X. HUMAN ANIMAL CONFLICT

X. A. INTRODUCTION

Human relationship with carnivores is one of the extremes. The domestic dog and

cat are found in the millions in all comers of the globe, while some wild species have had

their numbers reduced to hvmdreds and others have been completely annihilated.

Generally members of the Camivora are threatened by man either directly through

persecution and exploitation or indirectly through destruction of their habitat. Large

carnivores are generally unpopular with the people as they are blamed for loss of life and

livestock (Schaller and Crawshaw, 1980). Carnivore's protein rich diet and large home

ranges draw them into recurrent competition with human beings whose requirements are

also more or less similar (Treves and Karanth, 2003). Indeed, many large carnivore species

are specialized for ungulate predatiori therefore some individuals readily kill domesticated

ungulates when opportunities arises. In communities with a subsistence economy, even

small losses can be of economic importance and generate negative attitudes towards

wildlife and conservation (Mishra, 1982a). Public attitudes towards carnivores affect

conservation effort and increased aggressive encounters may weaken public support for

tiger conservation (Kerley et al, 2002). Conflicts with people and their livestocks are

significant sources of mortality for large carnivores. Human large carnivore conflict has

akeady exterminated one species Cheetah during 1972 fi-om India. Similarly tiger himian

conflict have already contributed to the decline and extinction of two subspecies of the

tiger (BaU tiger {P. t. balicd) and Javan tiger (P. t. sondaica) (Hoogerweif, 1970).

Desai and Baskaran (1996) have shown that even large mammals like elephants

avoid areas around himian habitation even such areas have important resources like water

near them. People entering forests always cause disturbance especially when entry is

regular and the number of people entered is large. Many wildlife conservation institutions

are looking towards increasing the area over which local people are able to coexist with

large carnivores through reducing conflict and making wildlife management effective.

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Human-large carnivore conflict takes place mostly in the form of both man-eating

and livestock depredation. Several studies in Australia showed that prolonged grazing by

livestock on native vegetation results in profound changes in ecosystem, including altered

vegetation structure and composition and changes in physical and chemical properties of

soil (Scougall et al, 1993). Trampling by livestock can lead to significant reduction in

litter and soil crust cover and less-buffered soil microclimate, such changes in soil profile

contribute inability of dominant tree species in woodland ecosystem to regenerate (Yates et

al, 2000).

It has also been reported that cattle grazing not only affect the habitat it may also

spread disease to wild animals at Tanzania's Serengeti National Park at least 25%of the

lions have recently been killed by canine distemper a viral disease apparently contracted

fi-om domestic dog (Morrell, 1994).

Man eating is one of the most important issues facing the conservation of tigers in

India (Simquist and Sunquist, 2002). Most of the human causality and conflicts are largely

confined to Valparai region (Sajeev et al., 2002) where the habitat fi-agmentation is more.

Some leopards start killing cattle or even attack people in adjacent areas of the Valparai

and are eventually killed by people. Moreover tigers and leopards are poached each year

for their lucrative hides and other body parts. The removal of a few individual carnivore

from a healthy population may not necessarily affect population growth because transient

animals may fill any vacant territories (Mc Dougal, 1977), but if the population is

decreasing and is not very healthy the poaching of a few individuals may dramatically

increase the probability of extinction (Kenney et ah, 1994).

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Objectives

To study the habitat fragmentation and the influence of settlements inside the

sanctuary,

Knowing the dependency of village people to forest produce and avoiding

intersection of people and carnivores,

To quantify wood cutting by village people and to study its effect on vegetation.

To know the difference in the prey species encounter rate in disturbed and

undisturbed area of IGWS & NP,

To find out variation in spatial use pattern of three carnivores (tiger, leopard and

dhole) m relation to human disturbance,

To know the variation in the prey composition of three carnivores in disturbed and

undisturbed habitats and

To design effective management implication by recognizing specific threats to

large carnivore population in IGWS & NP.

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X.B. METHODS

X. B.i. Habitat fragmentation

The habitat fragmentation affects the forest area primarily in two ways (Primak,

1993). They are

i. Fragmented habitat (small villages) have greater amoimt of edge for the area of

a habitat,

ii. The center of each habitat (village) is closer to an edge.

IGWS & NP forest area sandwiched with 36 settlements inside the sanctuary area.

