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The Role of Schooling in Society

When examined, answer with questions -Grafti

Paris, 1968

Most people dont li!e "ein# told what to do$ %n&

institution that aims to stru'ture and re#iment a persons

li(e is, to a 'ertain extent, in 'on)i't with that person$ *he

interestin# thin# is that that person is not alwa&s in will(ul

'on)i't with the institution$ *hose who are o"edient and

(ul+ll their role as students understanda"l& tr& to i#nore the

ne#atie ee'ts their s'hoolin# is hain# on them$ .ut whowould honestl& den& that these ee'ts are quite isi"le/

0tudents are tau#ht, throu#h the pro'ess o( s'hoolin#, to

"e 'on(ormist, unima#inatie, do'ile, and a #reat man&

other thin#s that are "& and lar#e 'onsidered irtues in the

wor!in# world$ 0ta& this wa& and &ou ma& neer (eel #ood

a"out &oursel(, "ut &ou will "e 'on#ratulated "& authorit&

+#ures (or the rest o( &our li(e$ thin! that the anta#onisti'

(eelin#s that people hae toward s'hool re)e't whats'hools are tr&in# to do to &ou$ 2ur present situation in

whi'h 'ompulsor& s'hoolin# appears to "e so natural has a

histori'al 'ontext3 the (or'es at wor! and reasons wh& we

spend so mu'h o( our lies in s'hool 'an onl& "e

adequatel& explained (rom a perspe'tie that loo!s at

s'hoolin# histori'all& in terms o( the means emplo&ed and

the ends desired and loo!s at where these institutional

desi#ns leae the indiidual 'au#ht up in s'hool$ 0u'h a

perspe'tie 'an "e reolutionar& onl& i( it identi+es with

the indiidual 'au#ht up in s'hool4with their needs and

desires, their an#er and (rustration$ We must loo! at how

s'hoolin# +ts into the whole o( so'iet& and what sort o(

so'ial relationships and institutions are hin#ed upon

!eepin# this indiidual4&ou, (or all pra'ti'al purposes4

a'quies'ent$ *he pro"lem, namel&, that most people do in

(a't do what the& are told, is a pro"lem with the totalit&

'iili5ed so'ial relations$

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0'hoolin# is a (undamental pro'ess o( our so'iet&$ t

'an "e understood as the ensem"le o( te'hniques "& whi'h

a so'iet& instru'ts the &oun# in the !nowled#e, alues, and

attitudes ne'essar& (or "e'omin# responsi"le mem"ers o(

so'iet&, reprodu'in# the dominant so'ial order$ *he "ells,

the 'lasses, the rules, the dis'iplineall are important

aspe'ts o( a 'ontrollin# pro'ess aimed at moldin# the

indiidual into a (orm more desira"le to othersto

authorities$ 0'hoolin#, li!e wor!, is "ased on 'oer'ion$

Generall& spea!in#, one does not do s'hoolwor! "e'ause

the experien'e itsel( is rewardin#$ 2ne does not do

s'hoolwor! on ones own terms$ %lso, there is a 'arrot or a

sti'! #uidin# &our pro#ressusuall& "oth$ Max 0tirner had itri#ht when he said that the s'hool question is a li(e

question$1

*he most important li(e-s!ill tau#ht in s'hools is

su"serien'e$ t is a"solutel& essential to all hierar'hi'al

so'ial s&stems$ 7du'ation, as William *orre& arris :$0$

;ommissioner o( 7du'ation at the turn o( the 'entur&< on'e

de+ned it, is the su"sumption o( the indiidual$= >o"od&

is a"solutel& (ree o( so'ial pressures, material (or'es,

outside in)uen'es$ .ut it does not (ollow that we should

su"mit to the ideal o( the indiiduals ad?ustment to the

so'ial terrain@ "ehaior modi+'ation administered "& the

#uardians o( the Aepu"li'$ *here is an essential tension

here@ the tension "etween unique indiiduals and the so'ial

institutions that preent their sel(-determination$

*he ne'essit& o( s'hools is deepl& in#rained in themodern ps&'he$ mpli'it in the a''eptan'e o( an& modern

politi'al ideolo#& is the assumption that the indiidual

exists to sere the 'ommon #ood or some hi#her prin'iple

exterior to personal su"?e'tiit&in (a't, this seems to "e

the "asis o( all ideolo#&, all politi'al s&stems, all (orms o(

rule$ 0o, pro'eedin# (rom this assumption, the suf'ientl&

s'hooled personthe uniersit& student, (or example

assumes the thin!in# o( a so'ial planner with re#ard to allpoliti'al questions$ ;riti'al thin!in# is so dis'oura#ed that

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man& are irtuall& in'apa"le o( ta!in# an anti-politi'al

stan'e a#ainst all the moral "a##a#e o( (ormal ideolo#&,

a#ainst the totalit& o( mental produ'tion$B %lexander

n#lis had the (ollowin# to sa& a"out this aspe't o(

s'hoolin#@ t must "e re'o#ni5ed that in %meri'an so'iet&

ea'h indiidual must "e not merel& a law-a"idin# 'iti5en

"ut also to some extent a law-ma!in# 'iti5en$C n a

demo'rati' state, so'ial sta"ilit& rests prin'ipall& on the

internali5ation o( the alues "ehind the rules, the moralit&

"ehind its rei+'ation in law$ 2ne 'an disli!e s'hool and still

"eliee in its m&tholo#&most people do$ *he stereot&pes

o( #ood students, "ad students and eer& other 'ate#or& o(

student 'on'eal the question o( the desira"ilit& o( s&stemso( #radin# and 'ate#ori5ation$ .analities, due to what the&

