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http://www.litres.ru/pages/biblio_book/?art=2874155

, / . . . . . . .: ; ; 2011

ISBN 978-5-91129-058-0

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, . , 1972 . - : ... (Electrical Engineering) : ( ) . (TrafficEngineering), .

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4. . - .

, , - .

, : , ,

1 , 1923 . - , , . , . . , 1996 . -.

2 30 . , 3 , 10- . .

. . . ,

9

, , , -.

cities down towns , : , , , kiss-and-ride. - , .

, , - () : -, . (Central Business District CBD), , . , , , , 800 1500 . . - , .

1970- , CBD: , . , , , , , . - 1970- : -, . CBD . , , , , CBD - . : CBD - , . , - : , , , , - . ; - , CBD. 30 -40 ; . , , -.

, . - , VIP-. , , , - : . . -, . CBD :

. . . ,

10

, , , , , .

( ), , , . , - . - , . , . : , , -, , -.

- -: , -/ .

, , 1935 . . ( !) - , , () .

, - : .

8- , 8 , . ( ) : 8- , 8 . : , , .

, - , .

- -, online. 1990- - ( ) - .

1 -2 . - , , . ( CODcar oriented development); - -.

, (condo) (rentals), , ; 250 100 . 100 -

. . . ,

11

: , , . , , . , .

-, , ( TOD transit oriented development). , , , , - .

( ), , , . - park-and-ride: , . , : .

(, , ) - .

car pool: -. , ( - 2+ 3+ , ). , , , .

. , ( ), , (permit) ( ) . .

.

, , , . , New York Metropolitan Area , , -, .

, , - . , , : , , - park-and-ride.

, , , , , - ( 2 3 !) -. , .

, , , ( !), , () -

. . . ,

12

. , .

, - , , , - . : ? : , - kiss-and-ride, park-and-ride, car pool, - !.

. , - , , , , , , , - . , , , - , . , , , - .

. , , .

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- . (Car FreeCity) , , , , . , - : -. .

, , - : , , - . . , , , , - .

, - , , , . , . , , . - , , .

. . . ,

13

- , , - , , , . . . Right-of-Way, - , , , , , -, .

, ( !) , - Right-of-Way , - . : , , Right-of-Way, - , !

, , , . . , , - . - - , .

, - highway users pay their way, , --, . , . , ; , - , , - . , , - , . , , - . 2010 . , - .

, , , . , 40% . , ( ) .

. . . ,

14

. - (free parking), , , , , - - . : . ("), - , , - .

, . . , , . , .

- , . , . -, - . , ITS( ).

, , , its , iBM, AT&T,Rockwell , . , , - , .

, . , , , - , .

, ITS, , , . , , , , . , ITS - 3.

, - : , . - , ( !) , .

3 - , , . , , -- , . 25-30% , .

. . . ,

15

. : (IV), - (III), , (II), , , , , (I). , ( ), , , . , , () Urban & TransportationPlanning , - .

, ! , - - , - .

- - . .

1980- , , ; - - 30 35 % - . ( !) - , - .

8,7 %; . 1,25 /2, 2 3 , . 90 95 % - , . , , .

! - , , .

. , -. , . 1990 2000 . , ( ) .

, ; - - . , , - :

. . . ,

16

, ;

- - - , .

, . . , - : , . , , - , , .

NIMBY Not in MyBackyard ( ), , -. . : - : , , . - , , , .

, , , NIMBY. - .

. , - , (city) , (metropolitanarea), .

( MPO Metropolitan Planning Organizations), , , , . MPO ( - ), . , ... , . , - , , - .

, . - , .

, , .

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. . . ,

17

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, , : - , - .

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. . . ,

23

1890- . . - , - - . ( !) , . ( 4) , , . - , . , 1965 .4, , : - - .

, - , , . , - , --, - . .

, - - - (, , ) . , . , , - .

, , , - . - , -. , .

- . , , ,

4 : Hollantz and Tamms. Die Kommunalen Verhehrsprobleme inder Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Essen, Germany: Vulkan-Verlag, 1965.

. . . ,

24

3 4. , - , - .

. . . ,

25

-

1950 1970- . ,

, , . ( ), . - , -.

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. . . ,

26

(LRT)5 , - . , - 20 LRT , . LRT . - , - .

5 (Light Rail TransitLRT) - , - , . - LRT . , , .

. . . ,

27

,

, , -. , - , , , . - , - . , -, , , , , , , , , .

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: 1955 2010 . 20 110. - .

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. . . ,

28

. - , , . - . - , .

