© 2011 epiphron consulting1 problem solving techniques

© 2011 Epiphron Consulting1

Problem Solving Techniques


Basic problem solving Understand the problem

Identify solutions

Try some solutions and evaluate the results

Is the customer satisfied? No - try again, Yes - we are done.



State the problem, clearly, unambigously and succinctly

Define the scope of the problem – be specific about what is included and what outside the scope of the problem

State how you would know if the problem has been solved

− What measurements can be made to show that the problem has been solved

− Who makes the judgement that the problem is solved (who is the customer for the solution)

− Is the information about the problem and desired outcome complete – if not, who can provide the missing information?

Identify solutions





Identify solutions Try some solutions and evaluate the results

− Trial and error

− Consider special cases

− Ask an expert

− Solve a simpler but similar problem and then generalise

− Etc (there are a number of techniques discussed later in this chart deck)




Slide 5


Identify solutions

Try some solutions and evaluate the results Execute the proposed solution

Does the solution meet all the success criteria in the original problem statement




Identify solutions


Is the customer satisfied Is the customer satisfied? No, try again, yes, we are done.

What worked and what did not?

Did the customer really ask for what they wanted or did they actually want something else?

How can you monitor the continued success of the solution and adjust as necessary?


Some common problem solving techniques ….Trial and error In trial and error, a possible answer is selected and applied to the problem and

evaluated to see if it really is a genuine solution. If not another possibility that is subsequently tried. The process ends when a particular guess yields a solution.

Divide and conquer

The method here is to break down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems, - this menans you need to select a way of solving each smaller problem though so other techniques may be required unless the individual problems can be reduced to a trivial nature.

Hill climbing A solution is evaluated in terms of its closeness to the correct solution and then a change is made to that solution and and re-evaluated. Changes that move closer to the goal situation are accepted whereas other changes are rejected.

Brainstorming Brainstorming is a means of generating many possible solutions using the creativity of a group or people. The ideas are then filtered to select just the best suggestions.

Focal objects The technique of focal object for problem solving involves synthesizing the seemingly non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new.

Lateral thinking Lateral thinking is a term coined by Edward de Bono, for the solution of problems through an indirect and creative approach. Lateral thinking is about reasoning that is not immediately obvious and about ideas that may not be obtainable by using only traditional step-by-step logic..

Mind mapping A diagrammatic means of representing ideas and their relalationships – useful for brain brainstorming and lateral thinking


Some common problem solving techniques ….Research This method looks at what is already known about and has been written by

others in the hope that the problem may already be solved or solutions to similar problems may indicate how this problem may be solved?

Analogy This method compares the problem to other problems with known solutions (possibly in other fields) and determines if aspects of these solutions can help in solving this problem.

Hypothesis Testing Here we assuming a possible explanation to the problem trying to prove the assumptions we have made are correct

Root Cause Analysis Root Cause Analysis, initially is a reactive method of problem detection and solving. This means that the analysis is done after an event has occurred. By gaining expertise in RCA it becomes a pro-active method. This means that RCA is able to forecast the possibility of an event even before it could occur.

Modeling In this method a model of the problem is constructed. The behaviour of the model is then compared to reality and if the model behaves sufficiently closely to reality the model can be used to characterise and solve the problem.

The GROW method The GROW method provides an effective, structured framework in which using goal driven methods to move the problem solving process forwards.

The 8 disciplines method

A structured method of approaching and executing problem solving commonly used in quality assurance


Trial and Error Trial and error means guessing a solution and then seeing if really does

solve the problem

Selecting random solutions can be very inefficient – so trial and error often involves some sort of directed search of the solution space to reduce the number of guesses required.

Trial and error is can use feedback system where a possible solution is selected (often by guesswork) and then the solution is tested to see if is in fact a valid solution. By examining how close the solution is to the desired outcome, feedback can be generated to select a new possible solution that may be closer to the actual solution.

Trial and error is based on the assumption that you can learn by examining a failure, understanding why the failure occurred, making an appropriate change and then trying again.

This approach is in contrast to approaches based on using insight and theory.


Trial and error has a number of features:

This is a solution-oriented approach : there is no attempt to discover why a solution works, merely that it is a solution.

This is a problem-specific approach - trial and error makes no attempt to derive a general solution – so the a solution to other problems.

This is often a non-optimal approach : trial and error is generally an attempt to find a solution, not all solutions, and not the best solution.

Trial and error needs little domain knowledge: the solver of the problem need not necessarily understand the underlying details of the problem – they only need to be able to recognise a valid solution.

To find all solutions by trial and error it is necessary to exhaustively search the full solution space. This can be time consuming.

To find the best solution, there must be some way of comparing the ‘goodness’ of each solution so that an optimal solution can be determined.

Trial and error is usually a last resort for a particular problem, as the method has a number of disadvantages. It is tedious and monotonous. Also, it is very time-consuming. And you don’t learn much about the nature of the underlying problem.


