advice

what is effective ways to improve their learning. Also, for language learning, it is also

effective to spread the concept of learner autonomy to learners and teachers because

they can become studying by their own and can lead their better lives if learners know

the concept. If the teachers know the concept, they can teach students the ways how to

study, effectively.

3.6 Limitations of the Questionnaire

There are some limitations of this study.

Firstly, the subjects were only 19 – 22 year-old university students and all of

them were women. Moreover, all of them belong to the English department.

Secondly, there were differences of subjects’ number, that is, 42 were seniors,

14 were juniors, and 5 were sophomores. Therefore, it might be some differences in

their thoughts about learner autonomy. Also, there were only women in the subjects’

university so no men took the Questionnaire.

3.7 Further research

48

If we have a chance to do further research of learner autonomy, we would

research two more things.

In this research, we focused on what factors and activities can make learners

autonomous, so we did not ask subjects about what made them autonomous so far in

school. Firstly, we would research what factors made them autonomous.

Secondly, we focused on the factors and activities only in the classroom, not

outside classroom. As we saw above, however, Holec mentioned the learner autonomy

for the adult education and the concept of learner autonomy can be effect on life long.

Therefore, we would research what factors can make them autonomous outside the

classroom.

If we took these research questions, we might get different results from this

result.

3.8 Conclusion

Firstly, we found that the concept of learner autonomy is not well-known

among learners despite learner autonomy can affect learners’ lives. Of course, they do

not have clear ideas about learner autonomy. Therefore, we should foster the learners’

awareness of learner autonomy at first.

Secondly, we found that subjects have many opinions about the factors and

activities which can make them autonomous. They thought that “myself” is more

responsible for their learning but they want other factors to give them better effects.

Lastly, the teacher’s role can be very important for learners to develop learner

autonomy. The teacher has the authority in the classroom in terms of teaching, class

atmosphere, students’ motivation, and so on.

49

References

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Education

Barillaro, F. 2011. Teacher perspectives of learner autonomy in language learning,

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language-learning/, TESOL Center, Sheffield Hallam University, Accessed August

1, 2014

Case, A. 2009. Learner autonomy problems and solutions,

http://edition.tefl.net/articles/teacher-technique/learner-autonomy/, TEFLNET,

Accessed November 14, 2013

Dafei, D., 2008. http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/pta_Nov_07_dd.pdf?

origin=publication_detail, accessed September 24, 2014

Farquharson, B. 2011. Developing Learner Autonomy,

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Hozu, S. 2008. How to foster learner autonomy by teachers and students, Notre Dame

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http://www.vnseameo.org/TESOLConference2010/Downloads/BKreutzerPPLearn

Auto910.pdf, International University, Access November 13, 2014

Balçıkanlı, C. 2007. Learner Autonomy In A Nutshell,

http://www.slideshare.net/jonathanlivingstone/learner-autonomy-in-a-nutshell, Gazi

University, Access November 14, 2014

Little, D. Learner autonomy and second/foreign language learning,

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https://www.llas.ac.uk//resources/gpg/1409#toc_0, October 24, 2014

Lowry, E. 2008. Approaches to Learner Autonomy in Language Learning,

http://www.slideshare.net/irwyn12/approaches-to-learner-autonomy-in-

language-learning-presentation-786825?next_slideshow=1, Access

November 14, 2014

Mackness, J. 2011, Characteristics of an autonomous learner,

http://jennymackness.wordpress.com/2011/01/24/cck11-characteristics-of-an-

autonomous-learner/, accessed October 31, 2014

尾関直子. 2008. 『自律した学習者を育てるセルフ・アクセス・センターを活用

した英語教育モデルの構築』,

https://m-repo.lib.meiji.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/10291/10883/1/jinbunkagakukiyo_6

7_155.pdf, Accessed November 13, 2014

Thanasoulas, D. 2000. What is Learner Autonomy and How Can It Be Forsterd?, The

Internet TESL Journal, http://iteslj.org/Articles/Thanasoulas-Autonomy.html.

Accessed August 1, 2014

(Unnamed) Learner autonomy Theoretical and practical information for

language teachers, http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/7668/19634/1/B.Ed._loka

%C3%BAtg%C3%A1fa.pdf, accessed October 29, 2014

Wikipedia, Learner Autonomy,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-2, Accessed October 7,

2014

51

Appendices

Appendix A: The Questionnaire of English version

Learner Autonomy QuestionnaireI am Shoko Fujimoto. I would like to search about Learner Autonomy, so could you answer these questions below? The information and answers which you will have done is used only for my questionnaire. Thank you.*必須

Name*

Q1. What is your grade?*

o freshman

o sophomore

o junior

o senior

Q2. Do you know the concept of Learner Autonomy?*

o Yes

o I have ever heard of it even once

o No

Please think about the word "learner autonomy". what do you think it means? Please check the check box which you