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LRT, Stadtbahn -. LRT 100 . LRT - . , , . LRT - , , .

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, (-, , ), - , - . ( BRT ) LRT , , : - BRT 80 -140 --, LRT, 250 750 -. , BRT , LRT: - (), () () , , BRT, . - BRT ( )

. . . ,

29

. , .

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-- , BRT. - - .

, , - . , , - , -, . -, . .

-, , . , , , , - . , , - . , - , , ( ) - , . , , - -. - - . -, .

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. . . ,

30

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31

, ( -, ) . - . , - . , , 7. , , - , , , .

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42

( ) .

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(, , .) / . , . , . / -.

- , , . - 1980- . - -. , -, - - . - , . , . , - , - - . 30% , ( . 4).

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. . . ,

43

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44

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45

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)

. . . ,

47

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(, , ): - - .

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. . . ,

48

,

, --, , - . .

, , - :

- (ETH, );

(VDV7, , ); . ;

;. LTK Consultants (,

); ;

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, : , , , .

, . , .

7 VDV (Verband Deutscher Verkehrsunternehmen) , - , .

8 CNAM (Conservatoire national des arts et metiers) (). .

9 , , . , Public Transportation and Land Use Policy, Indiana University Press,1977. , , -. . 1990- . , .

. . . ,

49

, , .

, , , 20- - , . - - .

, - , 2006 . . - , , .

, , , . 2009 . , , , , - .

. ,

. . . ,

50

XXI . , -

, 10. , , . . , , . . , , ; - ; , - . -, .

- - . , , , . ., , - . - .

- , , . , , - - , - .

, . . - .

, , ; -. , -; , . . .

, , . , .

10 metropolitan area . , -.

. . . ,

51

, , , ( , ), . , .

, , . . . , - .

, - , , - , .

-. , - , , . , - , -, , - . , , , - . - . , General Motors - - .

1 , , - . , - . - , - . -, , , . - , , . , - , , , .

, 2 . , - . , , , , - .

, - . ( )

. . . ,

52

, , 11.

. , , . , , . - - . , - , . - : - , - . , - .

. . - : , - . - , , - . - -- . , , , - .

, - , - , , , - . , ROW-C12, -

11 (paratransit) , , - . , (transit). , , , , ; , , . , - , - ( -), , , . , , - . , . , , . , , , .

12 . (Rights-of-Way ROW) . 2. ROW- - ; ROW-B , ; ROW-C , , , , .

. . . ,

53

, - . , - ROW-B ROW- , , , , - . , - .

. , , , 30 , , 40 , . , - , 20 % . , . , .

, - ( ), - : . , . , - , . . , , - , . , , , - , , .

- . , . - -, . . - . , , , - , - , .

, - ( , . . --), . -, : - ( 13), - , -

13 , , - , , , (The Highway Trust Fund). : 40 % .

. . . ,

54

14. , , . . , , . (, - 1994 . ), , - , 400 900 .

, , : 80 90 % -, . . . 10-20 % - , - . , , , , , , .

, ( ) - , , - , . , , , - . - ( - ) . , , - , , , .

3 , - . - - . 15. ,, 1960- -. - , . , .

1966 . (freeway revolt), - , . - , , . 1970- - , . (1981 -1989 .)

14 ( , -) .

15 1956 . (Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956:Creating the interstate system. The highway trust fund), - .

. . . ,

55

16, . -, 1950- .

, 1960- , - - , . (ISTEA) 1991 ., , . , , , . 1990 . -. , , . , - . , - , .

4 , . , , . - - , -, , . , , . , - , , . , - , , , . - , , . (, , ) , , - .

. , - , - , ? - , ?

16 , . : , -, - , .

. . . ,

56

, - , - 10 , -, ?

- , . 5, - : , . - , - . , , -.

6 , - . , . - - . , , , , - -.

7 , . , - , . , - , . , - , , () . . , , . , , .

8 , , - , 1980- , , . - . ISTEA17, . , . , .

17 1991 . (IntermodalSurface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 ISTEA).

. . . ,

57

, - ( ) - - , . - , -. , - .

, , , , . , , , . - , , . , : - .

: , (- ), . , . - - , . , - - , - .

, , , . - , . , , , . . - , , , . , - . , - , . , - - ( !) , , . -

. . . ,

58

, . .

1. U. S. Congress. Office of Technology Assessment (OTA). Saving energy in U. S.

transportation. Report OTA-ETI-589. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1994.

. . . ,

59

1

:

, -

, . , , ? . , - - . - . , , , , . - , .