Trial and Error - examples

The process of evolution can be regarded as a ‘trial and error’ process. Random mutations and genetic variations result in trials being run of new forms of organisms. The error measured in each trial is how good each organism is in reproducing itself. Thus after a long time 'knowledge' of well-adapted genomes accumulates simply by virtue of them being able to reproduce and the trail and error process produces improved ‘solutions’.

In computing, Bozo sort is a sorting algorithm based on random numbers. A list is to be sorted into ascending order.

The algorithm examines the list and if it is not in order, it picks two items at random and swaps them, then checks to see if the list is sorted. The process is repeated until the list is in order.

This is a poor implementation of trial and error as There is no guarantee that Bozo sort will ever terminate New trials are not directed towards a better solution than previous trials


Trial and Error

Trial and error is usually a last resort for a particular problem, as there are a number of problems with it.

For one, trial and error is tedious and monotonous.

Also, it is very time-consuming; chemical engineers must sift through millions of various potential chemicals before they find one that works.

Fortunately, computers are best suited for trial and error; they do not succumb to the boredom that humans do, and can potentially do thousands of trial-and-error segments in the blink of an eye.


Divide and conquer

A divide and conquer algorithm works by repeatedly splitting a problem into two or more sub-problems of the same (or related) type, until these become simple enough to be solved directly. The solutions to the sub-problems are then combined to give a solution to the original problem.

Knuth gives the method a post office typically uses to route mail: letters are sorted into separate bags for different geographical areas, each of these bags is itself sorted into batches for smaller sub-regions, and so on until they are delivered.This is related to a radix sort, described for punch-card sorting machines as early as 1929.

This approach is good with recursion and parallelism


Hill climbing This problem solving method involves evaluation a solution is in terms of its

closeness to the correct solution and then making a change to that solution and determining if the new solution is nearer the desired goal or not.

Each step change in the solution is intended to move closer to the goal situation. The problem with this approach is that many challenges require temporarily moving farther away from the goal state. For example, traveling 1,000 miles to the west might require driving a few miles east to an airport.

Hill climbing can be regarded as an improvement on ‘trial and error’ as it is really a ‘trial and improvement’ scheme. Heuristics is another term for this.

Once upon a time a farmer went to market and purchased a fox, a goose, and a bag of beans. On his way home, the farmer came to the bank of a river and hired a boat. But in crossing the river by boat, the farmer could carry only himself and a single one of his purchases - the fox, the goose, or the bag of the beans.If left alone, the fox would eat the goose, and the goose would eat the beans.The farmer's challenge was to carry himself and his purchases to the far bank of the river, leaving each purchase intact. How did he do it?


Hill climbing – one possible solution – 9 steps Is this the optimum solution?

RIVER

Farmer, Fox, Goose, Beans

Goose, Beans

Farmer, Goose, Beans

Beans

Farmer, Fox, Beans

Fox,

Farmer, Fox, Goose,

Goose,

Farmer, Goose,

Farmer, Fox

Fox

Farmer, Fox, Goose,

Goose

Farmer, Goose, Beans

Beans

Farmer, Fox, Beans

Fox Beans

Farmer, Fox, Goose.Beans


Hill climbing – what is the optimal solution? The first step must be to bring the goose across the river, as any other will result in

the goose or the beans being eaten. When the farmer returns to the original side, he has the choice of bringing either the fox or the beans across. If he brings the fox across, he must then return to bring the beans over, resulting in the fox eating the goose. If he brings the beans across, he will need to return to get the fox, resulting in the beans being eaten. Here he has a dilemma, solved by bringing the fox (or the beans) over and bringing the goose back. Now he can bring the beans (or the fox) over, leaving the goose, and finally return to fetch the goose. His actions in the solution are summarised in the following steps:

−Bring goose over −Return −Bring fox or beans over −Bring goose back −Bring beans or fox over −Return −Bring goose over −Thus there are seven crossings, four forward and three back.


Hill climbing – what is the decision making process?

Sometimes making a decision to use a sub-optimal solution is a good one, other times it is not.

it is often a good idea to revisit a decision (or a discussion where agreement was not forthcoming) after sleeping on it, or a period of reflection.

Also, to avoid indecision paralysis, (where all solutions are sub-optimal, you must choose one of them, but can't for fear of choosing the wrong one), for each solution ask: "how much effort is it to move from this solution to an other should the solution

chosen to be the wrong one"?


Brainstorming Brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large number

of ideas for the solution of a problem.

The method is− Identify a leader who will facilitiate the processes.− Set the problem− Select the particiapants− Create a list of supporting questions− Run the session− Evaluate the outcome

Setting the problem It is vital to define the problem prior to starting the brainstorming activity. The

problem must be clear, specific, non ambiguous and of a manageable size. It should be stated as a specific question such as "What GUI interface would be most useful to customers who want to investigate performance problems in iSCSI configurations?"


