© 2005 pearson education canada inc. chapter 2 sociological investigation

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc.

Chapter 2

Sociological Investigation


Science as one form of “Truth”

Belief or faith Expert testimony Simple agreement Science

– Logical system that bases knowledge on direct systematic observation

– Resting on empirical evidence: information we can verify with our senses


Concepts, Variables, and Measurement

Concept: a mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form

Variables: concepts whose values change from case to case Measurement: a procedure for determining the value of a

variable in a specific case Operationalizing a variable: specifying what one intends

to measure in assigning a value to a variable.


Reliability and Validity

Reliability – consistency in measurement– Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure

of the subject matter? Validity – precision in measuring exactly what

one intends to measure– Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out

to measure?


Correlation and Cause

Cause and effect– A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in

another

Types of variables– Independent: the variable that causes the change – Dependent: the variable that changes (its value depends upon the

independent variable)

Correlation– A relationship in which two or more variables change together


Figure 2-1


The Ideal of Objectivity

A state of personal neutrality in conducting research Max Weber expected personal beliefs to play a part

in selection of research topics or value-relevant But they should conduct research in a value-free

way. Replication, repetition by other researchers, can

help limit values of researchers.


Limitations of Scientific Sociology

1. Human behaviour is too complex to predict precisely anyone’s actions.

2. The presence of a researcher can affect outcomes.

3. Social patterns change constantly. What is true in one time or place may not be true in another.

4. Being value-free is difficult.


Two Other Frameworks for Sociological Investigation

1. Interpretive sociology– The study of society that focuses on the

meanings people attach to their social world– Reality is not out there, it is constructed by

people.2. Critical sociology

– The study of society that focuses on the need for change, and encourages activism.


Gender and Research

Five threats to gender research: Androcentricity and Gynocentricity: Approaching the topic

from a male-only or female-only perspective Overgeneralizing: Using data collected from one sex and

applying the findings to both sexes Gender blindness: The failure to consider the impact of gender

at all Double standards: Using different standards to judge males and

females Interference: a subject under study reacts to the sex of the

researcher


Research Ethics

Must strive to be technically competent and fair-minded Must disclose findings in full without omitting significant

data & be willing to share their data Must protect the safety, rights and privacy of subjects Must obtain informed consent--subjects are aware of of risks

and responsibilities and agree Must disclose all sources of funding and avoid conflicts of

interest Must demonstrate cultural sensitivity


Research Methods

Experiment: investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions, using an hypothesis, an unverified statement of a relationship between variables.

Steps:1. Measure dependent variable.2. Expose dependent variable to independent.3. Measure dependent variable to determine if predicted

change occurred. (Cont’d)


Research Methods (Cont’d)

Survey: subjects respond to a series of statements in a questionnaire or interview. A survey targets apopulation, the focus of the research, and collects data from a sample, a part that represents the whole, by random sampling, where every person has an equal chance of being selected. They receive questionnaire, a series of written/read (interview) questions.

(Cont’d)



Participant observation: systematically observing people while joining in their routine activities. Most of this research is exploratory. It tends to bequalitative: impressionistic not numerical data, notquantitative: numerical data.

The process, while inexpensive, usually requires much time.

(Cont’d)



Analysis of existing sources: Secondary Analysis: reanalyzing data collected by others,

e.g., census data. Content Analysis: counting content of materials, e.g., letters

and textbooks. Historical Research: e.g., development of Canadian

economy.


Table 2-4


Interplay of Theory and Method

Researchers move back and forth between facts and theory:

Inductive logical thought: transforming observations into general theory

Deductive logical thought: transforming general theory into hypotheses for scientific testing.


10 Steps in Sociological Research

1. Select and define topic

2. Review the literature

3. Develop key questions to ask

4. Assess requirements for study

5. Consider ethical issues

6. Select a research methodology

7. Collect the data

8. Interpret the findings

9. State conclusions

10. Publish the findings

© 2005 pearson education canada inc. chapter 2 sociological investigation

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