18, , 19 , . , - , , , 20. - , / , , , , -. , , . , , , - , -, . , -. , - , , .

18 , , -, , , , , , .. .

19 freeway - , - - . , . 2 freeway . .

20 , -, . , () - . , , , ... .

. . . ,

60

, -

. , , . , - , , - , , .

, , , , - . . - , . , , 80 , 30% . , , , -, : , , , - , . , , .

, , , - 40 , . - - , ,. -. -, - - .

- , . , , , , - . , , - , , , - , . - , , . , . - - , , , , , -, . , , , .

. . . ,

61

- , .

, , ( 21, , - ), -. , . - : - . , , , , , , , , .

, , . . , , , , . - ( ) , - . - , , . , - - , , , , , . .

- . - . : , - - . - , : , , , , . , , . [Rendell, 1994].

, , - . -. , , - , . . -. ( ),

21 (gentrification) , . , , , . , , , high middle class.

. . . ,

62

, , - [Bank of America et al., 1995; Pennsylvania Environmental Commission, 1998;Transportation Research Board, 1998].

, , , . - -; , - .

1.1. -

: , .( . ) . , -

, - , . , - . , . . , , , -, , , , - , . , , . , - , , [Cisneros, 1993].

. . . ,

63

, - . -, , - - ; - , , () ( -). - . , . - , . , 1825 . . .

- , - . - : , [Schaeffer, Sclar, 1975]. - , -, .

1890- - , . , .

- , , , . , . - , . , - .

. - . , , - , , . - , - , . , - [Johnson, 1993].

. . . ,

64

. - , , . - - ( ) .

, , , , , , - , , ,, . () . , , , - . , , XXI . .

1.2. -

(, ). ( Ryan/Massachuttes Department ofHighways)

, , . - , , , , . .

. . . ,

65

: ?

. , 1950- 1970- . , , , . - . - , . , , , , .

. - . , - - , - . , , .

, . XX . , . , , , [Federal Electric Railways Commission, 1920]. , - 1920 -1930- , - , - -. : , .

-, . 1.1. . , -.

. . . ,

66

. 1.1. .

(1930-1965) -

. , , , . - , . - - , - .

. . . ,

67

1.3. (, ). (

. ) - -

. -. . . 1.1, , , , . ( 1970 .) (, -,, - ) - .

. -. . , . - , : ; - , - ; - , .

, . , . -.

. . . ,

68

1920- , . . - , - , -. , . -, , , , , ( - ). , , - .

- , . , .

, ISTEA. , , . - , : - , , - , - .

- , - , . , - , , , . , , - , , - .

. , , ; . - , , , . , , - 3.

. . . ,

69

, - , . , - . , - . .

1. , . , - , - .

2. , - . . .

3. . .

( , ) - , , . , , . , , - , -. , , , - .

- , , - . - , , , , , , , - . , - - . , , .

, , 1970 1980, , -. , - , - , - . 22, -

22 ,

. . . ,

70

. , , -. - , , - . , , , -, - , , -, , . - , , . - : - .

1.4.

(. , ).( . ) ,

: . , , , ,

(strips) (major arterial roads), . (freeways), . . , , . : ?

. . . ,

71

. , : , .

, , , , , . , ; , - . (, , ), ( - ). , - , , . , .

1950- , , - , . - . -, -. , - , -. , , . , -, .

, , , , . , . , , , , - . , : - , - , . , , - .

. . . ,

72

:

, . - , . , , - , , . , - .

- , . - 1950- , 1930-. - , . - -.

, , ., -, , . , . - - 23.

- . , , , . - , . - (, - ) .

, . ,

23 , , - : . , , (Jones David. Urban Transit Policy:an Economic and Political History, 1985).

. . . ,

73

. - , -; . , . - , , .

- -- . , NIMBY24, . , 1910 . - : , . NIMBY - , , .

, - . , - . - , , , . - , , - , , , .

XX . - , . , . , - - : - , - -, - - . , 1950- , , - .

( ). 1960- 100 . - . , - , . , , , - .

, .

24 Not in My Back Yard .

. . . ,

74

, . - , , ( , - , ), - , .

, - . - , . , - , , , -, - , .

, - , . , .

, , , .

. . . ,

75

-. , , ; , , , , . - .

- , , - . , , , . -, - , - . -, - , , , , - , , . . , . -, - - , , . -, - , , [Burchell et al., 1999; PennsylvaniaEnvironment Communication, 1988].

, . - , 50 % - . 50 , ; . , - , .

, - , . - [Altshuler, 1979] , , . - , . ,

. . . ,

76

25 , , - -.

