ΤΕΧΝΟΛΟΓΙΑ ΥΠΟΛΟΓΙΣΤΙΚΩΝ ΣΥΣΤΗΜΑΤΩΝ
TRANSCRIPT
rc pantj rgou mgiston , 377a.
, , . , , , . , . . , , , ( ) . , . : () () . , 1 , . 2 , , . 3 , , , . , . 4 , , , . 5 , , , . 6 , . 7 , . , . 8
, . 9 , . 10 , . , , , Microsoft DOS, Microsoft Windows UNIX. , , . , . , . , . . . . . , .
, 1999
1: .......................... 11.1 ............................................................ 3
2: ..................... 112.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 ................................................................................................................ 13 ....................................................................................... 19 ................................................................................................. 31 , , Video .............................................................................. 35
3: ........................ 433.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 ........................................................................................................... 45 ....................................................................................................................... 51 ..................................................................................................................... 63 ......................................................... 71 ............................................................................................................ 77
4: ......................................................... 874.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 ................................................................................... 89 ......................................................................................................................... 95 ............................................................................................... 99 ................................................................................................................. 105
5: .............................................. 1135.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 .................................................................................. 115 .......................................................................................................... 121 ..................................................................................... 127 ................................................................................................ 133 ..................................................................................................... 139 .............................................................................. 143
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6: ......................................... 1516.1 6.2 6.3 ........................................................ 153 ...................................................................... 161 ................................................................................... 165
7: - ............................ 1737.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 ............................................................................................................ 175 .......................................................................................... 181 ............................................................................................................ 187 .......................................................................... 191 ........................................................................................................................... 195
8: ................ 2038.1 8.2 .................................................................................................................. 205 ............................................................................................ 209
9: ........... 2219.1 9.2 ................................................................................................................... 223 ................................................................................... 231
10: ......... 23910.1 ..................................................................................................................... 241
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1 , .
, : . . .
1.1
1
1.1
1.1
, .
, :
;
(hardware) (software).
(hardware) . , , , .
(software) , . , , . (system software) (application software). ( ) , .
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&
.
. , . . . , . , , . .
6 5 4 3 2 1
(.. , )
(.. Pascal, C)
/
-
: AND, OR, Flip-Flops,
4
1.1
1, 2 3 .
1
1, (gates), . , , . 1 (logical circuits), , flip-flops, .. 2 (microoperations) (.. ). 1. 3 . 2.
2
3
4, 5 6 , , , . , , . 3 4.
(.. ) , , , , , . (Integrated Circuit, IC). (chip). , . , . TTL (Transistor ransistor Logic, ) ECL (Emitter Coupled Logic, ). CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor, MOS ) . (gates). bits (.. 5 Volt 1 0 Volt 0) . AND () 1 1, 0.
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, . , : 1. 2. (Small Scale Integration, SSI). (5-10) . (Medium Scale Integration, MSI). 10-100 , ( .. ). (Large Scale Integration, LSI), 100 ( ). (Very Large Scale Integration, VLSI) ( ).
3.
4.
, : , , , , .
J. Von Neumann (1945). , Von Neumann (stored program) (program counter), . Charles Babbage .
1
(1946-1953) . O ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer), 1946 . 701. . , , . (1952-1963) (Transistors). TRADIC 1954 Bell, . , , , FORTRAN, ALGOL COBOL, . . (1962-1975) (SSI) (MSI). , (. . 4), , . . CDC-7600, IBM 360/91, IIliac IV .
2
3
6
1.1
. -. (1972-) (LSI VLSI) . , , . (Supercomputers), Cray T3-E, MPP . . , , (VLSI) . ( ). , .
4
5
, , : vLv (personal computers) . (notebook, laptop, desktop, tower, workstations, network computer). (servers). , . (microcomputers), , (embedded systems). - (minicomputers) , . . (mainframes) . , , . (supercomputers) , , , .. .
vLv
vLv
vLv
, .
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, , , . , . . , . , . , -, . .
Flip-Flop
MOS - - Von Neumann
Stored Program Server Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor - CMOS Large Scale Integration - LSI Medium Scale Integration MSI Small Scale Integration - SSI Very Large Scale Integration - VLSI Emitter Coupled Logic - ECL Transistor ransistor Logic - TTL Logical Circuit Software Applications Software Systems Software Mainframe Program Counter Microoperation Microcomputer Minicomputer Integrated Circuit - IC Personal Computer Gate Hardware Supercomputer Computer System Chip
? ; ? ; ? ;
? 4 5 ;
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1
, , . . . , . , , .
., . , . , , , 1987. Hayes J., Computer Architecture and Organization, McGraw-Hill, 1988. Mano M., Computer system Architecture, Prentice-Hall, 1982. Patterson D., Hennessy J. Computer Organization & Design, The Hardware/Software Interface, Morgan Kaufmann, 1994.
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2
2 0 1.
, : . , . . , video 0 1.
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
, , Video
11
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2.1
2.1
.
: . .
;
. , , (decimal) (binary).
:m 1
N=
i = n
i
i
= m 1 m 1 + m 2 m 2 + ... + 1 1 + 0 0 + 1 1 + 2 2 + ... + n n
i . i i , (order) i i. 1. N m , i 0 m-1 n, i -1 -n . 19,278 110 + 0 -1 -2 -3 910 + 210 + 710 + 810 , 1=1, 0=9, -1=2, -2=7, -3=8. , 0 -1. m m , 0 -1, m .1
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2 ( ), 8 ( , octal system),10 ( ) 16 ( , hexadecimal system). . To 16 , 10 (0-9). 6 A-F, A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14 F=15. , 6F3 6162 + 15161 + 3160 , , .. 15 1101+5100. , . . 321 . 321(10) 3102+2101+1100, 321(8) 382+281+180. 321(16) 3162+2161+1160. 1101(2) , 123 + 122 + 021 + 120. bits (binary digits, ). (Most Significant Bit, MSB), , (Least Significant Bit, LSB), .
: m-1m-1 + + 11 + 00 + -1-1 + + -n-n. 10011(2) 124 + 023 + 022 + 121 + 120 = 16+2+1 = 19(10). 7123,35(8) 783 + 182 + 281 + 380 + 38-1 + 58-2 = 3584 + 64 +16 + 3 + 0,375 + 0,0781 = 3667,4531(10). FC27(16) 15163 + 12162 + 2161 + 7160 = 61440 + 3072 + 32 + 7 = 64551(10).
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2.1
. . , . : (1) , . 0 -1 . (2) , . ( 0 -1) . (3) (2) 0. =53(10) (=2): 53 26 13 6 3 1 0 53 2 26 2 13 2 6 2 3 2 1 2 26 13 6 3 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 01 101 0101 10101 110101
10
53(10) = 110101(2)
312 : 312 39 4 0 312 8 39 8 4 8 39 4 0 0 7 4 0 70 470
312(10) = 470(8)
, . , N . : (1) . (2) . . ( 0 -1) . 15
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(3) ( 0 -1) . (4) . (5) (3), (4) 0 N . 0,625(10) : 0,625 0,25 0,5 0 0,625 2 = 1,25 0,25 2 = 0,5 0,5 2 = 1 1 0 1 0,25 0,5 0 0,1 0,10 0,101
0,625(10) = 0,101(2)
0,171875(10) : 0, 171875 0,75 0 0,171875 16 = 2,75 0,75 16 = 12 2 12 0,75 0 0,2 0,2C
0,171875(10) = 0,2C(16)
0,4(10) . 5 . 0,4 0,2 0,6 0,8 0,4 0,2 0,4 8 = 3,2 0,2 8 = 1,6 0,6 8 = 4,8 0,8 8 = 6,4 0,4 8 = 3,2 3 1 4 6 3 0,2 0,6 0,8 0,4 0,2 0,3 0,31 0,314 0,3146 0,31463
0,4(10) 0,31463(8)
M 0, . M, 4 M 0,4. , 0,31463146(8) 0,3146(8). , M 0, (truncation) . , (rounding). . , , 16
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2.1
0,4(10) , 5 . 1, 4 ( ), . =3 , 4 6 > 4. 3 1, 0,315(8). , . 1 2 : 1 , 2. , . . , , 8 16, 2. , , . , . . , . , 1011011001,110111(2) . , . . .. 0010 2, 1101 13 D. 2D9,DC(16). , , . . .. 111 7 (122 + 12 + 1 = 4+2+1 = 7) . 1331,67(8).