'on'eal, wor! (or the dominant or#ani5ation o( li(e $ $ $

words will not 'ease to wor! until people do, wrote

Mustapha Dha&ati$E *he m&tholo#& o( this dominant

or#ani5ation o( li(e 'onsists o( m&ths su'h as the ne'essit&

o( "ein# s'hooled in order to learn, the deta'hed o"?e'tiit&

and intelli#en'eF< o( the intelle'tual, and man& others, all

re)e'tin# 'apitalist aluesthe most salient o( whi'h isPro#ress$

*he student, li!e so'iet&, is 'ontinuall& ma!in#

pro#ress$ *he students pro#ress, li!e that o( so'iet&, is

(undamentall& a domesti'ation o( the human animal$ When

erri'! Hensen as!ed himsel( wh& s'hoolin# ta!es so lon#,

the answer he 'ame up with was strai#ht(orward and

truth(ul@ t ta!es that lon# to suf'ientl& "rea! a 'hilds

will$ t is not eas& to dis'onne't 'hildrens wills, to

dis'onne't them (rom their own experien'es o( the world in

preparation (or the lies o( pain(ul emplo&ment the& will

hae to endure$6 % (ew 'enturies earlier, mmanuel Dant

put it more su''in'tl&@ Man must "e dis'iplined "e'ause

he is naturall& wild$ $ $ $I is'ipline is at the heart o( the

edu'ational enterprise$ 0'hools are o"iousl& not or#ani5ed

"& the studentsthe& are the population that is to "e

'ontrolled, monitored, measured, and dis'iplined$ is'ipline

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is what the (a'tor& and the of'e and the store share with

the prison and the s'hool and the mental hospital$8 *here

are 'ertain rules to "e (ollowed and the student is wat'hed

at all times to ma!e sure she is 'on(ormin#$ is'ipline is

essential, "ut it does not explain all aspe'ts o( s'hoolin#$

Dnowled#e, the 'ommodit& that the s'hool deposits in &ou

or showers &ou with is somethin# exterior to the student,

who a''umulates !nowled#e in a pro'ess "e&ond her

'ontrol$ Dnowled#e is power, most 'ommonl& to the extent

that one 'an sere the interests o( power and se'ure a

'om(orta"le or power(ul pla'e in the so'ial order$ Jou'ault

pointed out that power ne'essaril& produ'es !nowled#e@

$ $ $ power and !nowled#e dire'tl& impl& one another $ $ $there is no power relation without the 'orrelatie

'onstitution o( a +eld o( !nowled#e, nor an& !nowled#e

that does not presuppose and 'onstitute at the same time

power relations$9 i#hl& spe'iali5ed !nowled#e o( the t&pe

that s'hools impart re)e'ts 'omplex power relations

hin#in# on extensie hierar'h& and diision o( la"or$ *he

in'reasin# importan'e o( s'hoolin# in modern so'iet&

re)e'ts so'iet&s in'reasin# totalitarianism, in the sensethat more and more human a'tiities are su"ordinated to

and 'onditioned "& the adan'ed te'hniques o( a

te'hnolo#i'al so'iet& whose driin# (or'e is ;apital$1K

t is o"ious that an& 'ritique o( s'hoolin# must hae

within it a 'ritique o( the so'ial order o( whi'h the s'hools

are a part and ise ersa$ 0'hoolin# seems to "e a positie

(eed"a'! s&stem@ more and more people #o throu#h

s'hools, 'apitalism adan'es, and more s'hools are needed

to !eep people su"serient to the "osses$ 7du'ation is su'h

an important ri#ht (or all people that it shall "e

'ompulsor& a''ordin# to %rti'le =6 o( the 19C8 :niersal

e'laration o( uman Ai#hts$11 7du'ation seems to "e

somethin# that all the ideolo#ues 'an a#ree on$ t is

o"iousl& helpin# people to adapt to the insanit& o( modern

so'iet&$ We "e'ome automatons, do'ile "odies"orin#,

dum", and monotonous (rom doin# s'hoolwor! with the

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same 'hara'teristi's$ .& and lar#e, students su"mit to their

"ehaior modi+'ation and (aith(ull& reprodu'e the 'urrent

so'ial order$

The History of Schooling

t ma& "e an eas& thin# to ma!e a Aepu"li'3 "ut it is

a er& la"orious thin# to ma!e Aepu"li'ans$ $ $ $ -ora'e

Mann

*he (amil& and the tri"e are the s'hools o( saa#es,

wrote Hames Mulhern$1= t would "e (ar more a''urate to

sa& that saa#es dont hae s'hools, "ut that would

perhaps "rin# the whole idea o( s'hools into question, or at

least #et the reader to thin! a"out how tri"es hae "een

repla'ed "& s'hools, (amilies "& 'lasses$ ( modern s'hools

are presented as simpl& more adan'ed (orms o(somethin# that has alwa&s existed, the& somehow seem

more unaoida"le, a part o( our human nature$ 0'hoolin#

is ne'essar& to a so'iet& to the extent that a #ien so'iet&

'onstitutes a so'ial order where indiiduals are

su"ordinated to some 'olle'tiit&$ Goernment and

hierar'hi'al so'ial relations maintain so'ial order in

'iili5ed so'ieties, and are there(ore prerequisites (or the

deelopment o( s'hoolin#$

*he deelopment o( writin# s&stems in 0umeria and

7#&pt set the sta#e (or the +rst spe'ialists in the modern

sense@ s'ri"es$ Writin# eoled as a wa& o( monitorin#

wealth, !eepin# tra'! o( the si5e o( armies, and re'ordin#

monetar& transa'tionsimportant (un'tions o( power (or

earl& 'ities$1B 0'ri"es, or intelle'tuals, hae alwa&s existed

to sere the interests o( power$ 0'hoolin# was ori#inall&

intended (or s'ri"es and other (un'tionaries who o''upiedadministratie and priestl& roles$ *he impersonal