1996 . The Economist , - , - ! ( , , - ) [Sperling, 1995, 1997], . , , , , , . . , - , , . , , , , ; . 4 , . , , , , .

- . , , , .

, , , , .

1

. , , ,, , . - , - . - - . .

25 (Transportation Research BoardTRB) -- , , - , . TRB - - , , , . TRB (National Research Council). , TRB, , , . , .

. . . ,

77

-, - . , , . , , [Weyrich, Lind, 1996].

-, , , - , 26 , . - -, . , , , - . -, , -. , , , - . .

2 ( , -

) . , - , , , , . (, , ) . - - . , .

3 .

, - , , . , .

4

26 road pricing , . . , - , . , underpricing, . , , road pricing , , - . . , .

. . . ,

78

, , . , . , , , .

1.5. -

, , (. , ). ( )

. . . ,

79

1.6. -

, (. ,).

( . ) ,

, , . ,

, , .

Altshuler Alan. Current issues in transportation policy. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books,

1979.Bank of America et al. Beyond sprawl: new patterns of growth to fit the new California.

San Francisco, CA: Bank of America, 1995.Burchell Robert W. et al. Eastward Ho! Development futures: paths to more efficient growth

in Southeastern Florida. Report prepared by the Center for Urban PolicyResearch, Rutgers University, for the Florida Department of Community Affairs and the U.

S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999.Cisneros Henry G. (ed.). Interwoven destinies. New York: W. W. Norton / (The) Economist.

1996. Taming the beastliving with the car. 1993. June 22. P. 3-18.Federal Electric Railways Commission. Proceedings and final report. Washington, DC: U.

S. Government Printing Office, 1920.Johnson Elmer W. Avoiding the collision of cities and cars: urban transportation policy for

the twenty-first century. Chicago, IL: American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the AspenInstitute, 1993.

. . . ,

80

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RendellEdward G. The new urban agenda. Report issued by the Mayors Office. City ofPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania, 1994.

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. . . ,

81

2

, , . , - , -. , - ( ).

, , - , -. , , - , - . , - .

- . , , - , , - , , .

: ; , , ; . - : , , , , , . .

, , -, . () , , -. , . , - , , . , - . , , , - . , , , - .

, , - , . -, -

. . . ,

82

; , , . -. , .

, , , ;, , . -. , 1960- . [Buchanan, 1964;Fitch, 1964; Hollatz, Tamms, 1965], -, , . - .

, , , , , . - : , -, , . (, , , . .), ( , ), . , -, , -.

, - , , , , , . - , , -, , .

, , - , , -. ; - , , .

. . . ,

83

2.1. ( --

).( ) -

( , ), , . , , , , .

. . . ,

84

, . - , , , - . , - , . . , .

2.2.

. ( . ) ,

, , - - : - , , - . .

. . . ,

85

, , , , , - , :

- .

, , .

, , .

, .

: - .

, -- .

, , .

-

. , -, - , . , , , . , [Meyer, Kain and Wohl, 1965] - , - , , . , , , , .

, c - . [Ibid.] , 1960- . - . , , , - , . - BART27 -, - - ,

27 BARTBay Area Rapid Transit ( -). , , -, , , . , -, , . BART - . - BART MuniMetro. 1676- . heavy rail transit, . . . BART 167 , 43. BART , , - .

. . . ,

86

. , - .

? : , - ( ) , .

, , - . , , , . , . , -, . , . , - -, . .

, ( , !), -. - , - LRT28 .

, , - , . , ; - - , , - . LRT, LRT , .

, - , , , , - .

, , , (jitneys)29 -

28 Light Rail Transit (LRT) , - , . - LRT . , , .

29 Jitneys , , .

. . . ,

87

. , : , , , - .

, - , , , , . , , . ., , - [Ibid.], . - , -, .

. - . - , - , . , , , jitneys , , , - -. , - .

, . - . , - 30.

(GRT), 12- , - , .

, , PRT( - , ), . 1960- 1970- . (, , ), , - . : PRT . - : , - , ; - .

1990 . - (ITS)

30 , - . 1980- ., . . - .

. . . ,

88

20 40 . - , .

, , -, ; . - ITS -, , , , (VKT31). [Topp, 1995]. ITS , , , , : 500 40% . - IBM, AT&T, Rockwell - . ITS, , [Lowe, 1993]32.

, , , .

, - , - . - - -.

.

31 VKT vehicle-kilometers traveled.32 ITS, . ,

. , , - IBM (1930-2004) - , . .