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. 1331,67(8).4 3 F
,
2
5
0100
0011
1111
,
0010
0101
, 43F,25(16) . .. 4 0100 4. 10000111111,00100101(2).
4
5
6
7
4567,02(8) , , 0 2 100101110111,000010(2).
100
101
110
111
,
000
010
( ) .
. , , . , . . , .
Truncation Decimal System Hexadecimal System Binary System Binary Digit - Bit Least Significant Bit - LSB Octal System Most Significant Bit - MSB Rounding Order
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? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ;
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2.2
2.2
.
: ASCII
;
. , . n bits, , bits . xnxn-1xix1 ynyn-1yiy1 , x1+y1, z1 K1. x2, y2 1 z2 K2, . i-1 xi yi Ki-1 xi+yi+ . xi yi Ki i-1 Ki-1 0 0 0 0 0 xi yi, i 0 0 1 1 0 xi+1 yi+1. 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 n bits 3 bits, 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 . . 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
xi-yii-10 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
i0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
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43 15, . 43 101011(2) 15 001111(2).1 0 1 0 1 1
+0 0 1
+0 1 1
+1 1 1
+1 1 0
+1 1 1
+1
0
. 111010(2) 58. 43-15 :1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 1 1
1 0 1
1 0 0
1
0
011100(2) 28. . . 22(10) = 10110(2) 11(10) = 1011(2).
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
, 1 1 0 ( 10110) ( 1011) 1 0 10110 . 0 1011 , , . 0 1 0 (left shift) : 2.
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2.2
(words), n bits ( n 8). n (word length) . . 2 , 0 2 -1. n , bit ( MSB) , . 0, , 1 bit 1 . -1 , . 01110010(2) 00000001(2) , 11110010(2) 11100001(2) . bit ( ) 0, n-1 bits , . n-1 n-1 bits 2 -1, . 8, 23 00010111. bit , bits 23. 8 bits 8-1 7 01111111, 127 (2 -1 = 2 -1 = 128-1). n-1 bits: 1 2
n-1 bits
2.
2 , . 1, . 2 n ( ). 2 , 0 1 1 0 1. 2, : , 0 1 1 0 1.
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, 1 . 2 -17 16 bits, (17) , 0000000000010001. 0 1 1 0 , 1111111111101110. 1. 1111111111101111. 11100110 2 . 00011001. 1, 00011001 + 1 = 00011010. 00011010(2) = 26(10) -26. n bits :0 1 1 1 1 1 n-1 bitsn-1
1
1
1
2 -1 n bits :1 0 0 0 0 0 n-1 bits 0 0 0
2. 011111111(2) n-1 1, 10000000(2) = 2 . n-1 -2 . 2 , : n-1 n-1 (2 ) (2 -1). n-1 , 2 , .
2 2 . 2 0 1 1 0, 1. 2 . 2, 10.
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2.2
2 : , , . . 00010101 21 + 00110011 51 01001000 72 11001010 -54 + 01000100 68 100001110 14 00010010 18 + 10001101 -115 10011111 -97 11111101 -3 + 11110010 -14 111101111 -17
, bit, 11001010(2) + 01000100 (2) = 100001110 (2). bit . , 11111101(2) + 11110010 (2) = 111101111 (2). bits . (overflow) . 10010010 + 11011111 1 01110001 -110 -33
113
-110 -33, -143, 8 bits, 8 bits -128. , , .
.
, , . n bits , n1 bits n2 , n1 + n2 = n n , . (fixed point representation). 8 , 5 3 . 2.
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01111,111 15,875. 10000,000 -16. 0 ( 0 , 00000,000) : 00000,001(2) = 0,125 11111,111(2) = -0,125 .
. 01001,110(2) = 9,75 10010,001(2) = -13,875 11011,111(2) = -4,125 . (floating point representation).
= 2 (mantissa). . (exponent).
(exponential representation), 2.
101,011(2) : 0,101011 2 1,01011 2 10,1011 22 1 3
= 0,101011, = 1,01011, = 10,1011,
= 3(10) = 11(2) = 2(10) = 10(2) = 1(10) = 1(2)
: . 1023 .. 3 2 6 1,023 10 , 10,23 10 , 0,001023 10 . . , < 1 (normal form). 1, : 0. , . 1. , , -1 (=2 ), -1 2 .
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2.2
101,011(2) 3 , 0,101011 2 . 0,000100(2) 0,100 2 . , < 1. , n1 n2 , , .-3
n1 . n1 , , n1 , . (rounding), , , 1, 1 . n2 .
, : 0, 1 . , , , . , . , . 1 2, 1 < 2, 1 2-1 2-1 . , , . . . . 8 4 , x = 16,125(10) 5 0,10000001 2 y = 4,3125(10) 3 0,1000101 2 . , y. 2 2 .
x = 0010110000001 y = 0001110001010
y = 0010100100010
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x+y = 0010110100011
. , . 5 0,10100011 2 , 20,375. 20,4375. y x. .
(121) (222) = (12) 21+2 (121) / (222) = (1/2) 21-2
. , . , . , , .
n1 n2 . 5 3 , 0 : 000000001 = 0,03125(10) () 111111111 = -0,03125(10) () , 0. : 011111111 = 0,968752 = 124(10) 100000001 = - 0,968752 = -124(10) . , (.. ). , , , .7 7
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2.2
, , , , . (characters). , . 8 16 bits. . . . . 1 A 00110100, 2 , 1 2, !
- (character set) . , , . 01000001, 65, 65. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), 7 bits . 8 bit bit (parity bit) bits 1: , 8 bit 1, 0. bit . 0110101(2) bits 1, bit 0, 00110101. 1001111(2) bits 1, bit 1, 11001111. ASCII 8 bits (.. ). 32 ASCII, 0-31 (non printable) , .
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10 , 12 . ASCII 8 bits -928. 1 bit ( 127). - -928:33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63
! " # $ % & ' ( ) * + , . / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ?
64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94
@ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^
95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125
_ ` a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z { | }
126 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191
~
192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223
224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254
Unicode 256 ASCII , , Unicode, 16 bits. 65536 , .
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2.2
65536 Unicode , . 256 , , ASCII. Unicode 880(10) 975(10). 3584(10) 3711(10). Unicode, , . , ( ). Unicode, . ASCII, ASCII . ( : 880(10) 1328(10) 4256(10) 975(10) 1423(10) 4351(10)
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. 2, . , , , . , , . 8 16 , ASCII.
