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Chapter 4Human Development

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Nature and Nurture Influence Development Physical, Cognitive, and Socioemotional

Development in Childhood Adolescence Adulthood

Application: Health and Wellness

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Development

The pattern of continuity and change that occurs throughout the lifespan Physical processes Cognitive processes Socioemotional processes

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Development

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Nature and Nurture

Nature – Biological Inheritance Nurture – Environmental Experiences Optimal experiences – Individuals take

active roles in their own development Early Experience versus Later Experience

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Prenatal Development

Conception: Fertilization Zygote – fertilized egg

Germinal Period: Weeks 1-2 Embryonic Period: Weeks 3-8 Fetal Period: Months 2-9

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Prenatal Development

Teratogens: Agents that cause birth defects Rubella Thalidomide Heroin Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Effects of teratogens depend on… Timing of exposure Genetic characteristics Postnatal environment

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Physical Development

Reflexes – genetically wired behaviors that are crucial for survival Grasping Sucking Stepping Startle

Few reflexes persist throughout life; most disappear as infants develop voluntary control over their behavior.

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Physical Development

Perceptual and Motor Skills Humans Infants and Imitation Preferential Looking

Give “choice” and measure preferences Habituation – Decrease in responding to a

stimulus after repeated presentations

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Brain Development

Myelination continues after birth Visual pathways: 6 months Auditory pathways: 4-5 years

Dramatic increase in synaptic connections Brain imaging techniques illuminate

developmental changes in the brain between 3-15 years postnatal

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Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Children actively construct their cognitive

world using… Schemas – concepts or frameworks that

organize information Assimilation – incorporate new info into

existing schemas Accomodation – adjust existing schemas to

incorporate new information

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Piaget’s Theory

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Piaget’s Theory

Sensorimotor Stage: Birth - 2 years Coordinate sensations with movements Object permanence

Preoperational Stage: 2 - 7 years Symbolic thinking Egocentrism Intuitive reasoning

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Piaget’s Theory

Concrete Operational Stage: 7 – 11 years Operational thinking (e.g., conservation) Classification skills Logical thinking in concrete contexts

Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 years Lasts through adulthood Abstract and idealistic thought Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

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Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

Some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought

Piaget placed too much emphasis on discrete stages and ignored individual differences

Culture and environment also influence development

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Socioemotional Development

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Theory emphasizes lifelong development Eight psychosocial stages of development Each stage represents a developmental task

Crisis that must be resolved Personal competence or weakness

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Erikson’s Theory

First 4 Stages: Childhood1. Trust versus mistrust

2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt

3. Initiative versus guilt

4. Industry versus inferiority

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Erikson’s Theory

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Evaluating Erikson’s Theory

Development is a lifelong challenge

Adolescents more than just sexual beings

Primary focus on case-study research

Omitted important developmental tasks

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Infant Attachment

The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver

Typically develops during first year of life May provide important foundation for

subsequent development Attachment intensifies at 6-7 months

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Infant Attachment

Harry Harlow – Infant rhesus monkeys What matters? Nourishment or contact Choose between two surrogate “mothers”

Cold wire mother versus warm cloth mother Infants preferred cloth mother across situations

Contact comfort is critical to attachment

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Infant Attachment

Mary Ainsworth – Strange Situation Procedure: Caregivers leave infant alone

with stranger, then return Secure Attachment Insecure Attachment

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Temperament

An individual’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding

Three clusters of temperament Easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up

Another perspective on temperament Effortful control, self-regulation, and negative

affectivity

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Parenting Styles

Authoritarian Parents are controlling and punitive Correlated with lack of initiative, poor

communication skills, social incompetence Authoritative

Parents encourage independence with limits Correlated with social competence, social

responsibility, and self-control

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Parenting Styles

Neglectful Parents are generally uninvolved Correlated with less social incompetence and

poor self-control Indulgent

Parents are involved, but place few limits Correlated with poor social competence, lack of

respect for others, poor self-control

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Parenting Styles

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Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) presented moral dilemmas and analyzed responses

Preconventional Behavior guided by punishments and rewards

Conventional Standards learned from parents and society

Postconventional Standards of society and abstract principles (personal

moral code)

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Moral Development

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Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory

Moral Reasoning ≠ Moral Behavior What we say and do are not always consistent

Women generally score lower than men Justice perspective (men)

Focus on the rights of the individual Care perspective (women) – Carol Gilligan

Focus on interpersonal communication Interconnectedness with other people

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Gender Development

Gender influenced by nature and nurture Biological Influences

Androgens – primary male sex hormones Estrogens – primary female sex hormones

Evolutionary Approach Social Role View

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Gender Development

Gender Roles – Expectations for how males and females should think, feel, and act

How do social experiences and culture influence gender development?

Traditional male and females gender roles Gender: Nature or Nurture?