Brainstorming Select participants

The brainstorming group must contain a facilliator. It might also include a scribe/secratary whose job is to write down and document suggestions or this can be done by the facilitieor

A group of 10 or fewer members is generally more productive. The group should not necessarily be restricted to those having detailed

domain knowledge about the problem. Participants from outside the project may bring a fresh set of ideas and perspectivies.·

Create a list of lead questions−During the brainstorm session the creativity may decrease. At this

moment, the facilitator should stimulate creativity by suggesting a lead question to answer, such as Can we combine these ideas? or How about looking from another perspective?. It is best to prepare a list of such leads before the session begins.


Brainstorming – how is a session conducted?

The facilitator leads the brainstorming session and ensures that ground rules are followed. The steps in a typical session are: A warm-up session, to expose novice participants to the criticism-free

environment. A simple problem is brainstormed, for example “Where should the department Christmas Lunch be held”

The facilitator presents the problem and gives a further explanation if needed. The facilitator asks the brainstorming group for their ideas. If no ideas are forthcoming, the facilitator suggests a lead to encourage creativity. All participants present their ideas, and the idea collector records them. To ensure clarity, participants may elaborate on their ideas. When time is up, the facilitator organizes the ideas based on the topic goal and

encourages discussion. Ideas are categorized. The whole list is reviewed to ensure that everyone understands the ideas. Duplicate ideas and obviously infeasible solutions are removed. The facilitator thanks all participants and gives each a token of appreciation.


Brainstorming – the process

Participants who have ideas but were unable to present them are encouraged to write down the ideas and present them later.

·The idea collector should number the ideas, so that the chairperson can use the number to encourage an idea generation goal, for example: We have 44 ideas now, let’s get it to 50!.

·The idea collector should repeat the idea in the words he or she has written verbatim, to confirm that it expresses the meaning intended by the originator.

·When more participants are having ideas, the one with the most associated idea should have priority. This to encourage elaboration on previous ideas.

·During a brainstorming session, managers and other superiors may be discouraged from attending, since it may inhibit and reduce the effect of the four basic rules, especially the generation of unusual ideas.


Brainstorming - evaluation

Brainstorming is not just about generating ideas for others to evaluate and select. Usually the group itself will, in its final stage, evaluate the ideas and select one as the solution to the problem proposed to the group.

·The solution should not require resources or skills the members of the group do not have or cannot acquire.

·If acquiring additional resources or skills is necessary, that needs to be the first part of the solution.

·There must be a way to measure progress and success.\ ·The steps to carry out the solution must be clear to all, and amenable to being

assigned to the members so that each will have an important role. · There must be a common decision making process to enable a coordinated effort

to proceed, and to reassign tasks as the project unfolds. There should be evaluations at milestones to decide whether the group is on

track toward a final solution. There should be incentives to participation so that participants maintain their

efforts.


Focal Objects The technique of focal object for problem solving involves synthesizing the seemingly

non-matching characteristics of different objects into something new.

Another way to think of focal objects is as a memory cue: if you're trying to find all the different ways to use a mouse, give yourself some random "objects" (situations, concepts, etc.) and see if you can find a use. Given "piano", for example, I would try to think of all the ways a mouse could be used with a piano.

Another method would be to try and find patterns in your solutions, and then break those patterns. If you keep finding ways to use a mouse with a human hand, then think of ways to use a mouse that does not involve humans – eg as a door stop.

Pattern-breaking, combined with focal object cues, can lead to very divergent solutions. ( eg: Use the mouse lead as a string to tie down a balloon)


Lateral thinking

Lateral thinking is a term coined by Edward de Bono. It means using an indirect and creative approach to solving roblems. Lateral thinking uses reasoning that is not immediately obvious and ideas that would not be normally associatged with traditional step-by-step logic.

The term first appeared in the title of de Bono's book New Think: The Use of Lateral Thinking, published in 1967.

What is the difference between critical and lateral thinking?

Critical thinking is primarily concerned with judging the truth value of statements and seeking errors.

Lateral thinking is more concerned with the movement value of statements and ideas. A person would use lateral thinking when they want to move from one known idea to creating new ideas.


Lateral thinking When NASA began the launch of astronauts into space, they found out that the

pens wouldn't work at zero gravity (Ink won't flow down to the writing surface). In order to solve this problem, they hired Andersen Consulting (Accenture today). It took them one decade and $12 million. They developed a pen that worked at zero gravity, upside down, underwater, in practically any surface including crystal and in a temperature range from below freezing to over 300 degrees C.

And what did Russians do.......................................??


Lateral thinking When NASA began the launch of astronauts into space, they found out that the

pens wouldn't work at zero gravity (Ink won't flow down to the writing surface). In order to solve this problem, they hired Andersen Consulting (Accenture today). It took them one decade and $12 million. They developed a pen that worked at zero gravity, upside down, underwater, in practically any surface including crystal and in a temperature range from below freezing to over 300 degrees C.

And what did Russians do.......................................??

…..they used a pencil


Lateral thinking

There are four types of "thinking tools" defined in Edward de Bono's Lateral Thinking: The Power of Provocation manual:[1]

Idea generating tools that are designed to break current thinking patterns - routine patterns, the status quo

Focus tools that are designed to broaden where to search for new ideas

Harvest tools that are designed to ensure more value is received from idea generating output

Treatment tools that are designed to consider real-world constraints, resources, and support


Lateral thinking – Idea generating tools Random Entry Idea Generating Tool:

Choose an object at random and associate that with the area you are thinking about.