Bit
Parity Bit Exponent Exponential Representation Normal Form Word Word Length Fixed Point Representation Floating Point Representation Character Set Mantissa Rounding Overflow Character
? ;
? 2 ; ? -17 16bits 2 ;
? ;
? ; ? ; ? 2 2;
? ;
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2.3
2.3
.
, :
;
(compression) , , . . , , . , (decmpression, extraction) . . , , (lossy) (lossless) .
(compression algorithm) .
, , . , . , , , . , modem, . . , , , video,
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(, ), . .
RLE RLE (Run Length Encoding) . , bytes . , .A A A B B B E E E A A
RLE 3 A 3 B 3 E 2 A 3 D
DDD RLE, 3A3B3E2A3D, 10 14 .D D D
. ABCDE 5 bytes RLE, 1A1B1C1D1E, 10. , . , o RLE . . , , , RLE 2 . , (, ), .
Huffman D. Huffman 1952 . RLE. ASCII, byte, ASCII . Unicode, 2 bytes . bytes 1 2 bytes ( ). Huffman, . , , , 2-3 bits 8 16.
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2.3
Huffman : 1 2: 3: 4: '0' '1' : , '0' '1' . . () , , 0 1 .
A. 1,2: . {,,,} ( ). 3: , : ( ) . , , . . . , , , . 4: 0 1, -. , 58=40 bits, : 1000110111, 11 bits, 4 . , , , . , . , ( ) , 1000110111. 1. . 0. A 10, 10 . 0, 0 . .
LZW , , , .
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(.. 256 2 bytes ), 2 bytes 5 bytes . LZW, J. Ziv A. Lempel 1977, T. Welch 1984. () . , , . , . , , . . LZW . zip LZW.
O . . , . , , . RLE, o Huffman LZW.
Huffman LZW RLE
Compression Algorithm Decompression-Extraction Lossy Algorithm Lossless Algorithm Compression Reference Table
34
? ; ? ; ? . . ? RLE. ? Huffman. ? LZW.
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2.4
2.4
, , Video
, video.
, : video
;
, (sampling). , , . , Shannon. 20Hz 20Hz. , 40.000 . (rate) (sampling frequency), . . , . , bits (number of bits), , . , , . 35
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(quantization) . bits , . (Pulse Code Modulation). CD 16 bits (2 bytes) 44,1 Kz ( ) . (2 ) CD 176.400 bytes/ 50MB. , . 4-5KHz ( 11Hz) 1 byte . 1 5 /16 50. .. 8 bits. . , , bits, 2-3 8. H (Differential Pulse Code Modulation). - (Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation) .wav Windows. , . , . . , , . MPEG-3 (otion Picture Expert Group) 12 . .mp3 . , .. , 100 .
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2.4
(pixels). . . 256 256 , 65.536 . , bit: 0 1 . , 65.536 bits 8.192 bytes. , 1 bit . , 16 16 , 1616=256 . byte (8 bits). A, , 640480, 307.200 3 bytes=24bit , 921.600 bytes. , (bitmap, BMP). To (. bytes ). RLE , , . RLE , ( 2.3). T PCX TIFF. LZW , .. . , , , , 2.3, bit . T GIF. T, , , 100-200 , . JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group). . JPEG , . , , JPEG , , . 10 20 , .
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bits, . .. , . . . (CAD Computer Aided Design). O
Video video . , . video . , . 20 / . 24 ( ) , 25 / ( PAL ) 30 / (NTSC ).
video . 640480 24 bits , 920 , video 25 24 . 90 24MB/sec 60sec/min 90min 3500 GB!! . . video, , JPEG. , 350GB . ,
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2.4
, . , . . , . , . . . (motion estimation algorithm). . (blocks). H . , , , . MPEG-2. video , 25 30 .
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, . . MPEG-Layer III (.mp3). H . . (.. JPEG), . video , . video , , , .
-
Motion Estimation Algorithm Sampling Differential Pulse Code Modulation Frame Quantization BMP- Bitmap GIF - Graphics Interchange Format JPEG - Joint Picture Expert Group MPEG - Motion Picture Expert Group Pulse Code Modulation Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation Rate Sampling Frequency Pixel
? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ;
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2
0 1. .. 2. 8 16 , . O . . H . video , .
., . , . , , , 1987. Hayes J., Computer Architecture and Organization, McGraw-Hill, 1988. Patterson D., Hennessy J. Computer Organization & Design, The Hardware/Software Interface, Morgan Kaufmann, 1994.
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3
3 , , , .
, : . . . . . .
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
43
3.1
3.1
, .
, :
;
: - (arithmetic logical unit - ALU) (memory unit) - (Input-Output I/ unit) (control unit).
- (Central Processing Unit - CPU) (processor). , , .
/
, . 45
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, . , byte (registers).
- : , , , , .. (OR), (AND). , .. (shift) .
. , . , , . . , , (), . (input data), (output data) (program). / . , .. . . , . Von Neumann 1947. .
- - , , . :
46
3.1
- . (accumulator), . ((x+1)/5)*3 + y x, x+1, (x+1)/5, ((x+1)/5)*3, ((x+1)/5)*3 + y.
-
- - .
, 0 1. (memory positions) (word), . (word length) 2. . , 2. , . (address). m , m 0 2 -1. 2 , 10 0 2 -1 = 1023. 10 bits, 10- . , : (memory data register - MDR) . , MDR . 10
MDR
MAR
(memory address register MAR) . , MAR .
2m
MAR
MDR
, MDR MAR. 47
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. (write) . , . . , MAR . , MDR, . (read). . H .
- - , . , / , , , . / (buffers).
/ , . , . , - , ( ). , - .
, . K (instruction register - IR). , , . IR . (program counter PC, instruction counter). . IR,
PC IR
48
3.1
1 . k 2 , PC k. , ns, ( ). . .
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: - - . - , . - /, , , , . - . - .
- K - -
Read Buffer Arithmetic Logical Unit - ALU Input Data Output Data Address Write Processor Memory Position Register Memory Data Register - MDR Memory Address Register - MAR Instruction Register - IR Central Processing Unit - CPU Word OR AND Program Counter - PC Instruction Counter Input/Output I/ Unit Control Unit Memory Unit Shift Program Accumulator
50
? ; ? - ; ? ; ? /; ? ; ? ; ? MAR MDR; ? ; ? .
3.2
3.2
.
, :
;
, . , . 16 bits. - . 2.
:
, . , . , . . .
, (phases) (cycles): ( ) (fetch phase cycle). . ( ) (execution phase cycle), .
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, PC MAR ( ). ( ) MAR, , MDR ( ). , IR ( ).
MAR
MDR
IR PC
IR, PC 1, . . IR , .
. IR (decoder) . . . - . , , ( STOP). , .
, . , 16 bits.15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
n1 = 4 bits
n2 = 12 bits
, . (instruction code) n1 bits (address part) n2 bits n1 + n2 . , .
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3.2
, 16 bits, n1 = 4 bits n2 = 12 bits . , (instruction set). n1 bits . n1 bits , 2 n1 . n1=4 bits, 4 2 =16. . , . , , , , - . , n2, , . 0011000000001101 , 0011 000000001101(2). , , 1101(2) = 13(10).
. . , , . (memory reference instructions). , . : () ()
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0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110
To . To () () . () ()+() . . () ()-() . . () ()() . . () ():() . , . () ()
0010000000000010 0001 000000000010(2) = 2(10). 2 . 0100000000000110 0100 000000000110(2) = 6(10). 6 . 6 . .