. . . ,

89

,

, - , , - . , - .

, , , ,

, -, . , ( ) .

, , , - , , , . [Bovy, 1973], , . , , , 400 . -. : ; - ( ); , ( ), , , . , , - [Fruin, 1971].

2.3.

. . . ,

90

( ).

( . ), , , , -

, , , , , . , - , , - .

, . , -.

2.4. . ( . ), , -

, - , , , , . , ?

-. , , , - , . , , , -, . . , , , -

. . . ,

91

, - .

2.5. ,

, . ( . ) 1960- . , .

, , : , - .

, , . , , . . ; , , .

- , , , , , - . , -, .

- , ( ) : , -33. - ( ),

33 , : , , ; , ; ;

. . . ,

92

; - 34.

(), . . - , 35.

2.6. -

().( . ) , -

, , - - .

(, , ); - (, , . .).

34 ( ) .

35 , , , . (motorway). , : - ; ; . (expressway) , , - , , . . () - . , - , . , , . , (Ramp metering) (Egress capacity), . . - (Coordinated Freeway and Arterial Operations).

. . . ,

93

2.7. ISTEA -2136

(, ). ( ) (, , -

) , , - . - , , ; . - , , .

36 1991 . : (Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 ISTEA) 21- , (Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century). . : ISTEA TEA-2i.

. . . ,

94

2.8. ( )

(-, ).( )

. : - , 700 1400 . , , - . ( 1 --) . , - .

( !) . , - , - , , , . 37. .

, , ( 90 % ), , . , . , : , , - . -

37 . , - , (Crowdingand Increased Aggression) . American Dream.

. . . ,

95

( 67% ) 38. , , , (, , , , - ), , , 39.

, , - , . - .

, , , , . - , . , , 14- . , . - , : . 1,5 ; , , 0,5 . , (-, ), -- . , , - . , . ( -, ) , . , - ( 15 25 % ), - (, ) . , -, , , . 1980- 40, - .

38 . drivers license; driverspermit drivers privilege. , . . drivers rights, , . (civil rights) (property rights). : Driving is not a Right, Driving is aPrivilege.

39 2008 ., 304,06 208,32 , . . , , 31,5%. 2008 ., 14 21,7% . ( ), , 475 10 . - . , , 10% .

40 1981-1989 . - , . , , - , - . , - , , , , . .

. . . ,

96

, . , . , - , . . - , , .

, , , , , , , . . , , , , , - , , - , .

. -, , . , , -, , . - :

1. , . .

2. , - , - . , , , , . - , . . , .

: ; , , ; 41.

. , . . , , , . - , , , - . , , , , , - .

41 , , .

. . . ,

97

- , , . . , -, , - , , . , . - . - - . . , , : , - , .

. . . ,

98

2.9. ,

-; . ( )

, , , . - , , . . , , , - , ; , -

. . . ,

99

[Newman and Kenworthy,1989a; Newman, Kenworthy, Robinson, 1992]. , .

, -

. --, jitneys ( -), , , dial-a-ride ( ) , - . , , , , .

, . , , , . dial-a-ride , . .

. . . ,

100

,

- . , ( , ). -, , , , , .

(, , , ). , , . , -, ., , -. ( ), , - .

. , (,) ( - - ), ( -!) - 42.

- , , , . LRT. ( ), , -. , . LRT , (, ). - :

1. (ROW).2. ( ).3. (, , ) [Vuchic, 1981]. . -

, . , ,

42 rights-of-way (ROW) - , separate rights-of-way , - .

. . . ,

101

, . , . - - . , - . , , ( ) ( ), - .

, - , / , , , 43. - , ().

- , ,, (), O-Bahn ( - ) (), . - ( !) , .

, -, , - , , , , - . , 44; - . (BTS) , , , , .

43 positive fail-safe signal control, .

44 Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) -, . BRT - , 270 . - 45 , ( !) 32 /. , . BRT, Semi-Rapid Bus Systems ( ).

. . . ,

102

2.10. B

LRT. ( . ) ()

. LRT ( -), ( -) ( ). , - , , . - LRT LRRT19. - LRT, . , 8 - LRT. , LRT, , - , - .

, , U-Bahn, LRT , Shaker Rapid, - LRT ( ), , .

, (ROW) , , , -. - ROW. [Vuchic, 1981], ROW-, ROW-B ROW-.

ROW-. . - , . , , -

. . . ,

103

: -, , . , , , , , - , . , -, . . , -.

ROW-. . ( ) - .