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relationship o( students to an authorit& +#ure who instru'ts

them is thus histori'all& er& intimatel& tied to the

(un'tionin# o( power$ 0'hools deeloped as ad?un'ts to the

temple-'ourts o( the rulin# 'astes o( an'ient 'ities$

%''ountin#, mathemati's, 'hemistr&, astronom&, and a

si#ni+'ant amount o( literature 'on'erned with reli#ious

themes #rew out o( these +rst spe'iali5ed intelle'tual

enironments$ %lon# with all o( these 'ultural pursuits,

emphasis was alwa&s pla'ed on moralit& and #ood

mannersrenun'iation "ein# at the root o( the wor! ethi'

so essential to s'hoolin#$1C 7du'ation in the 7ast shared

these 'hara'teristi's@ indu s'hools stressed mental purit&

and sel(-dis'ipline, whi'h were reli#ious as well as s'hoolirtues$1E

t is with Gree'e that the Western tradition in

edu'ation is said to "e#in$ Gree! edu'ation was ori#inall&

'on'erned with the ideal o( the no"le warrior$ 0lowl& this

heroi' 'ulture "e'ame more o( a s'ri"e 'ulture, althou#h

the written word was not to "e the sole 'on'ern o(

edu'ation until all learnin# was or#ani5ed around the .oo!

o( .oo!s, the ;hristian "i"le$ n 0parta, edu'ation had an

essentiall& militar& 'hara'ter, its 'hie( purpose "ein# the

trainin# o( the hoplites, or hea& in(antr&$ %thenian

edu'ation was neer as stri'tl& or#ani5ed as that o( 0parta$

>onetheless, the ephe"ia o( %thens were s'hools (or (uture

soldiers or#ani5ed "& the state$ *he ephe"ia, howeer,

eentuall& lost their militar& (o'us, 'eased to "e

'ompulsor&, and "e#an tea'hin# philosoph& and rhetori' to

the wealth& that would neer hae to wor!$16

Prior to the sixth 'entur& .$;$, Gree! edu'ation was

#enerall& artisti' rather than literar&, athleti' rather than

intelle'tual$1I Man& Gree! 'ities, espe'iall& %thens, were

deelopin# a er& a'tie politi'al li(e around this time$ *his

more demo'rati5ed %thens deeloped (orms o( 'olle'tie

edu'ation that paed the wa& (or the deelopment o( the

s'hool as an institution$ *he 0ophists responded to theneed (or a new ideal o( edu'ation and "e#an to tea'h

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students with the intention o( moldin# su''ess(ul 'iti5ens@

people who were intelle'tual, s'ienti+', and rational$18 (

man is the measure o( all thin#s, as Prota#oras said, are

sophists the "est measurers/19 *he 0ophists went (rom

town to town sear'hin# (or pupils, literall& sellin# their

s!illsthe& "e'ame the +rst paid tea'hers$ *heir approa'h

was loo!ed upon 'ontemptuousl& "& man& who saw

edu'ation as en'ompassin# so mu'h more than pra'ti'al

pursuits3 nonetheless, the& laid the (oundation (or the more

hi#hl& deeloped ellenisti' edu'ation that would 'onsist

o( a 'omplex 'ourse o( studies underta!en (rom the a#e o(

seen to twent&$ %lthou#h there were no in(ant s'hools in

Gree'e, Plato (elt that 'hildren should #o to s'hool at six$%ristotle (elt that +e would "e the most sensi"le a#e to

"e#in, and ;hr&sippus was modern enou#h to sa& three$

0'hoolin# was "e#innin# to assume #reat importan'e in

the minds o( in)uential thin!ers$=K Plato (elt that with

s'hoolin#, man "e'omes the most diine and most

'iili5ed o( all animals3 without it, he is the most saa#e

o( earthl& 'reatures$=1 0till, (or all his seriousness a"out

preparin# the next #eneration o( politi'al leaders, thea'adem& he (ounded was in'redi"l& in(ormal "& modern

standards$==

Aoman edu'ation was ori#inall& er& dierent (rom

intelle'tual ellenisti' edu'ation$ Whereas the Gree! "o&

was led to s'hool "& a slae, a peda#o#ue, the Aoman "o&

sta&ed at home and was raised "& his mother and

edu'ated "& his (ather until he was old enou#h (or militar&

seri'e$ %s Aome extended its empire, Gree! in)uen'e

in'reased and eentuall& Aoman s'hools were 'reated (or

the purpose o( trainin# administrators and state

(un'tionaries$ 0till, there was neer an& #eneral s'holasti'

poli'& as was to "e deeloped later "& the modern nation-

state$ ;hristianit& deeloped in the midst o( Gre'o-Aoman

'iili5ation, and its edu'ational pra'ti'e would in'orporate

"oth Gree! intelle'tualism and Aoman seerit&, a"sor"in#

what is perhaps the most persistent theme o( Western

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7du'ation, the ideal ima#e o( manman who "owed down