000000000000 000000000001 000000000010 000000000011 000000000100 000000000101 000000000110 000000000111 000000001000 000000001001 000000001010 000000001011 000000001100
0001 0011 0010 0000
000000001010 000000001011 000000001100 000000001000
, 0(10) - 3(10). 0: 0001 1010(2) = 10(10). 10(10). 1: 0011 1011(2) = 11(10). 11(10).
.
0000000010000000 0000000010000101 0000000000000000
2: 0010 1100(2) = 12(10). 12(10). 3: 0000, , STOP. - . , , PC, IR A 0.
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3.2
PC IR. PC 1. (0001(2)) IR () (N), () (1010(2)). 1010(2) : 1) = 000000001010 MAR . 2) MDR. 3) MDR 0000000010000000(2) .
(PC) = 000000000001 (IR) = 0001000000001010 (A) = 0000000000000000
0
(PC) = 000000000001 (IR) = 0001000000001010 4 (A) = 0000000010000000
PC IR. PC 1. (0011(2)) IR () ()+(N), () ()+(1011(2)). : 1) = 000000001011 MAR . 2) MDR. 3) MDR 0000000010000101(2) - . 0000000100000101(2) - . 4) .
(PC) = 000000000010 (IR) = 0011000000001011 (A) = 0000000010000000
1
(PC) = 000000000010 (IR) = 0011000000001011 5 (A) = 0000000100000101
PC IR. PC 1. (0010(2)) IR () (), (1100(2)) (). 1100(2) : 1) = 000000001100 MAR . 2) 0000000100000101 (2) MDR. 3) MDR .
(PC) = 000000000011 (IR) = 0010000000001100 (A) = 0000000100000101
2
(PC) = 000000000011 (IR) = 0010000000001100 4 (A) = 0000000100000101
PC IR. PC 1.
(0000(2)) IR STOP. . .
(PC) = 000000000100 (IR) = 0000000000001000 (A) = 0000000100000101
1100(2) = 12(10) 0000000100000101(2). . 000000000000 000000000011 , 000000001010 000000001100 . . 55
3
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PC 000000001011, , .
, . STOP STOP 0000 .
, 12 , 2 = 4096. 1 2ms , 4096 2ms = 8,192s . . ; . , , . (jump instructions) , . : ) IR0111 000000001011
(unconditional jump instruction) 0111. IR PC. , . .
000000001011
PC
000000000000 000000000001 000000000010 000000000011
0111 0000 0111 0000
000000000010 000000001011 000000000000 000000001000
, . 0.
1
2ms . .
56
3.2
000000000000, 1, 000000000001. 0111 000000000010. PC IR, 000000000010. PC 000000000010. . PC , . ) (conditional jump instruction) 1000. 1 000000000001011 , IR 1000 000000001011 . ( bit , bit PC 000000001011 , 1), , . 0 , bit 0, . , 20(10) = 10100(2) 50(10) = 110010(2) .
0 IR
000000000001011 000000001011
1000
PC
000000110000
20 , 0. , , 50 . : 0: 0001 10100(2) = 20(10). 20.
000000000000 000000000001 000000000010 000000000011 000000000100 000000000101 000000000110 000000000111
0001 1000 0010 0000 0001 0100 0111 0000
000000010100 000000000100 000000110010 000000001000 000000000111 000000010100 000000000010 000000000000
000000010100
0000000010000000
000000110010 0000000000000000 1: 1000 100(2) = 4(10). , , 4, .
57
&
2: 0010 110010(2) = 50(10), 50. 3: 0000, STOP. 4: 0001 111(2) = 7(10). 7 , 0. 0. 5: 0100 ( 0) 20, . 6: 0111 0010 10(2) = 2(10), 2.
PC IR. PC 1.
(PC) = 000000000001 (IR) = 0001000000010100 (A) = 0000000000000000 (PC) = 000000000001 (IR) = 0001000000010100 5 (A) = 0000000010000000
0
(0001(2)) IR () (N), () (10100(2)). 10100(2) .
PC IR. PC 1.
(PC) = 000000000010 (IR) = 1000000000000100 (A) = 0000000010000000 (PC) = 000000000010 (IR) = 1000000000000100 6 (A) = 0000000010000000
1
(1000(2)) IR . bit 0, .
PC IR. PC 1.
(PC) = 000000000011 (IR) = 0010000000110010 (A) = 0000000010000000 (PC) = 000000000011 (IR) = 0010000000110010 5 (A) = 0000000010000000
2
(0010(2)) IR () (), (110010(2)) (). 110010(2) .
PC IR. PC 1.
(PC) = 000000000100 (IR) = 0000000000001000 (A) = 0000000010000000
3
(0000(2)) IR STOP. .
50 0000000010000000, 20 .
58
3.2
20 , .. -14(10) = 1111111111110010(2).
PC IR. PC 1.
(PC) = 000000000001 (IR) = 0001000000010100 (A) = 0000000000000000 (PC) = 000000000001 (IR) = 0001000000010100 6 (A) = 1111111111110010
0
(0001(2)) IR () (N), () (10100(2)). 10100(2) .
PC IR. PC 1. (1000(2)) IR . bit 1, . IR PC, 4 2 .
(PC) = 000000000010 (IR) = 1000000000000100 (A) = 1111111111110010 (PC) = 000000000100 (IR) = 1000000000000100 7 (A) = 1111111111110010
1
PC IR. PC 1.
(PC) = 000000000101 (IR) = 0001000000000111 (A) = 1111111111110010 (PC) = 000000000101 (IR) = 0001000000000111 6 (A) = 0000000000000000
2
(0001(2)) IR () (), ()) (111(2). 111(2) .
PC IR. PC 1. (0100(2)) IR () (A) - (), () (A) -(10100(2). 10100(2) 0, . .
(PC) = 000000000110 (IR) = 0100000000010100 (A) = 0000000000000000 (PC) = 000000000110 (IR) = 0100000000010100 7 (A) = 0000000000001110
3
PC IR. PC 1.
(PC) = 000000000111 (IR) = 0111000000000010 (A) = 0000000000001110 (PC) = 000000000010 (IR) = 0111000000000010 8 (A) = 0000000000001110
4
(0111(2)) IR . IR PC.
PC IR. PC 1.
(PC) = 000000000011 (IR) = 0010000000110010 (A) = 0000000000001110 (PC) = 000000000011 (IR) = 0010000000110010 9 (A) = 0000000000001110
5
(0010(2)) IR () (), (110010(2)) (). 110010(2) .
59
&
PC IR. PC 1.
(PC) = 000000000100 (IR) = 0000000000001000 (A) = 0000000000001110
6
(0000(2)) IR STOP. .
50 0000000000001110(2) = 14(2), 20 .
(shift instructions). (shift left instruction) 1011. , . bits. 1101001110001111 1011 000000000100 ( 4 ), 0011100011110000. bits 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0 bits
0
16 , . (shift right instruction) 1100. , . bits. 1101001110001111 1100 000000000100 ( 4 ), 0000110100111000.
.60
3.2
- , - ( /). : , , , , . /. , , / (input /output instructions I/O instructions). (output instruction) 1001. bit , , 0, 7 bits (bits 0-6) ASCII. bit 1, 3 bits (bits 0-2) . 0000000000100011, 1001000000000000 0100011, %. 1001000000000001 bits 011, 3. / (input instruction) 1010. . , / ASCII. bit : bit , , 0, 7 bits / 7 bits . bit , , 1, 3 bits / 3 bits . .
E/E bit , .
