Courage and Love

Dr. Keith Lloyd Kent State University Stark

Approaching the New Testament as literature means interpreting the letters as persuasive (“rhetorical”) documents written by a specific person for a specific audience at a specific point in time.

“Rhetoric,” as defined by Aristotle (384 BCE – 322 BCE) is “finding the best available means of persuasion.”

Greek education included natural science (biology and chemistry), rhetoric (the art of speaking or writing effectively), geometry, sophistry, astronomy and meteorology. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Greece

Rhetorical decisions made by the ancient authors determined the shape of church history.

Scholars doubt the traditional authorship of the Apostle Peter for various reasons:o The letter’s excellent Greek style

(contrast Mt. 26:73; Acts 4: 13)o Its reflections on the letters of Paul

(compare 2:6, 8 Romans 9:32-33; 3:1-7 w/ Ephesians 5:22-28)

Peter could stand in the background with the actual writing done by Silvanus (“Silas” 5:12), missionary companion with Paul.(II Cor. 1: 9; I Th. 1:1,2; 2 Th.1.1)

Written from Rome “She who is at Babylon, who is likewise chosen” (5:13) is a cryptic reference to the church at Rome. Cryptograms (coded language) are often used in times of persecution.

Perhaps after the outbreak of Neronian persecution in 64 CE:

I Peter 1:3 “In all this [the eternal Christian inheritance] you rejoice, though now for a little while you may have to suffer grief in all kinds of trials.” (See also 3:8-22).

Prior to Nero's accusation of arson and subsequent persecution of Christians in 64, all animosity was apparently limited to intramural Jewish hostility.

(See Acts 18:2-3 Aquila and Priscilla)

"Therefore, to stop the rumor [that he had set Rome on fire], he [Emperor Nero] falsely charged with guilt, and punished with the most fearful tortures, the persons commonly called Christians, who were [generally] hated for their enormities. Christus, the founder of that name, was put to death as a criminal by Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judea, in the reign of Tiberius, but the pernicious superstition - repressed for a time, broke out yet again, not only through Judea, - where the mischief originated, but through the city of Rome also, whither all things horrible and disgraceful flow from all quarters, as to a common receptacle, and where they are encouraged. Accordingly first those were arrested who confessed they were Christians; next on their information, a vast multitude were convicted, not so much on the charge of burning the city, as of "hating the human race."

In their very deaths they were made the subjects of sport: for they were covered with the hides of wild beasts, and worried to death by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set fire to, and when the day waned, burned to serve for the evening lights. Nero offered his own garden players for the spectacle, and exhibited a Circensian game, indiscriminately mingling with the common people in the dress of a charioteer, or else standing in his chariot. For this cause a feeling of compassion arose towards the sufferers, though guilty and deserving of exemplary capital punishment, because they seemed not to be cut off for the public good, but were victims of the ferocity of one man.“

http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/christians.htm

The passage contains an early non-Christian reference to the origin of Christianity, the execution of Christ described in the Canonical gospels, and the presence and persecution of Christians in 1st-century Rome. While a majority of scholars consider the passage authentic, some scholars have argued that it may not be. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacitus_on_Jesus

Early Christian writers such as Tertullian, Lactantius, Sulpicius Severus, Eusebius and Augustine of Hippo do not refer to Tacitus when discussing the subject of the Christian persecution by Nero. Furthermore writer, Suetonius, mentions Christians being harmed during this period by Nero, but there is no connection made with the fire.

But this younger Ananus, who, as we have told you already, took the high priesthood, was a bold man in his temper, and very insolent; he was also of the sect of the Sadducees, who are very rigid in judging offenders, above all the rest of the Jews, as we have already observed; when, therefore, Ananus was of this disposition, he thought he had now a proper opportunity. Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road; so he assembled the sanhedrin of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others; and when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned: but as for those who seemed the most equitable of the citizens, and such as were the most uneasy at the breach of the laws, they disliked what was done…(62 CE)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephus_on_Jesus

Josephus’ remarks are also debated.

Although it is often claimed that Christians were persecuted for their refusal to worship the emperor, general dislike for Christians likely arose from their refusal to worship the gods or take part in sacrifice, which was expected of those living in the Roman Empire

Persecution continued intermittently over a period of about three centuries until the 313 Edict of Milan, when Christianity was legalized. From Nero's reign until Decius's widespread measures in 250, the persecution of Christians by Romans was limited to isolated, local incidents.

Although Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in 380, persecution of Christians did not come to a complete halt; instead, it switched to those deemed to be heretics by the state.