52

think it is more related to Learner Autonomy.Please don't care about the numbers(1, 3). But the number 2 means "maybe" or "no opinion."Q3.*

1 2 3

decided by you

decided by the teacher

Q4*

1 2 3

self instruction

attending school

Q5*

1 2 3

student freedom

teacher controlled

Q6*

1 2 3

solo work

group/ collaborative work

Q7*

1 2 3

motivation

no motivation

Q8*

1 2 3

setting a no

53

goal plan

Q9*

1 2 3

teachers

classmates

Q10 *

1 2 3

competense

condition

Q11 *

1 2 3

depends on me

depends on other or something

54

Learner Autonomy Questionnaire*必須

Learner Autonomy QuestionnaireOn this page, please answer about your Learner Autonomy and your learning.

Please check the check box which suits you most. From number 1 to 5, "Strongly agree," "agree," "no opinion," "disagree," and "Strongly disagree"Q12. I think motivation is very important for my learning of English.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q13. I have internal energy for learning English.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q14. I have clear purpose for learning English.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q15. I often preview what I learned, before class, at home, outside the class.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly Strongly

55

agree disagree

Q16. I am good at controlling myself.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q17. I am aware of peer pressure to conform.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q18. I am aware of collaborative needs.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q19. I often get inspiration from my classmates and it motivates me.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q20. I know what I should do, but I don't often follow my own advise.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q21. I don't have a clear objectives for learning English.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

56

Q22. I choose books, exercises which suits me, neither too difficult nor too easy.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q23. I gain positive recognition from teachers in lecture-type lessons.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q24. I often plan how to study English and set a goal to achieve it.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q25. I like such an English teacher that motivates and help me to learn English.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q26. Class is important for learning English.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q27. I think class is an important opportunity for my English learning.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

57

Q28. I have different attitude and behavior depending on the teacher's explanation and type of class.*

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q29. I like class like utilizes CALL.*CALL: the English education which utilize computer. the system to develop the English skill through listening, movie, and so on.

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q30. I often utilize computer system for learning English.*eg) Portfolio( the file which hold the process of study toward the objectives), CALL system, and so on.

1 2 3 4 5

Strongly agree

Strongly disagree

Q31. How autonomous a learner do you think you are?*

1 2 3 4 5

Very autonomous

Not at all autonomous

58

Learner Autonomy Questionnaire*必須

Learner Autonomy QuestionnaireOn last page, I would like to ask you what factor or activities can foster Learner Autonomy. Please answer questions below as you think.Q32. For learning English, teachers should be...*Multiple answers allowed

o author

o councellor

o resourceful

o facilitator

o ruler

o advisor

o その他:

Q33. What kind of teachers can make you autonomous? Please feel free to write anything.*

Q34. For learning English, class should be...*You can choose as many answers as you like

59

o comfortable

o lively and active

o teacher-centered

o student-centered

o full of activities which students often communicate in class

o その他:

Q35. What kind of class can make you autonomous when learning English?*

Q36. What kind of activities can make you autonomous when learning English?*

o solo study ( study in library, study grammar, read books, and so

on)

o group work ( activity competing with other group)

o collaborative work ( think and try to solve some question with

teammate, not compete with other group)

o activities controlled by teacher ( explanation of teacher, teacher

asks questions and then students answer)

60

o activities decided totally by students ( decide how to study and

what to do in class)

o その他:

Q37. What kind of activities can make you autonomous for learning English? Please write in detail.*These answers are fine to answer; discussion, debate, free talk, mini games( eg; sing songs), and so on

Q38. What is more responsible for your learning? *

o Teacher

o yourself

o classmates

o textbooks

o parents

o friends

o class

o contents

o その他:

61

Q39. That's all for my questionnaire. Thank you for your cooperation. If you have comments or something you don't understand, please feel free to write anything.