61
&
IR
1010
000000000000
IR
1010
000000000001
1010000000000000, . , ASCII 65(10), 7 bits 1000001(2). 1010000000000001, 4, 3 bits 100(2) = 4.
0000000001000001
0000000000000100
.
, . 13 , ( ), , -.
/
Decoder Jump Instruction Conditional Jump Instruction Unconditional Jump Instruction Memory Reference Instruction Input /Output Instruction I/O Instruction Input Instruction Output Instruction Shift Instruction Shift Left Instruction Shift Right Instruction Cycle Instruction Code Address Part Phase Fetch Phase Cycle Execution Phase Cycle
o
? ;
? ;
? ; ? ;
62
3.3
3.3
.
, : . . .
;
. (machine language). . , . 0001 (LoaDs) (Accumulator) . LDA. , . A 000000100101(2) IN_NUM, 0001 000000100101 LDA IN_NUM. , (assembly language). , , . , (assembler). , , ( ), .
63
&
. , (pseudo instructions). , . : HLT LDA STA ADA SBA MLA DVA JMP JAN OUT INP SAL SAR = = = = = = = = = = = = = HaLT LoaD A STore to A ADd to A SuBtract from A MuLtiply A DiVide A JuMP Jump if A is Negative OUTput INPut Shift A Left Shift A Right 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 STOP () () () () () () + () () () - () () () * () () () / () (PC) (PC) () < 0
:
START
LDA
NUM
: .
64
3.3
: . . : . , . , . STA 10 10. SUM, STA SUM SUM. . SUM, LDA SUM+1. , . , , . JMP START START, JMP START+1 START. * . : MLA LDA JMP 10 SUM *-2 56.
, 2 , MLA 10. -, , bit , . 0 1. : INP 1
.
65
&
. SAR 12 12 . : , , , . . , , . STA 17
, . . .
CON
NAM ( name = ). . NAM ABS ( absolute = ). , CON ( constant = ). , , . . DATA CON 0,8,27 , 0, 8 27 . DATA, DATA+1 DATA+3. LDA DATA+1, DATA+1, 8. , . RES ( reserve = , ).
RES66
3.3
RES , . , . SUM RES 2 . , STA SUM, STA SUM+1. END. . , END.
END
END HLT. . . , . CON NUM, RES ABS. .
NAM 0
ABSOLUTE_VALUE NUM 32
NUM ZERO ABS START
CON CON RES LDA JAN STA HLT LDA SBA JMP END
32 0 1 NUM NEG ABS ZERO NUM STORE START START 0 1
STORE NEG
67
&
O : .
(loop). , (infinite loop). , , bit bit. bit , . 16 bit .
INP SAL SAR
1 15 15
, 1 bit, , . , , 15 ( ) 15 , bit . 0010000001010001 3(8)=011(2) , 0010000001010011. 15 , 1000000000000000. 15 , 0000000000000001, bit. NUM. NUM 0. , COUNTER, , 16 , bits . COUNTER 0. , : 1: 2: 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: 8: 9: NUM. 1, bit. NUM. bit . NUM bit , . NUM. COUNTER . 1 . COUNTER.
68
3.3
10: 16 . 11: , , , 13. 12: , , 1. 13: STOP. :
NAM NUM COUNTER ONE REPS START CON CON CON CON LDA SAL STA INP SAL SAR ADA STA LDA ADA STA SBA JAN FINISH END HLT START
READ_NUMBER
0 0 1 16 NUM 1 NUM 1 15 15 NUM NUM
1,
1-3:
4: bit
5,6: bit NUM
COUNTER ONE COUNTER REPS START 7-9: 1 10: 16 , 16,
69
&
, , . , . , , .
Infinite Loop Machine Language Assembly Language Assembler Pseudo Instruction
? ; ? LDA, STA, DVA; ? JMP, JAN; ? ; ? NAM; ? CON RES; ? ;
70
3.4
3.4
.
, : ,
;
, :
, bits. .. 100101 101001 , , . , . , , . . , .
, , . . , . , .
71
&
. . , (high level programming languages). , -, . .
, , . . (translators), . : . (assemblers) . , : (1) (2) (3) . , . B. (compilers) . . , . , . . (interpreters) . , , .
: 72
3.4
. . , . , . , . Pascal, C++ Ada, Sparc Sun, Pentium Intel Alpha DEC, . . : , . . , ( ) . (lexical analysis) , : , , . , (tokens). Pascal y := 5; x := y+15; : y, , 5, , x, , y, , 15, .
73
&
(syntax analysis) , , , (intermediate language), . Pascal (;). : y := 5 x := y+15; .
, (semantic analysis). Pascal: y := 5 + abcde; , .
. (code generation). , . . Pascal , 5 15 x y. C5 C15 , X Y, :
C5 C15 X Y
CON CON RES RES LDA STA LDA ADA STA
5 15 1 1 C5 Y Y C15 Xy := 5
x :=y+1 5
74
3.4
(symbol table). : C5 C15 Y X 0 1 2 3 0000000000000101 0000000000001111 0000000000000000 0000000000000000
(code optimization). , , . , . , . , , :
C5 C15 X Y START
CON CON RES RES LDA STA ADA STA END
5 15 1 1 C5 Y C15 X START
, . , : 000000000000 000000000001 000000000010 000000000011 000000000100 000000000101 000000000110 000000000111 000000001000 0001000000000101 0010000000001000 0011000000000110 0010000000000111 0000000000000000 0000000000000101 0000000000001111 0000000000000000 0000000000000000 LDA STA ADA STA HLT C5 C15 C5 Y C15 X
75
&
. : . : , , , .
Code Optimization High Level Programming Language Interpreter Intermediate Language Lexical Analysis Compiler Translator Tokens Code Generation Symbol Table Semantic Analysis Assembler Syntax Analysis
76
? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ;
3.5
3.5
E
.
, : RISC
;
, . . 0011 ADA, .
77
&
. (microoperation) .
. , IR ( 12 bits, bit 0 bit 11) MAR . , :
MAR IR(0,11) , . , MAR MDR, . :
MDR M[MAR] READ . MDR . - . , - . :
A A + MDR ADA, . . (microprogrammed architecture). , , (control memory). . (microinstruction), , (microprogram). , , , (MIR)
78
3.5
(MPC). IR PC . , , . . . . (firmware).
, , . . , . , : . . (direct access). . (indirect access) . , (immediate access).
79
&
. , . , , . .
. , .
LDA, . , .
(Complex Instruction Set Computers CISC) (120 350 ), (8 24) ( 12). CISC . , . . . CISC.
CISC, . 25% ( 95% ). , , , , . . (Reduced Instruction Set Computers, RISC). , 100 , . .
80
3.5
, , . . . . RISC . , . , : ADD R1, R2, R3 R3 := R1+ R2. 10 , R1, R2, R3 10 101010=1000. 1000 . , . , , RISC. RISC . . RISC .
(pipeline architecture).
81
&
, , (pipeline cycles). (stage). . , .
. , . 1 , . , . . , , . :
82
3.5
:
. , , . . , . , , . (superscalar) . , , , . , :
:
. , . , (multiprocessors) , (multicomputers). . Von Neumann , . (data flow machines), (reduction machines). , (systolic arrays), (cellular arrays), (DSP) . (long instruction word computers, LIW very long instruction word computers, VLIW). , , bits. .
:
: :
83
&
, . , , , .