2.11. (ROW-)

- . ( , - )

, . - ROW-B , , , , ROW-. - LRT. BTS ( , ) . LRT BTS ROW-B, ROW- ROW-.

ROW-. - , -. -

. . . ,

104

, . ROW- , , , , -, , . -: , , , - .

, ROW- (. . ) - . , -, - , , - . , , , -, .

, - , , , , , . , (. 2.1), , :

, - ( ROW-): - ;

( ROW-): - ;

( ROW-B): - .

. . . ,

105

.2.1. (ROW)

, (ROW) , - . . , . -, (ROW) , .

, ROW- ( , ), -, , - . , , - ( ) ROW-B ROW-. , - (, , LRT AGT45), - .

, , , , , , . ( ROW-) - : , .

, , . -

45 AGT (Automated Guideway Transit) . , , . . AGT - , , .

. . . ,

106

, - ( ). ( LRT, ), - . . 2.1 .

... - . , - , , -, LRT, , , .

. - (, , - ) . , , LRT, - .

, , - -. , - , - , .

2.12.

. . . ,

107

, 46. ( )

, - , , . - : .

, , - . - - ( . 2.2, ). , , - . , , . , , park-and-ride47 , - .

-, ( - ), . , ( . 2.2, b). - . , , - (HOV lane). - Shirley Corridor , . , . . . ( ), - ( vanpool)48. HOV lane.

( , NewJersey Transit, Chicago Metra MARC ) , - . , , . .

. 2.2 - .

46 HOV lane, . . , , , , . - . carpooling, , , .

47 park-and-ride : -, . - - .

48 ( . vanpooling) () - . .

. . . ,

108

. , .

, , , , ( ). - ; - . , - : - .

, , (, ). , - . , ( . 2.2, ). , , , .

.2.2. , () - ().

- . , , , - . , ,

. . . ,

109

, , , , - , , . , , . , , - , . , - , .

, , , , . . , , , -, .

. . . ,

110

,

. , . -. - - .

- , - . , - . .

, (),

(, ), (), , . , - , - . , . .

, - ( ) -. , - . , - , ( , - ).

, , , , - . - , . -, , , , , , - .

-: , . , (), () (), . :

. . . ,

111

; - . , , - .

(, , ) -

(, -, ) . -, . , , , (, ) . , . . , , . , 49.

, , . , - , , , -, , , , , . , 1996 ., .

- . -, , . .

- , , , . - .

(traffic calming) - . 1980- . , . - , - TOD ,

49 , 1980- . - , . . . Leeds Supertram network, -, . LRT, METRO Light Rail. Detroit People Mover(DPM), LRT .

. . . ,

112

50, - . 1950 1980- . , -, , , , . - : , , -. -, , , , .

, , , - [ITE, 1997], , , - 1950- . , , - - .

50 , - transit-oriented developmentTOD), - , . , , , - . , . ,, , TOD , - . , - TOD, . , .

. . . ,

113

-

. , , , .

, - , -. , , , , , . - ( , - , ..) , .

, , , , - . , , . .

, , . - , - . , - . , - - 51, , .

51 (840 1000 ) - . , , 18 (. . 18 100 ). , (, , , -, , ), 10 , , , , (100 ) ( 500 1000 ).

. . . ,

114

2.13.

( -). ( . ) , -

, , , . . , . - , [Burrington, 1994; Johnson, 1993].

, , . - -. , - ; - , , . - .

. . . ,

115

2.14. , 69 -, . (London Transport)

... 69 , ... . -

[Bruun, Vuchic, 1995]. -- ( -) . - - , , 1 . -, - . -, , - . , -, - - , , , , .

- - : ( , ); , . - .

4 (, ) . , -, 20, 15 30 / , 1,2, 60 1200 -. (30, 20 30 /), - (4 , 15 300 ). ( ); , , 100 200 .

, . 2.3. -

. . . ,

116

; - . . , - , , -, .

, , (, ). , . , .

. 2.3 , ( , , , ), - ( ) , - . , - , . () , .

. 2.4 , , - . 2.3, . - , , 8 , . -, , . 2.3, . ; - . , - , - , , . -. - , , 52.

, - . , - . . - , , , .

52 : , .

. . . ,

117

. 2.3. -, 4-- -.

25 --, , 60 , - .

, - . : , , , 20% , , - 53.

53 , , , . , 20%, 4 .

. . . ,

118

. 2.4. -, 8-- .

, 15 (. . 2.5, [Vuchic, 1981]). - , . 5 7 , - 15 20 15 20 ,. . . , . , , . .

.

