© 2005 pearson education, inc., publishing as pearson longman chapter 9: critical thinking...
TRANSCRIPT
© 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Longman
Chapter 9: Critical Thinking
PowerPoint by JoAnn Yaworski
and Mimi Markus
Bridging the Gap, 8/eBrenda Smith
© 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Longman
In this Chapter You Will Learn about:
Critical thinkingCharacteristics of critical thinkersBarriers to critical thinking Categories of support for argumentsHow to recognize an argumentArgument fallaciesInductive and deductive reasoning
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What Is Thinking?
Thinking is an organized and controlled mental activity that helps you solve problems, make decisions, and understand ideas.
Good thinkers:Form a planSystematically try different solutionsWork with confidencePersistently stick with task
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Thinking Critically
Thinking critically is the process of deliberating in a purposeful, organized manner in order to assess the value of information, both old and new. Critical thinkers:
– Search– Compare– Analyze – Clarify– Evaluate– Conclude
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Four Habits of Effective Critical Thinkers
Be willing to plan: Think first and write later. Don’t be impulsive. Develop a habit of planning.
Be flexible: Be open to new ideas. Consider new solutions for old problems.
Be persistent: Continue to work even when you are tired and discouraged. Good thinking is hard work.
Be willing to self-correct: Don’t be defensive about errors. Figure out what went wrong and learn from your mistakes.
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Academic Goals for Students
Think systematicallyEvaluateDraw conclusions based on
logic
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Terminology for Critical Thinking
Analogy Conclusion Argument
Consistency Induction Premise
Reliability Relevance Assertion
Believability Deduction Fallacy
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Barriers to Critical Thinking
Frame of referenceWishful thinkingHasty moral judgementsReliance on authorityLabels
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What Is an Argument?
An argument is an assertion that supports a conclusion and is intended to persuade(Ex: “You should water the grass tonight because
rain is not predicted for several days.”) Non-argumentative statements do not question truth
but simply offer information to explain and thereby help us understand(Ex: “The grass is wet because it rained last
night.”)
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Steps in Analyzing an Argument
Step 1: Identify the position on the issueStep 2: Identify the supportStep 3: Evaluate the supportStep 4: Evaluate the argument
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Step 1: Identify the Position on the Issue
Identify the conclusion. This is the position on the issue (the main point).
Key words that signal the issue:as a result in summaryconsequently it follows thatfinally thereforefor this reason thus
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Step 2: Identify Support inthe Argument
Identify the significant details, called
premises, that support the main point.
Key words that signal significant premises:
Because assuming that
since given that
if first, second, finally
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Categories of Support for Arguments - Part (1)
Facts: Objective truths– Ask: How were the facts gathered? Are they true?
Examples: Anecdotes to demonstrate the truth.– Ask: Are the examples true and relevant?
Analogies: Comparisons to similar cases.– Ask: Are the analogies accurate and relevant?
Authority: Words from a recognized expert.– Ask: What are the credentials and biases of the expert?
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Categories of Support for Arguments - Part (2)
Causal relationship: Saying one thing caused another– Ask: Is it an actual cause or merely an association?
Common knowledge claim: Assertion of wide acceptance– Ask: Is it relevant? Does everyone really believe it?
Statistics: Numerical data– Ask: Do the numbers accurately describe the
population? Personal experiences: Personal anecdotes
– Ask: Is the experience applicable to other situations?
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Step 3: Evaluate the Support
Evaluate the support according to three
levels of reasoning:
1. Relevance
2. Believability
3. Consistency
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What Is a Fallacy?
A fallacy is an inference that appears to be reasonable at first glance, but closer inspection proves it to be unrelated, unreliable, or illogical.
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Relevance Fallacies: Is the Support Related to the Conclusion? - Part (1)
Ad hominem: An attack on the person rather than the issue in hopes that if the person is opposed, the idea will be opposed
(Ex: Do not listen to Mr. Hite’s views on education because he is a banker.)
Bandwagon: The idea that everybody is doing it and you will be left out if you do not quickly join the crowd
(Ex: Everybody around the world is drinking Coke, so you should too)
Misleading analogy: A comparison of two things suggesting that they are similar when they are in fact distinctly different
(Ex: College students are just like elementary school students; they need to be taught self-discipline.)
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Relevance Fallacies: Is the Support Related to the Conclusion? - Part (2)
Straw person: A setup in which a distorted or exaggerated form of the opponent’s argument is introduced and knocked down as if to represent a totally weak opposition
(Ex: When a teen-aged daughter is told she cannot go out on the weeknight before a test, she replies with “that’s unreasonable to say that I can never go out on a weeknight.”)
Testimonials: Opinions of agreement from respected celebrities who are not actually experts
(Ex: A famous actor endorses a headache pill.)
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Relevance Fallacies: Is the Support Related to the Conclusion? - Part (3)
Transfer: An association with a positively or negatively regarded person or thing in order to lend the same association to the argument (also guilt or virtue by association)
(Ex: A local politician quotes President Lincoln in a speech as if Lincoln would have agreed with and voted for the candidate.)
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Believability Fallacies: Is the Support Believable or Highly Suspicious?
Incomplete facts or card stackingMisinterpreted statisticsOvergeneralizationsQuestionable authority
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Consistency Fallacies: Does the Support Hold Together or
Does it Fall Apart & Contradict Itself?
Appeals to emotionsAppeals to pityBegging the question or circular
reasoning OversimplificationSlippery slope
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Step 4: Evaluate the Argument
Allow yourself time to go over the
arguments.
Halpern’s four different degrees of support:
1. Unrelated reasons give no support.
2. A few weak reasons do not adequately support.
3. Many weak reasons can support.
4. Strong related reasons provide support.
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Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Inductive reasoners:
– Start by gathering data.
– Consider all available material.
– Formulate a conclusion.
DeductiveDeductive reasoners:
– Start with the conclusion of a previous experience.
– Apply it to a new situation.
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Creative and Critical Thinking
Creative thinking is
the ability to generate
many possible
solutions to a problem.
Critical thinking is the
examination of these
solutions for the
selection of the best of
all possibilities.
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Two Kinds of Creative Thinking
Vertical
Straightforward, logical thinking to solve a problem
Lateral
Thinking around the problem or even redefining the problem
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