"e(ore the law and sa'ri+'ed himsel( (or an ideal$=B

*he +rst ;hristian s'hools were the 'ate'heti'al

s'hools o( the +rst 'enturies %$$, where instru'tion wasex'lusiel& oral$ *he& were institutes o( hi#her learnin# in

the sense that the& were #eared toward an older audien'e$

*he& were prin'ipall& 'on'erned with instru'tin# pa#ans in

;hristian "elie(s so that the& 'ould "e "apti5ed$=C *he

monasti' s'hool, ori#inall& 'reated (or (uture mon!s,

appeared in the (ourth 'entur& and the& "e'ame the +rst

#enuine ;hristian s'hools$=E ;athedral s'hools whi'h were

proided "& eer& ;athedral were a later deelopment, andthe enri'hment o( their pro#ram helped "rin# a"out the

rise o( the :niersities durin# the medieal period$=6 Jrom

the 11th 'entur& onward, the 'hur'h was er& mu'h

'on'erned with the deelopment o( an ee'tie

edu'ational s&stem$ %t the same time, the 'hara'teristi's

o( hi#her edu'ation were "ein# esta"lished "etween the

11th and 16th 'enturies$=I Jrederi'! 7"& writes, .& the

end o( the 1Eth 'entur&, I9 uniersities were re'o#ni5ed in

western 7urope$ %lmost all had the "lessin#s o( the Pope,

een i( the& did not owe their initiation to papal de'ree$ $ $ $

Most o( the students were la&men, and se'ular su"?e'ts

su'h as law, medi'ine, and the s'ien'es dominated their

interest Lmore and more$=8 With the rise o( ;hristianit&,

edu'ation 'ame to hae a (undamentall& moral aim$

is'ipline was "e'omin# eer more pre'ise as liin# and

learnin# "e'ame more and more 'onditioned "& set

parameters o( spa'e and time$=9

*he 16th and 1Ith 'entur& #rammar s'hool that was

ph&si'all& separated (rom the 'hur'h was the produ't o(

the Aenaissan'e and the Ae(ormation$ *he humanism o(

the Aenaissan'e stimulated a #reater interest in intelle'tual

a'tiit& and 'lassi'al learnin#, while the re(ormation moed

"e&ond the traditionalism and (ormalism o( medieal times$

n terms o( s'hoolin#, the two moements seemed to wor!in harmon&$BK Martin Nuther, who was a staun'h ado'ate

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o( s'hoolin#, in)uen'ed the #rowth o( lower s'hools

throu#hout northern 7urope$ With Guten"er#s inention o(

moea"le t&pe, more and more .i"les were "ein# printed,

and uniersal edu'ation, i( not a humanist ideal, was

rapidl& "e'omin# a ;hristian one$B1 *he proin'ial s'hools

and the ;hristian elementar& s'hools o( the seenteenth

'entur& were (ounded prin'ipall& to 'om"at the i#noran'e

o( God and idleness amon# the poor$ ;omenius, an

edu'ator "orn in 1E9=, "elieed that 'hildren are not "orn

human, "ut 'an "e'ome human throu#h the proper

trainin#edu'atin# them thus "e'ame Gods purpose$

;hristian s'hools not onl& trained do'ile 'hildren, "ut also

tried to ma!e sure parents sta&ed (aith(ul and repli'atedthe dis'ipline o( the s'hool in the home$B=

*he adan'ements o( s'ien'e durin# the seenteenth

and ei#hteenth 'enturies permanentl& 'han#ed the wa&s in

whi'h s'hoolin# was iewed and implemented$ n Jran'is

.a'ons un+nished utopia, *he >ew %tlantis, the

inha"itants o( the per(e't 'ommonwealth or#ani5e a

s'ienti+' so'iet&, the end o( whi'h is the Dnowled#e o(

'auses, and the se'ret motions o( thin#s3 and the enlar#in#

o( the "ounds o( human empire, to the ee'tin# o( all

thin#s possi"le$BB .a'ons "oo! in)uen'ed the (oundin#

o( the Ao&al 0o'iet& and the s'ienti+' a'ademies, while

some o( his short essa&s, su'h as 2( Marria#e and the

0in#le Ni(e and 2( Parents and ;hildren si#naled the

de'reasin# importan'e o( the (amil& and traditional so'ial

#roupin#s$BC es'artes, too, made o"serations that er&

'learl& represented the in'reasin# importan'e o( s'ien'e$

e 'ame to the 'on'lusion that he was a su"stan'e the

whole essen'e or nature o( whi'h is simpl& to thin!, and

whi'h, in order to exist, has no need o( an& pla'e nor

depends on an& material thin#$BE 0'ien'e was slowl&

"e#innin# to repla'e reli#ion, in the sense that it o''upied

the same pla'e as an o"?e't o( (aith@ a #ood in and o( itsel($

*he O7nli#htenment, whi'h dis'oered the li"erties,also inented the dis'iplines, wrote Jou'ault$ n the

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ei#hteenth 'entur&, Oran! "e#ins to de+ne the #reat (orm

o( distri"ution o( indiiduals in the edu'ational order@ rows

or ran!s o( pupils in the 'lass, 'orridors, 'ourt&ards, ran!

attri"uted to ea'h pupil at the end o( ea'h tas! and ea'h

examination3 the ran! he o"tains (rom wee! to wee!,

month to month, &ear to &ear3 an ali#nment o( a#e #roups,

one a(ter another3 a su''ession o( su"?e'ts tau#ht and

questions treated, a''ordin# to an order o( in'reasin#

dif'ult&$B6 *he indiidual was more and more enmeshed

in a ps&'ho#eo#raph& shaped a''ordin# to the interests o(

power$ 0u'h is the shape o( the new s'hoolin# "ein# (or#ed

durin# the 7nli#htenment, soon to "e s&stemati'all&

applied "& the nation-state$ Geor#e Washin#ton and*homas Heerson, (or example, "oth saw edu'ation as a