, . 2.5 , 1,3; , , . 700 1800 . , 75 ( 35 ); 54.

54 -5256 3,33 1 2 .

. . . ,

119

40 , 1000 ; , , -, -, - 20 100 % . , - .

, . 2.5, , - , : 17 - 34,5 . (7 ), , , -.

, . LRT 8 . - .

. 2.5. , 15 [Vuchic, 1981]

* 23 2 1 1,3 -, i 30 2. - . - .

** : 100 , 36 ., , , ( ROW-) , , - .

*** 40 , 90 ., .

, , . ,

. . . ,

120

. : , - . , , , , , - .

, , -, , , , -, . - , , -, , . , , , , , , . - - . -, , , , , .

, , , , , - . -, , - . , , - : , - , .

- . , , - , ? - .

-, , , - - -: . -, , , , - , .-, [Transportation Research Board, 1998].

, -- , - . - [Bank of America et al., 1995; Cisneros, 1993; New South Wales Department of Transport,1993; Persky et al., 1991].

. . . ,

121

-

. , , , , . . - .

, , , , -, , , - , . , - , (IE). .

55 , , - , - [Wardrop, 1952]. - - . , , , (so), .

55 (John Wardrop, 1920-1989) -, - , - . , - . , . . .

. . . ,

122

. 2.6. - : ; - .

, , - , . , -, .

- ( ) 56 -, . 2.6. . - ( ) - , . - ( ) - , ; , , - . , , .

56 , - : , , , . - , , , , , .

. . . ,

123

. 2.7.

: , , , - , ? - . , ( -) ( -), . 2.7. , IE, . - , , . , , , , , . - tIE, IE.

, - DIE Di. : tIE tA, - tIE tT. , , ; , - IE.

. . . ,

124

. 2.8. ,

, - , , - D2. ; IE. , - : - .

, , D2 ( -, ), ( tA tT ). , - . , , (SO) IE, . . , - . , (SO) . , - :

1. , . , , , -, , , .

2. , . - , ( ), .

. 2.8 , - : -

. . . ,

125

T' , , '. - , , IE SO. , - . , , , .

, , -, 57, -, . - . .

(IE) (SO) - . , IE, , , , SO. , , , -.

, , -. , - . , , .

, , - , - . , - , . , - , .

, (IE) - (SO), . , : . , . . ; , - .

, IE SO, , ,

57 , - .

. . . ,

126

, , . , , . , .

, . , 58, . . , . -, , (HOV lane) , - 1976 . -. , ; , [Leman et al., 1994; Vuchic et al., 1995].

, . - , LRT ( ) -- ( ). , . . - , , -. , - , -, .

, , , - - (IE), (SO). , - . , . , - - .

58 , , . . , SingleOccupancy Vehicle (sov), . , , - , . (HOV lanes) , . . , (HOV), - .

. . . ,

127

, ,

: , -, . . , , .

. , , . , .

, , , , , , .

-

, - , .

, ( , ) . (-, , ) . -, , , - , . , - , , - ; , . , - , .

- : , -, , .

, - ( ) , () , . , , - .

. , -, . , , , . - ( , -, , -

. . . ,

128

. .) , , . - , . . - , , - .

, , -.

. - , . - . ( 20 90%) . , , , 1970-1990 . 3 5 . , , (. . , ), - , .

- , . , . - , - .

, , -. - , . , , . , , , . , . - , , (SOV).

. -- , , , . , -, , . - .

. . . ,

129

, , - , - , .

, ?

.

, - 59.

, - , 60.

- , - , . , - , ,61.

: [Holtzclaw, 1995; Pucher, 1995]. -

. - . 2.1. -

59 highway users pay their way, , .

60 Highway Trust Fund, (Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956), , (.Interstate HighwaySystem.). .

61 . , , -. , , , (Life-Cycle Agreements) - , Contract Administration Core Curriculum Participant'sManual and Reference Guide, . , , - .

. . . ,

130

( , . .), [ , () . .], (, , ). . 2.1 - , , , .

( ) , .

, , . , (-, , , ), , . , , , .

- , , , .

, , - : , . (), ( ), .

- 400 900 . - , , .

, , , . , . - . - - . , , - , , , .

, [OTA, 1994], 60% . 40% -, ( - ), ( , , , - 62 . .), , 63.

62 , : ; ; , , .

63 . (

. . . ,

131

-

, . , - , - . , , , .

. 2.9 , . , - .

, -. . . -- , - . , , , , , , . , -. , , .

, . : , , ( ); ( ), , , , , , .

) -, . . , . ( ) pollution charge congestion charge, . . , - , , .