For example imagine you are thinking about how to improve the product user interface. Choosing an object at random from an office you might see an colleague using a mobile phone. Mobile phones now run complex operating systems. People use mobile phones as mobile terminals. Perhaps this could be a new way to communicate with the product..

Provocation Idea Generating Tool:

Choose to use any of the provocation techniques - wishful thinking, exaggeration, reversal, escape, or arising. Create a list of provocations and then use the most outlandish ones to move your thinking forward to new ideas.


Lateral thinking – Idea generating tools

Provocation Idea Generating Tool:

Choose to use any of the provocation techniques - wishful thinking, exaggeration, reversal, escape. Create a list of provocations and then use the most outlandish ones to move your thinking forward to new ideas.

For example:

−Apple’s Icloud is the cheapest storage virtualisation system in the world (exaggeration)

−For this to be true, perhaps we could use netbooks for the nodes and make a very low cost Cloud?

−Or to be really low cost, then software should be just software – what would be required to remove all hardware dependencies?


Lateral thinking – Idea generating tools Challenge Idea Generating Tool:

A tool which is designed to ask the question "WHY?", in a non threatening way, why something exists, why it is done the way it is. The result is a very clear understanding of WHY? which naturally leads to fresh new ideas. The goal is to be able to challenge anything at all, not just items which are problems.

For example you could challenge the windscreen wipers on motor cars. The reason for the wiper is to remove raindrops. Perhaps windsreens could be swept clean by a blast of air or perhaps the windscreen could rotate and spin the water off, or maybe windscreens could be electostitically charged to repel water?


Lateral thinking – Idea generating tools

Concept Fan Idea Generating Tool:

Ideas carry out concepts. This tool systematically expands the range and number of concepts in order to end up with a very broad range of ideas to consider.

The other focus, harvesting and treatment tools deal with the output of the generated ideas and the ways to use them.

There is much more to lateral thinking and Edward de Bono has a wide range of ideas about thinking and reasoning – see his books and web site.


Lateral thinking

Here is a famous situational puzzle. It is best solved with lateral rather than critical thinking.:

A man walks into a bar, and asks the bartender for a drink of water. The bartender pulls out a gun, points it at the man, and cocks it. The man says "Thank you" and leaves. What happened?

How can you solve this puzzle? The standard approach is to gather more data by asking questions:

Question: Could the bartender hear him? Answer: Yes Question: Was the bartender angry for some reason? Answer: No Question: Was the gun a water pistol? Answer: No Question: Did they know each other from before? Answer: No (or: "irrelevant" since either way it does not affect the outcome) Question: Was the man's "Thank you" sarcastic? Answer: No (or with a small hint: "No, he was genuinely grateful for some reason") Question: Did the man ask for water in an offensive way? Answer: NoQuestion: Did the man ask for water in some strange way? Answer: Yes


Lateral thinking

Eventually the questions lead up to the conclusion that the man had the hiccups, and that his reason for requesting a drink of water was not to quench his thirst but to cure his hiccups. The bartender realized this and chose instead to cure the hiccups by frightening the man with the gun. Once the man realized that his hiccups were gone, he no longer needed a drink of water, gratefully thanked the bartender, and left.


Lateral thinking – Thinking outside the box

The Italian historian and traveller Benzoni wrote in 1565 wrote:

"Columbus was dining with many Spanish nobles when one of them said: 'Sir Christopher, even if your lordship had not discovered the Indies, there would have been, here in Spain which is a country abundant with great men knowledgeable in cosmography and literature, one who would have started a similar adventure with the same result.'

Columbus did not respond to these words but asked for a whole egg to be brought to him. He placed it on the table and said: 'My lords, I will lay a wager with any of you that you are unable to make this egg stand on its end like I will do without any kind of help or aid.'

They all tried without success and when the egg returned to Columbus, he tapped it gently on the table breaking it slightly and, with this, the egg stood on its end.

All those present were confounded and understood what he meant: that once the feat has been done, anyone knows how to do it."


Lateral thinking – thinking outside the box

Another ‘outside the box’ lateral thinking puzzle:

The 9 dots problem: The goal of the puzzle is to link all 9 dots using four straight lines or less, without lifting the pen.


Lateral thinking – thinking outside the box

The solution: The puzzle is easily solved but only if you draw the lines outside of the confines of the square area defined by the nine dots themselves. Thus, the phrase "thinking outside the box" was born!