Slides 7-8 from Persecution of Christians http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians

Christians in Asia Minor were undergoing persecutions

The author writes mostly to Gentile converts (1:14; 2:10; 4:3)

Their suffering is cause for rejoicingo Through enduring the suffering they demonstrate

the genuineness of their faith (1:6, 7)o They are participating in the sufferings of Christ

(4:13)o They are one with other Christians who suffer (5:9)

“But even if you should suffer for doing right, you are blessed… . Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope you have. But do this with gentleness and respect, keeping a clear conscience, so that those who speak maliciously against your good behavior in Christ may be ashamed of their slander.” (3:14, 15-16)

Quotation of Old Testament Scriptures (6 references to Isaiah , 2 to Psalms, 2 to Proverbs)

Use of Old Testament:A prophetic message pointing to the Christ (1:11) and to “you,” the Christian church (1:12)

Analogy: o Trial by fire 1:7; 4:12o Obedient children (1:14)o Living stones; spiritual house (2:4)o Shepherds of the flock 5:1-11)

Widely applied principle:“Submit yourselves for the Lord’s sake to every human authority” (2:13)o To the Emperor and governors (2:13-14)o Slaves to masters (2:18)o Wives to husbands (3:1-7)

Summary Messageso Be holy (1:16)o Be patient in suffering (2:23) o Set a good example (2:21)o If you suffer, make sure it is for being righteous, not

a sinner (4:1-16)

Is a treatise or sermon rather than a letter (no salutation, addressees, etc.)

Author is called only “the elder” Similarities in vocabulary, literary style and

theology imply from the same pen as the Gospel Written toward end of the 1st Century Probably a companion piece with the Gospel

To deepen the spiritual life of the readers (1:3-4)

To battle the belief that God had not really become a man in Jesus (2:18-23; 4:2)

To combat the related belief that what we do with the body does not matter (3:6-7)

To re-establish the “commandments” of Jesus (3:23)o To believe in Jesus as the Christo To love one another

Aristotelian (Greek) Logic Law of Non-Contradiction:

o Everything must be either A or not-A Law of the Excluded Middle:

o Nothing can be both A and not-A Examples:

o “he who hates his brother is in the darkness and walks in the darkness” (2:11)

o “No one who abides in him [Christ] sins; no one who sins has either seen him nor known him” (3:6)

“Given this…then that” propositions. The first statement is affirmed as true (rather than proven), then other statements build on it logically:

“This is the message we have heard from him and proclaim to you, that God is light and in him there is no darkness at all. If we say we have fellowship with him while we walk in darkness, we lie and do not live according to the truth”… (2:5-6)

Oppositionso Light/darkness (1:5ff)o Truth/Lie (3:13) Let us love not in word or speech but in

deed and truth.o God/the Devil (3:7)o Hate/Love (3:13-18)o Christ/Anti-Christ (4:2-3)o Believers/“the World” (2:15-17)

Citing of Scripture (only once)o Cain and Abel (3:11) interpreted allegorically as

the world hating Christians Reinterpretation of “Commandments” as to

“believe” and to “love” (3:23; 5:3) Rule of Three (using sets of three to make a

point or tell a story)o Three witnesses (5:8)o ‘We know” (5:18-20)o “Children,” “fathers,” and “young men” (2:12-14)

Collective and Relational Logic (4:13-21) that moves thematically (resembling Greek “sorites” argument)o Abide 4:13o Confess 4:15o Know and believe 16o God is love 16 back to “abide”

o Perfection of love in the “world” 17o Love/fear binary 18o We love because we are loved 19o Seen/unseen; brothers/God and love 20o Loving others as proof of love of God 21

Typical sorites argumento It is rainingo If we go out while it is raining we will get wet.o If we get wet, we will get cold.o Therefore, if we go out we will get cold.

o 4:18 There is no fear in love. But perfect love drives out fear, because fear has to do with punishment. The one who fears is not made perfect in love.

I John has little structure other than recurring and inter-related themes.

The themes are related to certain assumed principles or statements of fact.

The main messages: o To trust in the Spirit to know true from false

teachingo To abide in what has been taughto To resist the temptations of “the world”o To follow the law of love

Authors of the Christian epistles used rhetorical and literary methods to reach their audiences.

Early NT writers relied variously on Jewish scriptures, many also applying Greek logic.

The Jewish scriptures were most often interpreted allegorically, following teachings like that of Philo of Alexandria (20 B.C.E. – 50 C.E.)

These letters in particular affected Christian concepts of obedience, behavior in the body, the nature of commandments, and allegorical interpretation, and the divinity of Christ.