wa& to 'reate a more homo#enous 'iti5enr&$BI .en?amin

Aush, e'hoin# %ristotles thin!in#, spo!e the hidden truth o(

s'hoolin#@ Net our pupil "e tau#ht that he does not "elon#

to himsel(, "ut that he is pu"li' propert&$B8

n the :nited 0tates, the Puritans were the +rst

people to "e preo''upied with s'hoolin#$ %''ordin# to

Puritan thin!in#, the 'hild was not onl& i#norant "ut sin(ul

in nature$B9 *he prea'her, 'oin'identall& also the main

tea'her in the Massa'husetts .a& ;olon&, was there to

raise them up to 'iili5ed status$CK n a''ordan'e with the

philosoph& o( Hohn ;alin, Massa'husetts oted (or the

'ompulsor& esta"lishment o( s'hools, orderin# eer& town,

that is, township, o( +(t& households to esta"lish an

elementar& s'hool and eer& town o( one hundred

households a se'ondar& s'hool as well$C1 ir#inia was

mu'h less 'on'erned with uniersal edu'ation$ *utors were

o(ten hired "& the wealth& to prepare their "o&s (or ;olle#e

usuall& William and Mar& or a 7uropean s'hool

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*he 'hara'ter o( %meri'an edu'ation was nothin#

new@ .oth L>oah We"ster and L.en?amin Aush "elieed

that the tea'her should "e an a"solute monar'h$CB *he

'lassroom was rapidl& "e'omin# an instrument (or the

(ormation o( modern repu"li'ans$ .en?amin Jran!lins

irtues o( temperan'e, silen'e, order, resolution, (ru#alit&,

industr&, sin'erit&, ?usti'e, moderation, 'leanliness,

tranquilit&, 'hastit&, and humilit& were perhaps the

.our#eois irtues par ex'ellen'e$CC *hese alues were

"e'omin# eer more entren'hed in so'iet& as industr&

pro#ressed and industriousness "e'ame the a"solute #ood@

*he wor!shop, the s'hool, the arm& were su"?e't to a

whole mi'ro-penalit& o( time latenesses, a"sen'es,interruptions o( tas!s

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saw themseles arra&ed a#ainst the mass o( parents,

whom the& 'onsidered un'omprehendin# and indierent$

0'hool 'ommittees were unashamedl& tr&in# to impose

edu'ational re(orm and innoation on this relu'tant

'iti5enr&$ *he 'ommunal leaders were not answerin# the

demands o( a 'lamourous wor!in# 'lass@ the& were

imposin# the demands3 the& were tellin# the ma?orit&, &our

'hildren shall "e edu'ated, and as we see +t$ Promoters

represented edu'ational re(orm, espe'iall& the hi#h s'hool,

as an innoation dire'tl& aimed at ur"ani5in#,

industriali5in# 'ommunities$ *he hi#h s'hool was

simultaneousl& to (oster mo"ilit&, promote e'onomi'

#rowth, 'ontri"ute to 'ommunal wealth, and sae towns(rom disinte#ratin# into an immoral and de#enerate

'haos$C8

ora'e Mann 'alled edu'ation the #reat equali5er o(

the 'onditions o( menthe "alan'e-wheel o( the so'ial

ma'hiner&$C9 0in'e s'hoolin# was "e'omin# more

demo'rati', 'ommon s'hool re(ormers were tr&in# to

appeal to eer&one@ *o emplo&ers he Lora'e Mann

'laimed that s'hoolin# made wor!ers more industrious,

o"edient, and adaptie, there"& in'reasin# their output3 to

wor!in# people he held out the hope o( in'reased

earnin#s$EK *he oerall tra?e'tor& o( this s'hoolin#,

howeer, is "est understood not in relation to demo'rati'

ideolo#&, "ut in its relation to industrialism and the new

(orms o( so'ial or#ani5ation "ein# deeloped$ 0'hoolin#

was to assimilate the immi#rants and tea'h all 'hildren to

shun the moral temptations o( modern li(e$ 7entuall&,

s'hools "e'ame #raded, poli'& ma!in# 'entrali5ed,

'urri'ula standardi5ed, and ar'hite'ture uni(orm$E1 What

emer#ed were s&stems o( pu"li' edu'ation, edu'ation

hain# a'quired its entirel& institutional 'hara'ter$ *his

deelopment paed the wa& (or the sterile "ureau'ra'& o(

the =Kth 'entur&$E= *he s'hools "e'ame important

auxiliar& institutions to the (a'tor&, tea'hin# 'hildren to "e

orderl& and tra'ta"le$ %n important transitional period

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18KK-18BK< in the deelopment o( industrial so'iet& in

7n#land and %meri'a was mar!ed "& a t&pe o( s'hool

!nown as a Nan'aster or monitorial s'hool$ 0u'h s'hools

were ori#inall& inspired "& the s'hoolin# s&stem in ndia

where"& the 'aste s&stem was presered throu#h the

#atherin# o( hundreds o( 'hildren (rom the "ottom two

'astes 9EQ o( the population< into "i# rooms where the&

were tau#ht sel(-a"ne#ation and little else "& a .rahmin$

Hoseph Nan'aster, a(ter readin# a report o( the indu

s&stem, wor!ed to esta"lish similar s'hools in 7n#land and

the :nited 0tates$ *hese s'hools were er& mu'h li!e

(a'tories, emphasi5in# e'onom&, routine, and 'ompetition$

While this parti'ular (orm o( s'hool did not surie, theethos that in(ormed the Nan'asterian s&stem 'ontinued$ n