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Lateral thinking – further reading●Edward De Bono, Lateral Thinking : Creativity Step by Step, Harper & Row, 1973, trade

paperback, 300 pages, ··ISBN 0-06-090325-2

●Paul Sloane, Lateral Thinking Puzzlers, Sterling Publishing, 1991, ISBN 0806982276

●Paul Sloane, The Leader's Guide to Lateral Thinking Skills, Kogan Page, 2003, paperback, 186 pages, ISBN 0-7494-4002-3

●Paul Sloane and ··Des MacHale, Outstanding Lateral Thinking Puzzles, ··Sterling Publishing, 2005, ISBN 1402703805

●Paul Sloane and ··Des MacHale, Cunning Lateral Thinking Puzzles, ··Sterling Publishing, 2006, ISBN 1402732759

●Sandy Silverthorne, ··John Warner,One-Minute Mysteries and Brain Teasers, Harvest House Publishing, 2007, paperback, 176 pages, ISBN 0-7369-1942-2

●Lloyd King, Test Your Creative Thinking, Kogan-Page, 2003, paperback, 156 pages, ISBN 0-7494-4004-X

●Lloyd King, Amazing Aha! Puzzles, Puzzle Wizard, 2004, paperback, 180 pages, ISBN 1-4116-1330-9


Mindmapping

Mind mapping is a method of representing words, ideas, tasks in relationship to a central idea. A Mind map is a diagram that can be used to generate, visualise, classify and structure ideas as well as a means to communicate or perform problem solving and decision making. It is a useful tool when trying to perform lateral thinking. Mind maps have structure but are also relatively free form and fluid and encourage a brainstorming approach which encourages users to list and connect concepts without using preconceived frameworks or assumptions.

An industry standard that implements formal rules for finalizing at least a subset of such diagrams is the Unified Modeling Language (UML).

Mind maps can be created by groups, and are a useful brainstorming tool. They are good for condensing material into a concise and memorable format, and are great for showing relationships between concepts and ideas.

Mind map software is available (eg Freemind at Sourceforge: http://sourceforge.net/projects/freemind/) but they can also be drawn by hand, eg during a lecture or meeting.

See: Buzan, Tony. (2000). The Mind Map Book, Penguin Books, 1996. ISBN 978-0452273221


This example of a sub section of mind map shows how the technique can be used to explore the technical skills needed to be a storage product developer

Mindmapping


Research This method of problem solving looks at what is already known about and has been

written by others in the hope that the problem may already be solved or solutions to similar problems may indicate how this problem may be solved

Source material Google

Scientific and Technical Journals. IEE, IEEE, BCS

Internal wikis, bulletin boards

The coffee machine (ie your colleagues)


Hypothesis Testing Experimental data can be used to support decision making (and therefore problem

solving) by using a statistical hypothesis test. In statistics, a result is called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance.

Hypothesis testing is defined by the following general procedure: Formulate a null hypothesis. Typically this is that the observations are the

result of pure chance. Formulate also an alternative hypothesis. Commonly this is that the observations show real effect combined with a component of chance variation.

Identify a test statistic that can be used to assess the truth of the null hypothesis.

Compute the P-value, which is the probability that a test statistic at least as significant as the one observed would be obtained assuming that the null hypothesis were true. The smaller the P-value, the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis.

Compare the P-value to an acceptable significance value, alpha. . If P-value < alpha , then the observed effect is statistically significant, the null hypothesis is ruled out, and the alternative hypothesis is valid.


Analogy This method compares the problem to other problems with known solutions

(possibly in other fields) and determines if aspects of these solutions can help in solving this problem.

On famous example in physics is the use by Neil Bohr of an analogue of the solar system when describing an early model of the atom. Here the electrons in orbit around the nucleus were said to be analogous to the planets in orbit around the sun.

In a related technique a physical prototype can be built to model and represent some other physical object. For example, wind tunnels are used to test scale models of wings and aircraft, which act as an analog to full-size wings and aircraft.

An example in computing was the use of the flow of water in pipes in an analogue computer (MONIAC) which was used to represent the flow of money in an economy.


Modeling

In this method a model of the problem is constructed. The behaviour of the model is then compared to reality and if the model behaves sufficiently closely to reality the model can be used to characterise and solve the problem.


The GROW process

GROW is more of a structured framework for achieving goals rather than a technique for intellectual problem solving. It is used commonly used in the business/corporate world.

GROW is often used by a coach to help a client change their behaviour or achieve a desired outcome.


The GROW process

This example deals with time management.

The clients wants: ‘To go home at 5pm every night this wek and to continue to do that in future weeks’. This is the Goal.

The GROW approach would then be to establish the Reality by stating what their current leaving time is now. The coach would then ask awareness questions to deepen understanding of what is happening when the client gets to 5pm in the evening and finds they are not ready to go home, thus identifying the Obstacles. These questions could include:

−Have you been able to go home at 5pm any of the days this week – if so, what made the difference on that particular day?What is the difference between the days you are able to go home on time and days when you cannot?What would have to change for you to be sure you could go home on time every day?


If the client genuinely answers these questions they will discover new information about what works and does not work for them in terms of leaving time, or discover they are dependent on other peoples actions or working hours. This improved understanding can then be used to create some potential for change.

It then becomes possible to create some strategies or Options which get around the Obstacles. These could include looking at when meetings are scheduled during the day, when new code builds are delivered from development (if the client is a tester), improving automation to make test starts more reliably and quickly or even just setting new expectations with project management on what can be achieved in a normal working day.