The area covered by these settlements was calculated by surveying using GPS and then the

data was overlaid in the toposheet of the sanctuary. For certain village the area was

calculated using registered toposheet. The buffer area of utilization of human beings

arovmd each village (500m radius) from the periphery of the village was created using

Mapinfo version 6.0. Another factor, which could influence disturbance, is accessibility of

people to forest it was measured considering each village as a circle and the distance from

the center to the periphery of village (r). The distance was calculated (r) from the area of

each village using the formula (nt^).

X. B.ii. Population of people and Livestock

The population of people, community, their economical status and dependence on

forest and forest products were estimated by direct questionnaire. The number of cattle in

each village was calculated by number of cattle in each house using total count method.

X. B.iii. Quantification of woodcutting by human beings

Woodcutting pressure by people was quantified in order to know how it influences

the forest cover, which is a source of shade and fodder for the prey species of carnivores.

184

The woodcutting pressure is also expected to increase with increase in population and the

area of perimeter. So a 500m circular plot was laid around the periphery of a village, the

trees available and number of trees damaged was assessed. Then the percent damage was

calculated then it was correlated with population of people in a village and the length of

perimeter to evaluate the above mentioned assumption.

X. B.iv. Comparison of prey density between disturbed and undisturbed area:

There is highly significant positive correlation (r=0.81; p=0.00) was observed

between encounter rate and animal density of different prey species (Chapter-VI). So, in

order to find out variation in spatial use pattern of prey species in relation to human

disturbance the number of transects were selected based on level of human disturbance and

categorized into imdisturbed and disturbed area. The prey species movement pattern in

response to human disturbance was studied by the encounter or niraiber of sightings per

kilometer of a prey species and its mean group size was also compared to find out possible

variation in spatial usage pattern.

X. B.v. Spatial variation of habitat use pattern of predators in relation to human

disturbance:

The indirect evidences of animals such as pugmark, pellets, scats and scarps are

mostly viddely used to study the habitat use pattern elusive animals where the direct

sighting may not be used either due to because of elusive nature of animal including low

animal density or dense tropical forest hamper the studying of these animals habitat and

space use pattern directly. The encounter rate of three carnivores signs (scat and scraps)

were used to find out the variation of use of areas in response to human disturbance. The

human disturbance was also ranked based on number of peoples using the road, nearest

village and human population in nearby village. Though signs of all three predators

showed variation temporally which varied among months. But there is no significant

variation in number of scats or scraps encountered per year in a specific road in a given

month emphasis that it can be used as a tool to know the habitat use pattern of large

185

carnivores (Refer chapter-VIII). Thus the encounter rates of carnivores were used to find

out variation in spatial use pattern in response to human disturbance.

X. B.vi. Prey composition

Overall percent composition of prey species in carnivore scats collected fi-om the

disturbed and undisturbed areas of the sanctuary were evaluated to elucidate the effect of

human disturbance on carnivore prey selection.

X. B.vii. Poaching

Poaching has been one of the major threats to large carnivores. Thus the numbers

of poaching incidents were collected on adlibitum basis and the past records of poaching

incidents were also collected fi-om Forest department records of IGWS & NP.

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X. C. RESULTS

X. C.i. Habitat fragmentation and settlements

A diverse number of indigenous communities living in the Anamalai and these

people reside within the Sanctuary. There are 36 settlements are located inside the

sanctuary with the total area of 483 ha (4.83 km^). The location of each settlement is given

in Figure-10.1. The total perimeter of the village is 46km that is 46 km stretch of land is

exposed to human where the conflicts between wild animal and human beings likely occur.

The people also move inside the park as they depend on various forest products, fuel wood

and for cattle grazing, considering a minimum use of 500m radai in each village from the

periphery of a village a buffer layer was created aroimd each village, now the total area of

disturbance is 52km^ and the total perimeter of all village is about 145km (Figure-10.2).

But this is only the minimum value of area of utiUzation and disturbance the actual use

may be higher than this. The buffer layer of 1km radius from each village is given in the

figure-10.3. Thus, prolonged use of human could be denial for the wild animals in IGWS

& NP. Similarly another factor that influence the disturbance is accessibility of forest from

each village, it was measured considering each village as a circle and the distance from the

center to the periphery of village (r). Though the estimated radius of village was higher for

the villages such as Mavadappu, Thalinji, Kurumalai and Easalthittu but it is less than one

kilometer provided easy access to forest for all villages.