Direct Access Immediate Access Pipeline Architecture Stage Indirect Access MIR Pipeline Cycles Cellular Arrays MPC Reduction Machines Data Flow Machines Microinstruction Microoperation Microprogram Microprogrammed Architecture Control Memory Multiprocessors Multicomputers Systolic Arrays Firmware Superscalar Architecture Long Instruction Word - LIW Reduced Instruction Set Computer RISC Complex Instruction Set Computer - CISC
84
? ; ? ; ? ;
&
3
- , , /. . . , 13 . , , . : . , .
Luce T., , , 1991. . , Assembly, 1991. ., . , . , , , 1987. ., , ,1993. Hayes J., Computer Architecture and Organization, McGraw-Hill, 1988. Hutchinson S., Sawyer S., Computers and Information Systems, Irwin, 1996. Hwang K., Advanced Computer Architecture, McGraw-Hill, 1993. Patterson D., Hennessy J. Computer Organization & Design, The Hardware/Software Interface, Morgan Kaufmann, 1994. Vermaat M., Walker T., Hall T., Repede J., Discovering Computer, Shelly Cashman Series, 1997.
85
&
4
4 , , .
, : . . . . .
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
87
4.1
4.1
.
, :
;
. (write) (read) . . , , : (1) , . , . (2) , . (3) , . . . ( ) , . . (word) 1-8 bytes (, 8-64 bits) .
89
&
(block frame), , . , . 1980 1999 (server) 1999
(/bit) (Mbytes)0,1 120 ns 0,2
10-4
60 ns
64
10-5
10 ms
10000
M , , .
K M G T m n
Kilo Mega Giga Tera milli nano
2 20 2 30 2 40 2 -3 10 -6 10 -9 10
10
, , : , bit (access time). . (ns). (storage capacity), . * bytes ytes . : . . , . . , , , .
, Mega 20 6 2 = 1.048.576, 10 = 1.000.000. , 1.048.576.
*
90
4.1
. , .
(main memory) (secondary memory). 3.1 , /. , . , . . , . , (CD-ROM) .
(Random Access Memory). , , . , . , . () (SRAM), 10-20 ns () * (DRAM), 90-120 ns . 25% . , . 2 , 0 2 -1, bits .
2, .. 2, bits .
*
, , 1999.
91
&
: , k , k-1-0. , n (n bits ) Dn-1-D0. , WR ( Write, ) , RD ( Read, ) , (k-10) . RD, (Dn-1D0) . , , . WR .
0 2k-1, k. (address space) . . Intel Pentium 32 , 232 bytes = 4 230 bytes = 4 GB.
92
4.1
, , .
. . , . , , . 512 bytes, , 1 byte. 2000 bytes 4 . 8 bytes, 250 50 ! -, .
93
&
, . , . , . , , .
Read Data Lines Address Lines Secondary Memory Write Block Frame Main Memory Word Random Access Memory Access Time Storage Capacity Address Space
? ; ? ; ? ; ? ;
? ;
94
4.2
4.2
.
, :
;
(locality of reference). , . , . , , . , . , , , . , . , , . , , . 95
&
96 0 27 41
43 54 0 72
67 33 15 18
51 78 35 0
, . , . , , . , 4 4, 8270(16) . , . .. , , 8270, 827F. , : , . (cache memory), 4.4. . . (virtual memory), ( 9). , , .
8270 8271 8272 8273 8274 8275 8276 8277 8278 8279 827A 827B 827C 827D 827E 827F
96 43 67 51 0 54 33 78 27 0 15 35 41 72 18 0
, , . : , . , , , , (.. . DAT)
, .. SRAM , .. SDRAM () (.. CDROM)
96
4.2
, , (memory hierarchy). , , . . , . , . , . , RAM (SRAM). , . . . RAM (DRAM), SRAM. , . , , . . , . . , . (backup copies) . .
1000 100 . 100 bit.
97
&
. , : , . , .
Virtual Memory Backup Copy Memory Hierarchy Cache Memory Locality Of Reference
? ; ? ; ? ; ? ;
? ;
? ;
98
4.3
4.3
.
, :
;
1 (ROM) - (RAM) . , (RD), (WR), (k-1 - A0) (Dn-1 - D0), 4.1, . ROM RAM. (dimensions) , bits . 10248 1024 8 bits . ( ), . 8 (D7 D0) 11 (10 A0). 11 2 = 2048 8 bits.
RAM , ,
1
99
&
RAM 0 1023 ROM 1024 2047. RAM 256x8 bits ROM 512x4 bits. (Address Map), , . ROM 4 bits, ROM (8 bits) 2 4 bits ROM. RAM, 0-1023, 1024/256 = 4 , RAM0, RAM1, RAM2 RAM3. ROM, 1024-2047 1024/512 = 2 ROM, (ROM0, ROM1) (ROM2, ROM3). : A6 A5 A4
A10
A9
A8
A7
A3
A2
A1
A0
RAM0 RAM1 RAM2 RAM3 ROM0 ROM1 ROM2 ROM3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
= = = = = = = = = = = =
0(10) 255(10) 256(10) 511(10) 512(10) 767(10) 768(10) 1023(10) 1024(10) 1535(10) 1536(10) 2047(10)
. , . 777 768-1023, RAM3. 777-768 = 9. H 1548 ROM2 ROM3, 1548-1536=12 . K 4 8 bit .
100
4.3
, , , (chip select, CS). CS ( 0), (RD WR). CS ( 1) , ( RD=1) ( WR=1), 4.1. , (D7 D0) . ROM , . . RAM 256 , 8 , 0 7 . , ROM 512 , 9 , 0 8 . , RAM RD WR , . A7-A0 A8 A10-A8
D3-D00 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
( ) ( ), , (CS), , . CS RAM3 10=0, 9=1 8=1.
101
D7-D4
&
10 0 0 0 0 1 1
9 0 0 1 1 0 1
8 0 1 0 1 01 01
RAM0 RAM1 RAM2 RAM3 ROM0 ROM1 ROM2 ROM3
10, 9 8 , .
, . , , , .
, (memory interleaving). 4 (0, 1, 2 3), 5128 bits , 2 (=2048) . , (Data Register, DR) . DR CS. , 0 0 0, 1 0 1, 2 0 2 3 0 3. , 4 1 0 ... D7-D0 , , . , 5 (00000000101), 1, DR1. , 4, 6 7. DR0, DR2 DR3,
A1-A0
0
0
1
1
A10-A2
2
2
3
3
102
4.3
. , 4, 5, 6 7, DR, DR. , , . 4 (4-way interleaving), 4 . , . , - (k-way interleaving), m =2 , . m , bits . , . , (DR) -1 . , , , .
103
&
, . . , , , .
- -
Dimensions k-Way Interleaving Memory Interleaving Chip Select - CS Data Register - DR Read Only Memory - ROM RAM Address Map
? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ;
104
4.4
4.4
.
, :
;
(cache memory) , . (SRAM), . , , . , , . , , , . 4.2, . , . , (cache lines). (.. 16 ) , . , , . .
105
&
. 64 , 4 16 , . (cache miss), , . ,, . , . ( Read 18, ), 16-31 , . .
. :
.
, .
106
4.4
, :
. , , . , ( ) . . , , .
, . , (hit ratio), 99%, . 100 ns, 10 ns, =95%, t :
t =
95 5 10ns + (100ns + 10ns) = 9,5ns + 5,5ns = 15ns, 100 100
95% 10ns, 5% 10ns + 100ns. , tm , tc , :
t =
t c + (1 ) (t c + t m ) 100 100
100, (t) (tc).
1 . Write 52, , 52,
.