Once the client knows the strategies that are likely to work they can establish a Way Forward which involves taking action steps. This is where they commit to what they will do in the short term to put the strategies into effect. For instance, one action might be to move the daily build start time from 3pm to 1pm, or to set a 9am meeting to determine the day's priorities, so that the high priority items can be completed in the morning/early afternoon.


The GROW process

G Goal This is the desired outcome. The goal must be defined in such a way that is very clear when it has been achieved.

R Reality This is how far the current outcome is away from the goal. If the number of steps to achieve the goal are identified, then the reality would be the number of steps that have been completed so far.

O Obstacles

Options

These are what are currently preventing the goal being reached. If there were no obstacles the goal would have been achieved.Once obstacles have been identified, the options are the ways in which the obstacles may be overcome.

W Way forward

The Options must be converted in actions – these actions will move the curent situation towards the desired outcome – the action list is the Way Forward..


The GROW method and the Inner Game

GROW was developed out of the Inner Game theory developed by Timothy Gallwey, a tennis coach who noticed that he could often see what a player was doing wrong but simply telling them what they should be doing did not achieve lasting change.

The player who does not keep their eye on the ball can be used to illustrate the method.. When observing the player most coaches would say: ‘Keep your eye on the ball’ to improve the player’s success in hitting and directing the ball. A player will be able to follow this type of instruction for a short while but often will be unable to continue to focus on it when subsequent instructions are given. So the problem is not solved in the long term.

So one day, instead of giving an instruction, Gallwey asked the player to say `bounce' out loud when the ball bounced and `hit' out loud when they hit it

This caused the player to keep their eye on the ball without directly thinking about it. In effect the player was playing a simple game while they were playing tennis. Gallwey saw that the most imported thing was to help the player discover for himself what worked and what needed to change. This was the birth of the Inner Game.



The basic methodology of GROW came out of Gallwey’s work with tennis players. Step one in this process would be to set a target which the player wanted to achieve –eg how many first serves out of ten did the player want to get in. This was Goal.

The player would then serve 10 balls and see how many first serves went in. This was the Reality.

Gallwey then asked "What do you notice you are doing differently when you the ball goes in or out?" From this the player discovered for themselves what they were changing about their mind and body when the serve went in or out. In this was the Obstacles and Options were defined. From this the player then learnt for themselves what they had to change in order to meet their serving targets and they had a clear Way Forward.



1. The learner is rarely focused on what is happening during the process, in most learning situations. Progress will be fastest when the learner focuses their attention on a relevant aspect of what is actually happening during the process, rather than what they ‘should’ be doing or trying to get it ‘right’.

2. Learning happens best when the learner is focused on the present. It is more difficult to remember something from the past and apply it to the present rather than to make discoveries as they go along.

3. Trying to look good or using a lot of unfocused effort will interfere with the learning process. Faster progress is made, the less interference there is.

4. GROW was developed as a structured framework to use the Inner Game principles to achieve goals. The originators saw that, just as in sport, many individuals were struggling to achieve goals because they were not learning from experience and were not aware of the knowledge within themselves that would help them.

Gallwey’s work led to a number of learning principles which can be applied to any learning situation whether sport based or not.


The Eight Discipline method

The Eight Disciplines Problem is a method used to approach and to resolve problems – typically employed by quality engineers or other professionals.


The Eight Discipline methodD1 Use a team Establish a team of people with product/process knowledge

D2 Define the problem Specify the problem by identifynig in quantifiable terms the who, what, where, when, why, how and how many for the problem

D3 Implement and verify interim actions

Define and implement containment actions to isolate the problem from any customer

D4 Identify and Verify Root Causes

Identify all potential causes that could explain why the problem occurred

D5 Choose and verify Permanent Corrective Actions (PCAs)

Through pre-production programs quantitatively confirm that the selected corrective actions will resolve the problem for the customer

D6 Implement and validate the PCAs

Define and implement the best corrective actions

D7 Prevent re-occurrences

Modify the management systems, operation systems, practices and procedures to prevent recurrence ofthis and all similar problems

D8 Congratulate your Team

Recognise the collective efforts of the team. The needs to be formally thanked by he organisation.



D1 Use a team The team should contain the right personnel to resolve the issue. That means that you should look for team members that have the right technical expertise (domain knowledge for the specialist knowledge required for this particular problem, experience on similar projects, good generalist skills, good communication skills, good team player skills). Often a cross-functional team works best, but it is as important to ensure the team functions well as a group. Is there a natural leader in the group? Will the group accept this leader?


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D2 Define the problem Use an ‘Is/Is not’ worksheet

An "is/is not" worksheet is useful for defining the problem. It is expressed in the terminology of the customer or end user.

An “is/is not” worksheet states what the problem is and what it is not. It does not deal with why, how, who or when. The attributes and characteristics of the problem should be stated in terms that would be recognised by the user. Each statement of what the problem is should be tangible, quantifiable, clear, unambiguous and precise.

It can be just as important to state what the problem is not, ie to limit the scope of the issue that is being addressed.