other words, the (a'tor& 'ontinued to "e a model (or

s'hools$ 0'hoolin# "e'ame inextri'a"l& tied to the

reprodu'tion o( the new industrial order and 'apitalist

so'ial relations$ Gien the importan'e o( the new s'hoolin#

s&stem, it is no wonder that s'hoolin# would soon "e'ome

'ompulsor&$EB

%meri'as 'ompulsor& s'hool s&stem was inspired "&

the +rst ee'tie 'ompulsor& s'hool s&stem whi'h was

deeloped in Prussia and (un'tional "& 1819$ n 18K6, in

the "attle o( Hena, >apoleon 'rushed the militar& (or'es o(

Prussia, and in the *reat& o( *ilsit, "& whi'h pea'e was

'on'luded in 18KI, he exa'ted seere and humiliatin#

terms o( the de(eated nation$EC % wae o( Prussian

nationalism swept oer the nation$ ;reatin# a massie

'ompulsor& edu'ation s&stem aimed at 'reatin# patrioti'

masses that would die (or their 'ountr& was seen "&

leaders as the wa& to assure national #reatness$ Hohann

Gottlie" Ji'hte, the most in)uential proponent o( su'h a

s&stem, wanted students to deelop a loe o( re#ular and

pro#ressie mental a'tiit& that would dire't them toward

a li(e o( seri'e to so'iet&$ e was preo''upied with the

importan'e o( an ima#e o( a moral order o( li(e and the

#ood Las opposed to m& #ood, simpl& as su'h and (or its

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own sa!e$EE Jrom the 0wiss edu'ator Hohn enr&

Pestalo55i the (ather o( the modern elementar& s'hoolational 7du'ation %sso'iation in 19KE, Geor#e $ Martin

0e'retar& o( the 0tate .oard o( 7du'ation in

Massa'husetts< de'ried the (a't that edu'ational

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pro'esses seem uns'ienti+', 'rude, and waste(ul when

'ompared to modern "usiness pra'ti'es$ n 19KI, William

;$ .a#le& pu"lished ;lassroom Mana#ement, whi'h

'on'erned itsel( with the most ef'ient operation o( the

s'hool plant$ 0'hool "oards were in'reasin#l& dominated

"& "usinessmen, and a more utilitarian, 'areer-(o'used

edu'ation was 'alled (or$8=

We 'ouldnt as! more (rom a patrioti' motie than

0'ienti+' Mana#ement #ies (rom a sel+sh one, said

*heodore Aooseelt, o"iousl& (ull o( enthusiasm$8B

Jrederi'! Winslow *a&lor who deeloped 0'ienti+'

Mana#ement< 'learl& #rasped the import o( his ideas whenhe wrote, n the past the man has "een +rst3 in the (uture

the s&stem must "e +rst$8C *a&lor saw that the "est t&pe

o( industrial mana#ement in operation in his time was

"ased on the wor!man ta!in# initiatie and the emplo&er

#iin# some spe'ial in'entie in order to !eep the wor!er

motiated and produ'tie$ *a&lors idea o( 0'ienti+'

Mana#ement or tas! mana#ement was that the emplo&er

'ould een more ee'tiel& and ef'ientl& se'ure the

initiatie o( wor!men "& stud&in# the tas!s o( the wor!men

and deelopin# a s'ien'e (or ea'h element o( a mans wor!

and then sele'tin# and trainin# wor!men "est suited (or

the tas!s whi'h the emplo&er had (amiliari5ed himsel( with$

.& stud&in# tas!s, assi#nin# wor!men to de+nite tas!s

whi'h the& are to per(orm within a spe'i+ed amount o(

time, and monitorin# the wor!mens pro#ress, the

emplo&er ta!es on new responsi"ilities, "ut will "e a"le to

#reatl& in'rease the ef'ien'& o( his operation$ *a&lor was

indierent to the dehumani5in# aspe'ts o( 0'ienti+'

Mana#ement3 he (elt that an in'rease in ef'ien'& would

"rin# #reater prosperit& to all3 and the ri#hts o( the

people in other words, people as 'onsumers< were more

important to him than those o( emplo&ers or emplo&ees$ 8E

0'ienti+' Mana#ement sounded the death !nell (or what

was le(t o( the di#nit& or autonom& o( la"ora prerequisite

(or the (ast-pa'ed 'onsumer 'ulture o( toda&$86

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*here was mu'h enthusiasm (or s'ienti+'

mana#ement in the 'orporate world and espe'iall& the

'orporate media@ arti'les appeared in popular ma#a5ines

see!in# to appl& *a&lors prin'iples to the arm&, the le#al

pro(ession, the home, the (amil&, the household, the

'hur'h, and o( 'ourse, edu'ation$8I *a&lors ideas were

adopted, interpreted, and applied 'hie)& "& administrators3

and while the #reatest impa't was upon administration, the

administrator, and the pro(essional trainin# pro#rams o(

administration, the in)uen'e extended to all o( %meri'an

edu'ation (rom the elementar& s'hools to the

uniersities$88 %n a"stra't o( a spee'h re#ardin# the

appli'ation o( s'ienti+' mana#ement to s'hools< delieredto the i#h 0'hool *ea'hers %sso'iation o( >ew Ror! ;it&

was pu"lished in the .ulletin@

% L$ Purpose or o"?e't o( O0'ienti+' Mana#ement$1$

*o in'rease the ef'ien'& o( the la"orer, i$e$, the pupil$=$ *o

in'rease qualit& o( the produ't, i$e$, the pupil$B$ *here"& to

in'rease the amount o( output and the alue to the

'apitalist$ $ $ $89

%nother deelopment was the Gar& Plan, started in

Gar&, ndiana in 19K8 "& William %$ Wirt, superintendent o(

s'hools there at the time$ *he Gar& Plan 'onsisted o( the

departmentali5ation o( s'hool su"?e'ts and 'hildren "ein#

platooned into #roups that would use assem"l& rooms,

#&mnasiums, shops, la"oratories, and plarounds at the

same time as other #roups used 'lassrooms so that all

(a'ilities were "ein# utili5ed3 and at the soundin# o( the"ell, 'hildren would 'han#e 'lasses$ *he Gar& Plan allowed

administrators to show how ef'ient the& were$ %(ter it was

endorsed "& the Jederal .ureau o( 7du'ation in 191C, it

was "lo'!ed in >ew Ror! in 191I where riots "ro!e out in

opposition to it@ s'hools were stoned and poli'e tires

slashed and BKK students mostl& Hewish< were arrested$

>onetheless, "& 19=9, the Gar& Plan or ariants o( it were

in operation in 1,K68 s'hools in =K= 'ities$ %(ter 19BK, thisspe'i+' (orm o( s'hoolin# de'lined, &et Wirts innoations