62

Appendix B: The Questionnaire of Japanese version

学習者オートノミー　アンケート

私は藤本聖子といいます。卒業論文の「学習者オートノミー（学習者の自律）を育てるため」

にというテーマについての調査を行っています。このアンケートにお答えいただくにあたり

10 分ほどお時間いただきますことをご了承ください。お答えいただいた内容は卒業論文にの

み使用します。よろしくお願いいたします。　藤本聖子

*必須

名前*

Q1. 学年*

o １年生

o ２年生

o ３年生

o ４年生

Q2. 学習者オートノミーという概念を知っている*

o はい

o 一度は聞いたことがある

o いいえ

次に、「学習者オートノミー」という言葉につ

いてどういった意味かを考えながら、あなたが

63

より学習者オートノミーに関係があると思うも

のにチェックをしてください。「どちらともいえない」ときに、数字２のチェックボタンをチェックしてください。

Q3.*

1 2 3

自分が決め

る

教師が決め

る

Q4.*

1 2 3

独学 通学

Q5.*

1 2 3

生徒が自由に学

習

教師が支持を出す学

習

Q6.*

1 2 3

自己学

習

グループワーク・協同

学習

Q7*

1 2 3

モチベーション

あり

モチベーション

なし

Q8.*

1 2 3

目標設定する学

習

無計画での学

習

Q9.*

64

1 2 3

教師クラスメ

イト

Q10.　*

1 2 3

能力 状態

Q11. *

1 2 3

自分自

身

他の人、も

の

65

このページでは、英語を勉強するうえで自分に当てはまることを回答してください。

もっとも当てはまる項目にチェックをしてくだ

さい。数字の１から数字の５まで、「とても当てはまる」、「当てはまる」、「どちらとも

いえない」、「当てはまらない」、「全く当てはまらない」となっています。

Q12. 英語学習にとってモチベーションはとても重要だと思う*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q13. 英語学習に対して内面的な意欲がある*例）海外に興味がある、英語でコミュニケーションを取りたい、異文化に触れたい、

等

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q14. 英語学習における明確な目的がある*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q15. 学習したことを、授業前や家庭、教室外でよく復習する*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q16. 自分をコントロールすることができる*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q17. クラスの中での周りの目が気になる*

66

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q18. 協力することは大切である*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q19. しばしばクラスメイトから感銘を受けたり、それによってモチベーションが上

がったりする*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q20. 自分が何をするべきか考えはあるが、ときどき自分の考えに従わないときがあ

る*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q21. 英語学習に対してはっきりとした目標がない*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q22. 英語を勉強するときに、難しすぎず簡単すぎず、自分に合った本や練習を選ぶ*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q23. 授業中、先生からの一方的な説明を聞くことが好きである*

1 2 3 4 5

67

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q24. しばしば英語をどうやって勉強するかを計画し、それを達成するために目標設

定をする*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q25. 英語を勉強するようにモチベーションを上げてくれたり手助けしてくれたりす

る先生が好きだ*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q26. 授業は英語学習にとって重要である*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q27. 授業は私の英語学習のための重要な機会である*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q28. 先生や授業形式によって、やる気があったりなかったりすることがある*

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q29. CALL を活用する授業が好きである*ＣＡＬＬ：コンピュータを活用した英語教育。リスニングや動画などを通じて英語力

向上を図るシステム。

1 2 3 4 5

68

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q30. 英語を勉強するためによくコンピュータシステムを活用する*例）ポートフォリオ（自己の学習課程や学習成果等、目標到達への過程などをまとめ

たファイル）や CALL システムなど　

1 2 3 4 5

とても当ては

まる

全く当てはまら

ない

Q31. あなた自身の学習者オートノミーのレベル（学習における自律性）はどのくら

いだと思いますか。*とても高い、高い、普通、低い、とても低い　から選んでください。

1 2 3 4 5

とても高

い

とても低

い

69

学習者オートノミー　アンケート

*必須

最後のページでは、どういった要素や活動が学習者オートノミーを育てると思うかお

答えください。

Q32. 英語学習において、あなたの自律性を高める教師とは…*複数回答可

o 権威者

o カウンセラー

o 機知に富んでいる人

o 円滑に物事を進めてくれる人（ファシリテーター）

o 主権者

o アドバイザー

o その他:

Q33. どのような教師があなたの自律性を高めてくれると思いますか。自由に書いて

ください。*面白い、明るい、賢い、などでも理想的な教師の人柄でも構いません。

Q34. 英語を学習するうえで、自律性を高める授業とは…*複数回答可

o 居心地が良い

70

o 活発な授業

o 教師中心の授業

o 生徒主体

o 生徒同士のコミュニケーションを図る活動のみ

o その他:

Q35. 英語を学習するうえで、どのような授業が望ましいですか。自由に書いてくだ

さい。*楽しい、緊張感がある、などでも構いません。

Q36. 英語学習において自分の自律性を高める活動は…*複数回答可

o 自主学習（図書館で自習、文法勉強、読書、など）

o グループワーク（他グループとの競争する活動、など）

o 協同学習（他グループとの競争ではなく、チームメイトと問題解決のため

に思考を深めたりする活動、など）

o 教師の指示による活動（教師の説明のみ、教師が質問したら生徒が答える、

など）

o 生徒主体の活動（生徒がどのように勉強し授業で何をするかを決める、な

ど）

71

o その他:

Q37. 英語学習をするうえで、どういった活動が自分の自律性を高めると思いますか。

自由に書いてください。*次のような活動も回答にしていただいてかまいません。（ディスカッション、ディ

ベート、フリートーク、ミニゲーム（歌）など

Q38.なにがよりあなたの学習に責任があると思いますか。*複数回答可

o 教師

o 自分自身

o クラスメイト

o 教科書

o 親

o 友だち

o 授業

o 内容

o その他:

Q39. 以上でアンケートは終了です。回答ありがとうございました。最後に感想やわ

からなかった点などありましたら、コメントしてください。

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