Your problem statement should never detail a cause for the issue at hand. After all, if you knew the cause, you wouldn't need to create this statement. You wouldn't have a need for this methodology. You'd take action to eliminate the cause.


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Bad problem definitions

• The host latency is too big.• There are too many errors in our defect reports.• Our delivery time is horrible.

Good problem definitions

• The host latency in the last 3 product builds measured an average of 42 ms (the issue) for sequential , 4K, 70/30% read/write loads, which exceeds the customer requirement of 22ms

• In the past 2 months, 77% of defects were returned for more information or problem recreate, this exceeds the company wide average of 20%

• Our time to produce fully DCUT code, is 20 weeks per 1000 kloc.

.


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D3 Implement and verify interim actions

In manufacturing you might:

Determine the impact of the customer’s issue within your organization. Identify all possible suspect material and segregate that material for further review. List the date codes, lot numbers, etc. that are considered suspect. Determine a method that clearly shows the customer that all product shipped from this date was inspected and known to be acceptable.

What would you do in development?



D4 Identify and Verify Root Causes

D4 is the important and most difficult step of the 8 disciplines of problem solving. The team investigates the problem and begins to develop theories regarding where and how this issue occurred. Common methods for root cause analysis are:

Brainstorm, Fish diagram, Pareto Chart.

From these methods the team should identify the root cause. It may be necessary to run experiments or prototype solutions to confirm that the true root cause has been identified.


The Eight Discipline method – D4 – the Pareto Chart

A Pareto chart is used to graphically summarize and display the relative importance of the differences between groups of data.

A Pareto chart can help answer questions like

• What are the largest issues facing our team or business?• What 20% of sources are causing 80% of the problems? – this enables the

team to focus its efforts on the areas where the most reward is likely.• Does the problem have root causes that cluster in certain functional areas?

• The left-side vertical axis of the Pareto chart is labeled Frequency (the number of counts for each category),

• The right-side vertical axis of the Pareto chart is the cumulative percentage,• The horizontal axis of the pareto chart is labeled with the group names of your

response variables.

• You then determine the number of data points that reside within each group and construct the Pareto chart. Unlike the bar chart, the Pareto chart is ordered in descending frequency magnitude. The groups are defined by the user.


The Eight Discipline method – D4 – the Pareto Chart

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

RemoteCopy FlashCopy GUI Platform CLI

Functional Area

Defe

ct C

ount

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Cum

ulat

ive

Perc

enta

ge

Defects per build Cumulative Defects PerCent

RemoteCopy and FlashCopy contribute 80% of the defects


The Eight Discipline method – D4 – the Fish Diagram

The Ishikawa diagram is a tool used for systematically identifying and presenting all the possible causes of a particular problem in graphical format. The possible causes are presented at various levels of detail in connected branches, with the level of detail increasing as the branch goes outward, i.e., an outer branch is a cause of the inner branch it is attached to. Thus, the outermost branches usually indicate the root causes of the problem.

The Ishikawa Diagram resembles a fishbone (hence the alternative name "Fishbone Diagram") - it has a box (the 'fish head') that contains the statement of the problem at one end of the diagram. From this box originates the main branch (the 'fish spine') of the diagram. Sticking out of this main branch are major branches that categorize the causes according to their nature.

The fishbone will help to visually display the many potential causes for a specific problem or effect. It is particularly useful in a group setting and for situations in which little quantitative data is available for analysis.


The Eight Discipline method – D4 – the Fish Diagram

Motor car stalls afterrunning okay for

miles

Fuel

Spark Compression

Tank empty

Ran out of fuel

Leaky tank

Fuel quality

Fuel vent blockd

Plug leads

Damp leads

Lead fell off

Valves

Broken timing chain

Cylinder head

Blown gasket

Here the possible causes of the car stopping are divided into three main areas:FUEL, SPARK and COMPRESSION – individual causes are then attached to each area



D5 Choose and verify Permanent Corrective Actions (PCAs)

After identifying the root cause, the next step is to decide how the problem can be permanently fixed. This results in a number of possible Permanent Corrective Actions (PCAs). Each PCA should be evaluated based on key factors such as customer satisfaction, cost, effectiveness of elimination of the root cause riskExamining the characteristics of each PCA will allow the team to identify the ‘best’ solution. (Here we need to be sure we are using the correct criteria – as there may be conflicting viewpoints – the customer may want a low or zero cost solution but the suppliers may want an easily implemented and easily maintained solution.

Once a PCA is selected, the team should be able to make the problem come and go at will by alternately applying and removing the PCA. This demonstrates the validity of the solution.



D6 Implement and validate the PCAs

Use the selected PCA from D5. Implement this solution. Continue to measure the process to ensure the effectiveness of the solution.



D7 Prevent re-occurrences

Regularly follow up on the process measures, again to ensure effectiveness and prevent backsliding. Update all documentation in your Quality Management System. Mistake-proof the process if possible. Identify any potential areas where the same issue could occur and implement the same or similar PCA in those areas.