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le(t a permanent mar! on s'hoolin# in #eneral$9K

With the in'reasin# spe'iali5ation o( %meri'an li(e

'ame the #rowth o( spe'iali5ed trainin# in edu'ation$ %s

Hohn *a&lor Gatto o"sered, .e(ore the =Kth 'entur& therewas no parasiti' arm& o( assistant prin'iples, 'oordinators,

and assorted "ureau'rati' spe'ialists$91 *he in'reasin#

'omplexit& o( the administratie hierar'h& and the

proli(eration o( standardi5ed tests helped to ensure tea'her

'on(ormit&$ Gien impetus (rom the wor! o( 7dward Nee

*horndi!e, standardi5ed testin# spread rapidl& a(ter World

War and the ;arne#ie ;orporation poured oer SB million

into the eort$9= Worldwide, uniersal primar& edu'ation"e'ame the #oal o( irtuall& all #oernments in the post-

World War era$ %lso in this era, hi#her edu'ation

experien'ed tremendous #rowth in industriali5ed nations$

More and more mone& is "ein# put toward post#raduate

trainin# and s'ienti+' and en#ineerin# resear'h and

experimental deelopment$9B 0'hoolin# in %meri'a loo!s

now li!e a +nel& tuned "ehaior modi+'ation ma'hine,

'hannelin# people into arious meanin#less ?o"s (or the

rest o( their lies$9C 0'hoolin# produ'es masses o( people,

not autonomous indiiduals$ ndiidual parts o( the

s'hoolin# ma'hine dont reall& matter an& more$

*e'hnolo#& has o"iousl& sered to institute new (orms o(

so'ial 'ontrol, as Mar'use o"sered in 2ne-imensional

Man$9E 2ur er& 'ons'iousness is surrounded on all sides

"& a mass media, and in this modern 'ontext, s'hoolin#

"e'omes a te'hnique o( propa#anda that (un'tions throu#h

the use o( !nowled#e, not in the seri'e o( an& 'lassi'al

ideal$ When Ha'ques 7llul wrote a"out modern propa#anda

in Propa#anda@ the Jormation o( Mens %ttitudes, he

emphasi5ed that it is a"oe all a set o( methods o( a

te'hnolo#i'al so'iet& "ased on mass media that addresses

indiiduals onl& as mem"ers o( a mass that shares

'ommon (eelin#s and m&ths$ 7llul pointed out that not all

propa#anda is expli'itl& politi'al$ 0'hoolin# is a t&pe o(

so'iolo#i'al propa#anda, aimed at the inte#ration o( the

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indiidual into the so'ial #roup$96 %s students #o ha5il&

(rom 'lass to 'lass, "ox to "ox, s'hoolin# as a te'hnique o(

so'ial 'ontrol perpetuates itsel($ %nd as le(tists drone on

a"out "etter edu'ation (or the people, (or the masses o(

people, the& are unaware o( what an important role the&

pla& in reprodu'in# existent so'ial and e'onomi'

(ormations$

Theories of SchoolingWh& not whip the tea'her when the student

mis"ehaes/io#enes o( 0inope

0'hoolin# is seen as a #ood thin#$ *hose who are

unedu'ated are seen as la'!in# somethin# essential to

"ein# (ull& (un'tionin#, (ull& human$ Jrom Plato to

;omenius to Dant, humanit& is somethin# that is imposedupon the &oun#$ 7en Paolo Jreire, a (aorite o( le(tists,

"eliees in a humani5in# peda#o#&, presuma"l& one that

ma!es people more (ull& human$9I We need to spend less

mone& on the militar&, more mone& on s'hools, sa& the

pro#ressies$ *heir 'omplete identi+'ation we< with the

nation-state is utterl& patheti'$ umanitarianism has

saturated the le(t and the ri#ht@ eer&one is wor!in# hard

oppressin# themseles, all (or a "etter humanit&, a "etter

(uture$ Ni!e Geor#e .ush, the pro#ressies dont want to

leae a sin#le 'hild "ehind$98

n e"rew there is one word (or "oth edu'ation and

'hastisement$99 *he power(ul men o( the an'ient world

were rather 'lear a"out what s'hoolin# entailed$ *oda& it is

o( the utmost importan'e to 'on'eal the role o( s'hoolin# in

so'iet&$ 0u"mission to authorit& is alwa&s the #oal o(

s'hoolin#$ *he power wielded "& authoritiesthe power toreward and punish, to ha"ituate the indiidual to desired

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patterns o( thou#ht and a'tionwor!s to inte#rate the

indiidual into a hierar'hi'al so'ial order$ 19th 'entur&

prison re(ormers and pro#ressie s'hool re(ormers were

wor!in# to ma!e this inte#ratin# (un'tion more ef'ient

and more total in its ee'ts$ .oth #roups were

humanitarians "e'ause the& sou#ht to ma!e the indiidual

"etter adapted o"iousl& doin# her a #reat seri'e< to a

new set o( so'ial 'onditions3 so'iet& had to "e shaped into

a dierent (orm, re-(ormed$ 0o'iet& is the main a'tor, and

indiiduals merel& respond$ *o those who haent pi'!ed up

on this 'leer phrasin#, so'iet& 'an "e understood as

those who hae the power to ma!e administratie and

le#islatie de'isions$ ndiiduals onl& a't as a part o(so'iet& to the extent that the& su"mit to existent so'ial