. . . ,

132

* , .. 2.9. -

-

, ( ) , : . - .

, .

. , , . , - , . - . , , , - , - (. . - ), , .

, - , , , , . , , . -, , , . . - , , , .

. . . ,

133

2.15. : -

. ( . ) , ,

.

. 2.9, - , - , , . . , .

-, , , . , , , , , - , , , , . , , , .

. . . ,

134

2.16. , .

( , ) ,

. , , - -.

, , , . . , , 8 , , -, 1940- 1980- . - .

-, . , - , , -, , . (, , ) . , . , , , . , - . -

. . . ,

135

. , , . -64, , .

, , ; , , .

. - . , , - -, . , , .

. 2.10. : . .

64 Clean Air Act of 1963 Air Quality Act of 1967 .

. . . ,

136

. 2.11. . , -

; , -. : . .

. 2.9 , ,

, . , , .

. 2.10-2.13 . , - AAA [Urban Transportation Monitor, 1995], , [Litman, 1992, 1995] [Burrington, 1994].

, (, ), , , - . - , - , .

-, , , . , (, - 20 - , . .).

. . . ,

137

. , - , - , .

. , - , . 2.2.

2.2.

: . .

(, ) , -, . 2.10 2.12. (. 2.11 2.13) - , .

, , . , - , .

. 2.10 : , . - , - , - , - . , . , , , . - .

. 2.11 , . 2.10. , , -

. . . ,

138

: , - .

, . 2.10 2.11, , , , . . 2.11 , , , .

. 2.12 : - . , , . , - , , , . , , , , .

. 2.13 . - - . , , -, , . , - , - , . . , .

. 2.12.

. . . ,

139

: . .. 2.13. . ,

; , .

: . . -

.1. , -

, . , .

2. , , , , , . - (), , , .

3. , , . , , . : .

4. , - , , . , , .

. . . ,

140

5. - . - [Urban Transportation Monitor, 1995], - 13 % 87%. - -, , , - .

6. , - . , , , - , . , .

7. , - . - .

( - -, , , , - ) 92 % .

- - . . , - - .

, - , , 100 . : , 4420 ( 85 52 ), 15% . ?

- , , 100 : 85 , 15 ., , 15 % , - , , - , : . , 2 , , 15% ! , -, - - .

, . , . , - . , , . , , . , -, , , . , , , -

. . . ,

141

, .

, - , , , - . , - , , .

- - . , , , , . , - .

1995 ., , 28 . - , . , , - - , - . 3,7 65, . . .

- , - , . -, .

- , 3,7 , . , , 28 . , . - ? , , - : .

- - . , . - , , . (. 1). - , , , .

, . , - ( ) , - , - -

65 1995 . 1 ., 1 16 18 .

. . . ,

142

. 3,7 -, . . , - . , , 10 20 %, .

.

- , . , , , . , -, - , , -, -, , , - .

. ( ) , , .

, - ; . , - , , .

, , , , . , , , [Burchell, 1999].

. . . ,

143

, , - . , - , - .

. 2.14. -

, , , , , , - , : - .

. . . ,

144

- .

, , , , -, : ( ). , . 2.14:

IV : : , , . III : : -

, , . II : - , ,

. . I : , -

, , 66, . .

, , - .

IV . - , , - (). . , , , , () , . .

III , IV, , - . - , . . , - .

II - , . , - . , ISTEA, - . ( ) .

, -

66 housing, , -, , , .

. . . ,

145

, , . , - , . -, , , , - .

, , , . -, , , - . . -, . 5.

I . , , , , (. . 2.14). , . . , , - - , . I - . - - .

I, . ( ,, , ) - - - (67).

67 (Metropolitan Planning Organizations ) . - , . ( , , , ), - , . - , , , - , , .

. . . ,

146

. 2.15. -

- , - , , -. , , I , -, .

. - . 2.15. IV III - . II , , - , . , I , . . , , .

- [Weyrich, Lind, 1996]: , . , , , , , .... , (

. . . ,

147

) , . , . , , , . -, .

- . , ISTEA II, . . . - (. . I). - , . . IV III.

, [Department of Transport,1984], , - . , III ( ), . , - , II I.

. 2.16. -

68, . .,

68 , 1980- . , , . . , - , -. ,

. . . ,

148

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, .

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1. , - . , , , .

2. , . , , .

3. . - , , - ( ) , .

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5. , . . , - - . - - .

6. , - , (ROW), .

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150

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81 3C- Continuing, Comprehensive, Cooperative.82 .

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