D8 Congratulate your Team

D8 is often the least well implemented step in the 8 disciplines of problem solving. Companies will often obtain formal sign-offs for the 8D structure, but don’t always remember to celebrate the completion of the task with the team participants. This feedback is a key item in making the team members feel that their contribution was valued, and more importantly encourages future participation in new problem solving activities..


The Eight Discipline method In the late 1990s, Ford developed a revised version of the 8D process, that they call

"Global 8D" (G8D) which is the current global standard for Ford and many other companies in the automotive supply chain. The major revisions to the process are as follows:

● Addition of a D0 (D-Zero) step as a gateway to the process. At D0, the team documents the symptoms that initiated the effort along with any Emergency Response Actions (ERAs) that were taken before formal initiation of the G8D. D0 also incorporates standard assessing questions meant to determine whether a full G8D is required. The assessing questions are meant to ensure that in a world of limited problem-solving resources, the efforts required for a full team-based problem-solving effort are limited to those problems that warrant these resources.

● Addition of Escape Point to D4 through D6. The idea here is to consider not only the ··Root cause of a problem, but equally importantly, what went wrong with the control system in allowing this problem to escape. Global 8D requires the team to identify and verify this Escape Point (defined as the earliest control point in the control system following the Root Cause that should have detected the problem but failed to do so) at D4. Then, through D5 and D6, the process requires the team to choose, verify, implement, and validate Permanent Corrective Actions to address the Escape Point.


What happens if you get stuck when trying to problem solve

Change the problemTry making the problem more abstract and less specific. Think more broadly and try to drop any preconceived notions. Generalise and restructure to see if that illuminates the problem. Then go back to specifics.

Take a different point of viewIdentify with an aspect of the problem and try to view the problem from that particular perspective. Ask “How would I feel if I were… what would that make me think, what solution would I then propose”. Ask “How would an expert in this field look at the problem?”

Create a ParadoxChange the problem statement by substituting some words with their opposites. Ask “What is the contradiction of the problem”. Try to draw the paradoxial problem. Then look for aspects that can be removed/reworked to give a genuine solution.

Look beyond the first answerDon’t expect to be right first time. Look deeper each time.


Image the problem is solved already.If you assume the problem is already solved, what does that mean – what people, events or actions would have been necessary to solve it. Then work back to the current situation to see how you could get to such a solution.

Sleep on the problemDo something else and allow your subconscious to work on the problem.Distract yourself and then return to the problem later.

What happens if you get stuck when trying to problem solve


Conclusion In problem solving it is just as important to understand the problem as to seek solutions

– in fact determining the requirements for the solution is essential before solutions can be sought

The problem is determined by the customer’s requirement, not necessarily by the solver’s view of the issue

There are a good range of techniques for devising solutions, eg research, analogy, brainstorming, lateral thinking, divide and conquer.

There are also a range of techniques for working efficiently in groups that can formalise and guide structured problem solving. These include GROW and the Eight Disciplines.

Most problem solving maps simply onto: Understand the problem, find a possible solution, evaluate the quality of the solution using the customer’s perspective, repeat the process until the customer is happy.


Some perspectives on problem solving “It isn’t that they can’t see the solution. It is that they can’t see the problem” G.K.Chesterton

“The most successful people in life are generally those who have the best information” Benjamin Disraeli

“We haven’t got the money, so we’ve got to think” Sir Ernest Rutherford

“We are usually convinced more easily by reasons we have fond ourselves than those which have ocurred to others” Blaise Pascal

“The process of research is to pull the problem apart into its different elements, a great many of which you already know about. When you get it pulled apart, you can work on the things you don’t know about”

“A problem well stated is half solved” John Dewey

“To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science” Albert Einstein

“


Some perspectives on problem solving “If I had eight hours to chop down a tree, I’d spend 6 hours sharpening my axe”

Abraham Lincoln

“Some men see things as they are and ask why. Others see things that never were and ask why not” George Bernard Shaw

“Probably it’s better to put off using words as long as possible and get one’s meaning as one can through pictures or sensations” George Orwell


Some homework – what methods would you use to solve the following problems?

You have 3 containers. They contain water and the largest one is full. They contain 16 litres, 9 litres and 7 litres. How can you measure out 8 litres of the water?

16 Litres

9 Litres7 Litres



You have 2 cylindrical containers. One contains water and is full, the other is empty. They are of equal sizes. How can distribute the water so that half is in one container and half is in the other one. Ie effectively measure out 8 litres of the water? You may not use any extra items so no cheating!

16 Litres 16 Litres



You have been given a raw egg, 15 drinking staws, 2 paper clips, 1 sheet of notebook paper, 2 rubber bands, 50cm of masking tape or scotch tape, and 50cm of string

Problem: Using the materials listed, design and build a container that will protect a raw egg from breaking when dropped from 8 feet



Pick a problem from your daily work.

Either decide to work as an individual or form a team

Decide what method you are going to use to solve the problem. Try and solve the problem. Was this the right method? Would you now pick a different method now that you have had one go at solving the problem.

Pick a different method and see if you can solve the problem (if you have not already) or come up with a better solution.

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