1
107
&
( 48-63). . : ) (write back): , 52 . 48-63 , . . , , 2 . (write through): , 52 , , 52 . . , , . .
)
. , . , . ( ) , . . , . , , :
(First-In First-Out, FIFO), . (Least Recently Used, LRU), .
, , .
2
108
4.4
, . , LRU . , , , FIFO, .
. , , . , , , , , , :
L1 L2
(Level 1 cache L1) . (Level 2 cache L2) .
L1, . , : L1, . L1, L2. , L1. L2, L2.
109
&
. , , , . .
First-In First-Out - FIFO Least Recently Used - LRU Cache Miss Cacheline Level 2 Cache - L2 Write Through Write Back Cache Memory Hit Ratio Level 1 Cache - L1
110
? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? ; ? L1 L2;
&
4
, . , . , . . .
., . , . , , , 1987. Patterson D., Hennesy J., Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface, Morgan Kaufmann, 2 , 1998. Hayes J., Computer Architecture and Organization, McGraw-Hill, 1988.
111
&
5
5 . : , . . , .
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
&
113
5.1
5.1
.
, : o ,
;
. , , . (bus), o .
115
&
. , .
(bus communication protocol) . (control) (data).
, , , . - -. , . , . . , . .
bits (bus clock, bandwith), (bus width) (bus latency).
:
. bits . , , Hz. 33 MHz 33 bits . , , . . , , . . bits 8 64 128
:
:
116
5.1
bits. , . bytes , , (throughput). , : - (memory-CPU bus), - (input-output bus) (flat bus). - , . -, . -, , . . - . , , . , , ,
. , . .
117
&
, , : - - . , .
O (interrupts) / . (hardware interrupts) (software interrupts), . . , . , , .. , , , . H (interrupt vector). . , . , (interrupt service routine) , . , , ( ) . . , , : , , .
118
5.1
(DMA) . , . , , , . (direct memory access unit) , , . . . , 1 8 bits, 16 bit.
119
&
O . , bits () . O , - -.
. , , , , . , , .
- -
Data Control Bus Input-Output Bus Memory-Cpu Bus Interrupt Software Interrupt Hardware Interrupt Interrupt Vector Flat Bus Bus Bandwidth Throughput DMA Bus Communication Protocol Interrupt Service Routine Bus Clock Latency
120
? ; ? ; ? ; ? DMA;
5.2
5.2
.
, : laser
;
(printer) . , , , , . , . . , laser, . . :
(mpact printers) (Inkjet printers) laser (Laser printers).
, . (page printers) . (line printers) -.
121
&
: : . , (characters per second - cps) , (pages per minute - ppm). A : H ( , ) (dot). 1 (dots per inch - dpi). , . , . , , , , . , .
. , . . , . (lines per second lps). , (daisy wheel). , , , . , , , . . (dot matrix). , , . . , . , . . , .
1
: 2,54 .
122
5.2
24 9 , , . 9 , , , . : . . , . . . . .
laser. laser. , -. , , , . . , . , , , . , , . . , , . , . , , . laser , ,
123
&
, .
laserH x laser . laser . , . , , . laser 16 20 600 1200 dpi. . , , . . (, drum), , laser. A, : , . , laser ( , ) laser . laser .
1. 2. 3. 4.
toner. , , , .
, , .
, , , .
124
5.2
, , .
laser , . . PCL (Printer Control Language) Postscript.
(Plotters)O (plotters), , , , .. 4048 ( 102123 .), A3 A4 . . . . . . (1-4 ). , , . , , . laser.
125
&
, . : . . , laser. , ( ) ( ) . . . laser , , . O , .
Postscript Printer Control Language Laser o
PCL Page Description Language Lines Per Second lps Toner Printer Laser Printer Dot Matrix Printer Line Printer Daisy Wheel Printer Page Printer Inkjet Printer Dot Pages Per Minute Ppm Plotter
Drum Characters Per Second - Cps
? ; ? ;
? ; ? ;
126
5.3
5.3
, .
, : ,
;
(screen) . . , , . .
O (Cathode Ray Tube - CRT) ( ) ( ) . , , . (cathode). , . o (pixel - picture element). , (persistence). ,
127
&
, . , , . , , , . , .
(horizontal scanning frequency) . , , (vertical scanning frequency), (refresh rate).
. , , .
. , . , . , 64 256. . . , (// Red/Green/Blue - RGB). , , o , . (brightness) . . 256 , 24 256256256 = 2 ( 17 ).
128
5.3
, . (mask) (dot pitch) To , . . . 15 ( 38 .) 3023 cm 0,25 mm. 30cm / 0,25mm = 1200 23cm / 0,25mm = 920 . (resolution) . , . : 640480, 800600, 1024768 . , . , . 640480 24 bits (8 bits ), 640 480 24 bits = 7.372.800 bits = 921.600 bytes , . , . 1 MB 640480 24 bits , 800600 16 16 bits ( 2 ) 1024768 256 . , . , , 129
&
. (, ). . , . , . . (interlaced scanning). . , . 30 z ( ), 30 , . 60 . 60 . (flickering) .
(Liquid Crystal Display - LCD) . , , , . , . 14 15 . , . . . , . , , . . , , . 130
5.3
(active matrix) (passive matrix). , . .
, , . . , , , . , . 15 , , .
O - (Gas-Plasma Display)H : . , . , .
131
&
. . , . . . , . , , . .
-
Resolution Dot Pitch Pixel - Picture Element Cathode Vertical Scanning Frequency Mask Screen Gas-Plasma Display Active Matrix Cathode Ray Tube Passive Matrix Liquid Crystal Display Horizontal Scanning Frequency Interlaced Scanning Refresh Rate Flickering Brightness Persistence
132
? ; ? ; ? ; ? ;
5.4
5.4
M A
, .
, :
;
(magnetic tapes) (disks). H . . : 0 1. . 0 1 , , .
O (tracks). (sectors). , bytes, 512 bytes 32 . (block). , (cluster), .
133
&
0
1
, . , . . 1 0 ( ) 1 (head) /, 1 0 0 1 . 0 . , , . . , . / :
1
. / (seek time).
2 , , . . 3
. / , , . (hard disks) (floppy disks). . . , . , , ,
134
5.4
. . , . / , . , . . , (cylinder). , . , , . . , , ( ), . (capacity) Kbytes (KB) : / B/ (, , ) . , . 8 , 256 128 8256128=262.144 512 bytes, 134.217.728 bytes 128 . , , . , 1,44MB 3,5 , 1,2 5 . / , .1
1
135
&
, . , , 300 /, .
RAIDA B C RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive/Independent Disks) B . , , C RAID. bytes bits byte , . RAID bits bytes, , . :
A
A D A+D
B E B+E
(mirroring) bit (parity bit).
, . , bit , C , . F C+F . o .
(backup units) . , , CD-RW DVD. .
5 , . 128 MB 1,2 GB. . , . , . , , 21-120 MB .
136
5.4
(magnetic tapes) , . 9 ( 7) , (tracks) . , 1 2
bit
Byte
9 bits. o 8 o byte 9 bit bit (parity bit), . , ( ) . . , (transmission rate) . : 9-Track : , . 225. QIC : 2 GB, 150 , 320 525 . DAT (Digital Audio Tape): : 8 mm 4 mm. 4mm 1 4 GB (16 GB ) 8 mm 2 10 GB. 8 mm 4 mm . 4 mm , . o , . 4 mm DLT. DLT (Digital Linear Tape): 40 GB. .
137
&
, .
. ( 0 1) ( ) . . , . . .