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Intersection: Friendships

Research indicates that friendships Impact children’s self-esteem, well-being,

and school adjustment Comfort with giving or receiving help

appears related to one’s number of friends Learning to be a friend is an important

developmental skill

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Resilient Children

Resilience – A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times

Resilient children become capable adults Advantages possessed by resilient children

Individual factors Family factors Extrafamilial factors

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Resilient Children

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Understanding Adolescence

Transition from childhood to adulthood Balance positive and negative aspects Marked by the search for identity Roughly 75% are happy, enjoy life, believe

they can cope effectively with stress, and value school and work

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Physical Development

Puberty Rapid skeletal and sexual maturation Occurs two years earlier for girls than for boys

Testosterone (boys) Genital development, height, voice changes

Estrogen (girls) Breast, uterine, and skeletal development

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Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage Abstract, idealistic, and logical thought Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Adolescent Egocentrism The belief that others are as preoccupied with

the adolescent as he or she is Sense of uniqueness Sense of invincibility risky behaviors

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Socioemotional Development

Erikson: Psychosocial Development Stage 5: Identity versus identity confusion

James Marcia’s Four Identity StatusesExploration and Commitment

Identity diffusion Identity foreclosure Identity moratorium Identity achievement

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Socioemotional Development

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Adult Development and Aging

Emerging Adulthood Five Key Features

1. Identity exploration

2. Instability

3. Self-focused

4. Feeling in-between

5. The age of possibilities Health and well-being generally improves

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Physical Changes in Adulthood Early Adulthood

Most reach the peak of physical development Middle Adulthood

Most lose height, many gain weight Menopause for women (late 40s or early 50s)

Late Adulthood Life expectancy has increased, life span has not

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Biological Theories of Aging

Both look within our body’s cells Cellular-Clock Theory

Maximum # of cell divisions are possible Predicts human life span of about 120 years

Free-Radical Theory Unstable oxygen molecules within cells Cause DNA and cell damage

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Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration in Memory, reasoning, language Physical functioning

Disease marked by pronounced Tangles (tied bundles of proteins) Plaques (deposits in brain’s blood vessels)

Acetylcholine deficiency

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Alzheimer’s Disease

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Cognitive Development

Early adulthood Marked by relative and reflective thinking Considerable variation influenced by education

Middle adulthood Crystallized intelligence increases

Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills Fluid intelligence begins to decline

Our ability to reason abstractly

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Cognitive Development

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Cognitive Development

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Cognitive Development

Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research Studies produce slightly different findings Peak performance for both types of intelligence may

actually occur in middle adulthood Late Adulthood

Speed of processing generally declines Memories fade and retrieval skills fail Wisdom (expert knowledge about life) might

actually increase in some individuals

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Socioemotional Development

Erikson’s Theory: Last 4 Stages5. Identity versus role confusion (adolescence)

6. Intimacy versus isolation

7. Generativity versus stagnation

8. Integrity versus despair

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Erikson’s Theory

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Marriage and Parenting

Women and men are marrying later Principles for Successful Marriages

Nurturing fondness and admiration Turning toward each other as friends Giving up some power Solving conflicts together

Parenting can Generativity (Erikson)

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Socioemotional Development

Midlife Crisis or Midlife Consciousness? Research reveals that midlife

Is not particularly tumultuous, mostly positive Is relatively low in experienced anxiety Adults show resilience and good coping skills Brings few illnesses, but poor physical fitness

Awareness of gap between young and old

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Socioemotional Development

Activity Satisfaction and Good Health Value Emotional Satisfaction

Spend time with family and friends Narrow Social Interactions

Restrict contact with less familiar individuals Positive Psychology and Aging

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Application: Health and Wellness

Development during adulthood marked by Physical and psychological decline Conscious awareness of aging

Coping with life’s difficulties Assimilation and accommodation (Piaget)

Victor Frankl – Life Themes

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Chapter Summary

Explain how psychologists think about development. Describe children’s development from prenatal stages to

adolescence. Identify the most important changes that occur in

adolescence. Discuss adult development and the positive dimensions

of aging. Discuss important factors in successful adult

psychological development.

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Chapter Summary

Development occurs across the lifespan and is influenced by both Nature – biological inheritance Nurture – environmental experience

Physical Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood

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Chapter Summary

Cognitive Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood

Socioemotional Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood

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Chapter Summary

Piaget: Cognitive Development Schemas, assimilation, and accommodation Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete

operational, and formal operational stages Kohlberg: Moral Development

Shift from external internal moral code Preconventional, conventional, and

postconventional morality

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Chapter Summary

Erikson: Psychosocial Development Emphasizes lifelong development Eight psychosocial stages (crises) of

development Positive Psychology and Development

Most report being happy across the life span Coping, Life Themes, and Development