'onditions, and possi"l& tr& to in)uen'e those who hold

positions o( power$ %s Hohn ewe& put it, throu#h

edu'ation so'iet& 'an (ormulate its own purposes, 'an

or#ani5e its own means and resour'es, and thus shape

itsel( with de+niteness and e'onom& in the dire'tion in

whi'h it wishes to moe$1KK

%t +rst #lan'e ewe& seems to "e sa&in# that

edu'ation 'an determine the dire'tion in whi'h so'iet&

#oes, "ut in (a't he sa&s that so'iet& shapes itsel( throu#h

edu'ation, so edu'ation is reall& not determinin# an&thin#$

n other words, s'hoolin# is a te'hnique that so'iet& uses$

2ne 'annot (ault him (or su'h truth(ulness$ ur!heim

a#reed that edu'ation is onl& the ima#e and re)e'tion o(

so'iet&$ t imitates and reprodu'es the latter in a""reiated

(orms$ t does not 'reate it$1K1 7du'ators respond to

'han#es in so'iet& and ma!e sure their s'hoolin# produ'es

the ne'essar& produ'ts$ n a arard le'ture o( the 19=Ks

Geor#e 0$ ;ounts said the (ollowin#@ *his is not the pla'e

to ealuate industrial 'iili5ation$ $ $ $ 7du'ation must 'ome

to terms with industrial 'iili5ation and dis'oer its tas!s in

the new a#e$1K= 7du'ators wor! within institutional

'on+nes, within the 'on+nes o( their so'ial roles as

authorities and slaes ?ust li!e the Gree! peda#o#ues< o(

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the powers that "e$ 0in'e most edu'ators "eliee

unquestionin#l& that s'hools sere a positie (un'tion in

so'iet&, all o( their theories o( s'hoolin# and ideas (or

re(orm are li!el& to rein(or'e the "asi' assumption that

s'hools are a #ood thin#$1KB

Modern theories o( s'hoolin# are "ased on a so'ial

ideal o( pro#ress$ *his is "asi'all& a 'onseratie ideal in

the sense that te'hnolo#i'al 'han#e tends to "e

irreersi"le and re(orm tends to "uild upon itsel(, "& and

lar#e !eepin# institutional stru'tures and so'ial relations

inta't$ *he more thin#s 'han#e the more the& sta& the

same$ 0'hools hae "een steadil& expandin# pro#ressew Ror!@ *he 2x(ord illa#e Press,

=KKBew Ror!@ *ea'hers ;olle#e Press,

19IB

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.ritish ;olum"ia@ >ew 0o'iet& Pu"lishers, =KK=ew Ror!@ Ma'millan, 196Katie %meri'an Jamil& and ts

*ri"e 1I6B-199E Mahwah, >ew Herse&@ Nawren'e 7rl"aum

%sso'iates, 1996

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alues that 'ommon s'hool re(ormers o( the period wanted

instilled LProtestantism, repu"li'anism, and 'apitalism

mat'hed those ado'ated (or the 'iili5in# o( >atie

%meri'ans$ 0in'e >atie %meri'an 'hildren were

'onsidered la5& "& missionaries, Nan'asters method o(

instru'tion, whi'h en'oura#ed orderliness, industriousness,

and o"edien'e, was at one time used in ndian s'hools@

$ $ $man& o( the missionar& tea'hers sponsored "& the

;iili5ation Jund %'t esta"lished s'hools amon# the

;ho'taws and ;hero!ees usin# Nan'asterian methods o(

instru'tion$ .oth quotes ta!en (rom pa#e =9oral Morris and aid H$ Aothman eds$ *he

2x(ord istor& o( the Prison@ *he Pra'ti'e o( Punishment in

Western 0o'iet& >ew Ror!@ 2x(ord :niersit& Press, 1998

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199$81$ Gatto, *he :nder#round istor&, xxii-xxiii$8=$

Aa&mond 7$ ;allahan, 7du'ation and the ;ult o( 7f'ien'&@

% 0tud& o( the 0o'ial Jor'es that ae 0haped the

%dministration o( Pu"li' 0'hools *oronto@ :niersit& o(

;hi'a#o, 196=ew Ror!@ Aandom ouse, 19I=ew Herse&@ Nawren'e 7rl"aum

%sso'iates, 1996

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'riti'al spirit (ormed "& hi#her edu'ation and the ex'lusion

o( independent thou#ht$ 2ne must utili5e the edu'ation o(

the &oun# to 'ondition them to what 'omes later$9I$ Paolo

Jreire, Peda#o#& o( the 2ppressed >ew Ror!@ ;ontinuum

nternational Pu"lishin# Group, =KKBew Ror!@ Aoutled#e,

1998orwood, Massa'husetts@ arard :niersit&

Press, 19=9

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and Philosophi' Manus'ripts o( 18CC >ew Ror!@

Prometheus, 1988ew Ror!@

Jarrar, 0traus and Giroux, 19IK

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re#ulation was s&stemati'all& "ro!en down, a new s&stem

o( sel( re#ulation too! its pla'e, a 'oherent s&stem,

in'orporatin# all the aspe'ts o( sel(-repression$ We

parti'ipated in 'apitals on#oin# pro?e't o( 'oloni5ation "&

'oloni5in# ourseles, "& 'ontinuall& wor!in# at the

'onstru'tion o( a unitar& 'hara'ter-stru'ture 'hara'ter

armorew Ror!@

%utonomedia, 199E