Bit / RAID
Parity Bit Block Floppy Disk Mirroring Read/Write Head Cylinder Magnetic Tapes Magnetic Disks Redundant Array of Inexpensive/Independent Disks Backup Units Hard Disk Cluster Transmission Rate Sectors Tracks Seek Time Capacity
138
? ; ? . ? . ? ;
5.5
5.5
, .
, : CD CD-Audio, / , DVD
;
(Compact Disk) , . laser . . . :
CD-ROM: CD (CD-Audio) CD (CD-Data) CD (CD-Recordable WORM-Write Once Read Many) E CD (CD-RW Rewritable CD-Erasable) DVD (Digital Versatile Disks)
, , , . , . (CIRC) . .
139
&
, ( ) : laser . , . . laser , . . 268 568 , 1,2-1,4 m/sec.
CD-ROM CD-ROM. O 120 mm. , . (pits) . . , , . 0. , 1. 0 1. 2 CD (CD-DA - Digital Audio) (CDData). 333.000 2352 bytes. CD 2048 bytes , , . 650 MB. CD, (PCM), 44,1 z 2 , 16 bits ( 176.400 bytes , 75 ). CD bytes . , . CD
140
5.5
650 MB, bytes . CD 74 .
CD (CD-R)H CD. . , laser. H , CD-R . 1 , . . , , . , , 0 1.
E CD (CD-RW) CD, , CD . laser. , . CD. H CD. laser , . ' . CDRW , 1000 .
DVDO DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) . , CD 4,7 GB . 17 GB . DVD . . DVD :
DVD-Video: DVD-Video .
.
1
141
&
MPEG-2. , DVD, MPEG-2 . DVD-Video video, VHS. , . . DVD CD-I (interactive CD), Philips 1987 Mpeg .
DVD-ROM: DVD, , . CD 650MB. DVD-RAM DVD-RW+: H DVD DVD-RAM DVD-RW+. DVD CD-RW.
laser . CD-ROM ( CD CD ), CD, CD DVD. ( ). DVD , , , ( DVD).
CD DVD CD CD CD
CD-Data Digital Versatile Disk CD-Recordable WORM-Write Once Read Many CD-RW Rewritable CD-Erasable Pit CD-Audio Compact Disks
? CD-audio. ? CD-ROM. ? CD.
142
5.6
5.6
.
, : modem
;
, . , . , . , , .
- . centronics, , 25 , 8 bits . RS-232 9 25 , bit , 115.200 bits . , 10 m ( ). . Modem . , 143
&
. , . , modem. To modem , (carrier). , , ( 0 1). , . modem , - . - (Modulation-Demodulation) , . , .. , , , (.. ) . ( F), 1 1 1 0 0 . : (AM-Amplitude Modulation): . (FM-Frequency Modulation): o. (Phase Modulation): . bits . . Kbits/sec Mbits/sec. , , . ,
144
5.6
baud. , baud, FM. 1 1 . bits baud. 0 4 , 2 bits. , 1200 baud, baud 2 bit, 2400 bits/sec.
1 0
H , . ( ), . . modem . modem 300 2400 bit/sec 56.600 bits/sec. ( , ) (.. baseband modems) . . , , . , . thernet, . Ethernet : (BNC) (RJ45). - - . (repeater) ,
145
&
. .. , . . (router) (bridge) . , -. .
. , . (communication protocol). , . , , . .. , . , bytes . , - . , . . :
Xmodem/Zmodem/Ymodem/Kermit: A modem. . Xmodem 128 bytes , to modem 512 bytes modem 1024 bytes. Kermit . Ethernet: Token Ring: () . , , . FDDI: . (backbone) Ethernet. ATM: Frame Relay: .
146
5.6
PowerTalk: Apple Macintosh X.25: . TCP/IP: . (Internet). IPX: TCP/IP Novell.
. , , .
(twisted-pair) . . twisted-pair : (i) twisted-pair (STP) , . (ii) twisted-pair (UTP), 10BaseT . . .
(coaxial) : , . , . (fiber optic) , , . , . . . . . , . (microwaves), . (terrestrial microwaves), ,
147
&
. , . , , .
(telecommunication satellites) , . (terrestrial stations) . uplink downlink.
, modem, . . Ethernet. , ( ) ( ).
Downlink Modem Uplink Twisted-Pair - Twisted-Pair
UTP Bridge Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation Modulation-Demodulation Backbone Twisted-Pair Router Repeater Terrestrial Microwaves Microwaves BNC Fiber Optic Parallel Port - Centronics STP Communication Protocol Telecommunication Satellite
148
? modem. ? ; ? ;
&
5
. . , , () laser. . . . . . , laser . , modem, . .
Luce T., , , 1991. Maran R. Internet, , 1995. , , 1994. Hutchinson S., Sawyer S., Computers and Information Systems, Irwin, 1996. Vermaat M., Walker T., Hall T., Repede J., Discovering Computer, Shelly Cashman Series, 1997.
149
&
6
6 , .
, : . . .
6.1 6.2 6.3
151
6.1
6.1
.
, :
;
(personal computer, PC) IBM 1981. 8088 Intel 4,77 MHz, 16 Kb 256 Kb, 5,25" 160 Kb. 136.000 IBM PC . IBM PC , XT . , IBM. , , Intel . , . , , . 3,5", . . . , , PC.
153
&
, . PC . , , , .
ISA
IBM , . 8 bit 4,7 bits , 4,7 z. , , . AT (SA-Industry Standard Architecture) 16 bit 6 8 MHz. 8 bits. , 80386 Intel, EISA (xtended ISA) 32 bits, 8 16 bits. H MCA (MicroChannel Architecture) (32 bits 10Hz), . VL-Bus (VESA Local Bus). -, . 66 MHz 32 bits. VL-bus . , , . VL-bus 3 . , , VL-bus, PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect). PCI 32 64 bit 100MHz 350+ MHz. , PCI 32 bit 66z. A -, . , PCI EISA ISA . , , PCI . PCI. , .
EISA
MCA
VL-Bus
PCI
154
6.1
, GP (ccelerated Graphics Port). AGP 66MHz 32 bits. , PCI - , 66 100MHz 32 bit. PCI PCI, ISA, EISA, . . , . .
155
&
DE EIDE (nhanced IDE). EIDE , CDROM. , 2 . (master), (slave). (CDROM) ( ) . 20/sec. .. IDE IDE PCI . To SCSI EIDE. , CDROM. , , . SCSI / (.. PCI) SCSI. 7 , SCSI. SCSI 5/sec , 10MB/sec Fast SCSI, 20 /sec Ultra (Fast-Wide)-SCSI 40/sec Ultra-Wide SCSI. , . SCSI IDE , . SCSI IDE. To PCMCIA . PCMCIA . , , fax/modem IDE . PCMCIA , , , , . ISA 8-16 bit 8 MHz 16 MB/sec >12 EISA 32 bit 8,3 MHz 32 MB/sec >12 MCA 32 bit 10 MHz 40 MB/sec >12 VL 32 bit 33 MHz 132 MB/sec 3 PCI 32-64 bit 33,66-100 MHz >120 MB/sec 10
IDE
EIDE
SCSI
PCMCIA
156
6.1
Plug and Play () . S RAM ( , interrupt number) . , , . () DMA ( 5.1) /. Plug and Play ( PnP) , (jumpers dip switches). . , . Plug and Play . , . .
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 , IBM, 8088 7 Intel. 10 Micro Intel 2000 80486 Pent