X. C.ii. Population of people

There are 6 communities living here they are Earvalar, Kadar, Malimalasar,

Muduva, Puliyar and Malasar. There are about 1669 families are living here among

different communities Puliyar is dominating community with 636 families about (36%).

The other major communities are Malasar and Muduva with 17% and 13% respectively.

The population number of Puliyar and Malasar is dominating other communities with 2056

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families and 1025 peoples respectively. The population, families and economical status of

different villages are given the Table-10.1.

The number of livestock in a village varied greatly from 1 to greater than 500

catties. Livestock includes cow, goat, sheep and bullocks each with total population of

2201, 265, 2396 and 88 respectively. Number of catties greater than 500 individuals was

found in villages such as Manjampatty, Moongilpallam, lower poonachi, Thalinji and

Thirumoorthymalai.

X. Ciii. Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) collection

The economy of these families was based on the selling of the variety of non-wood

forest produces to the locally existing co-operative society. There are about 13 different

products have been collected from most of the villages. They are honey, bees wax, seekai,

soapnut, turmeric, ginger, wild cardamom and Amla. Though the collection of products

were stopped in certain villages like Mavadappu, Vellimalai and Kavarakal. But all the

villages collect the above mentioned products and seasonal fruits such as mango, jack fruit

and amla. These products are sold in different places such as Thirumoorthy nagar,

Jalipatti, Attakatti Bai and to local traders in Valpari. The data collected from co-operative

society of MonompoUy and Ulandy ranges showed that the annual income from these

forest produces was Rs. 11,967,84/- (Table-10.2). The major source of income was honey,

white dammer, reed-bundles and wild cardamom. But this is only the collection of two

ranges sold in co-operative society. The most of the collections were self used or sold in

the village itself or in markets of Kerala. Thus the produces collected and sold is

enormous in IGWS & NP.

X. Civ. Agriculture

Apart from collection of NTFPs the agriculture is the main source of income to

these peoples. The total area under agriculture is 17442 acres. The main crops cultivated

are paddy, ragi, banana, sweet potato and ground nut (Table-10.3). Thus the most of the

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crops cultivated are food species of elephant which, directly attract the elephant to the

cultivation and the presence of water source near human habitation is also plays an

important role. The other cash crops grown by the villagers are lemon grass in

Sethumadai, KuUipatty, Kurumalai and Nedunkundru, coffe in Kallarkudi and cardamom

in Sankarankudi and Udumanparai and silkcotton in Nagaroothu and chirmarpathy and

Kozhikamuthi.

X. C.v. Woodcutting

The woodcutting pressure in a village was expected to correlate with human

population density. As the rule of thump when the need increases then the damage to the

trees also increase. There is strong positive correlation (r=0A5) was observed between

population of people in a village and percent tree damaged (Figure-10.4). The influence of

other factors such as number of tree available and the length of the perimeter of a village

are also correlated to find out the relation among these variables but it turned to be non­

significant. The relation between the percent damaged and tree available was negative (r=-

0.07; p=0.69) but it was less significant. This emphasis that the prolonged damage of tree

might be decreased the available trees in the periphery of a village. Similarly correlation of

percent damage with perimeter also not significant (r=0.03; p=0.86). Thus when compare

to other possible factors the population density of human in a village greatly influences the

woodcutting. The regression model fitted with population also showed significant relation

(F=4.955; p=0.03; Table-10.4). But the variation was caused by population was only 36%

(Table-10.5) and other factors such as proximity and variation in the requirement of village

peoples such as fuel wood also seemed to influence the woodcutting.

X. C.vi. Weed intensity

Similar to the tree damage there is direct influence of hvmian disturbance to weed

infestation has been most widely reported. The variation due to changes in microclimate

such as light, temperature, vmid and incident of fire, increases the vulnerability of the

fi-agments to invasion by exotic species. The relation between the population density in a

village and per cent weed occurrence was positively correlated (r=0.3; Figure-10.5).

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X. C.vii. Fire incidence

The incident of fire during the study period were recorded and mapped in the

sanctuary area. The most frequent incidents of fire during the study period are shown in

the map (Figure-10.6). There are about 55 patches of forest have burnt and the total area

burnt was 1,476 ha during the study period. The map clearly shows that the frequent

incidence of fire was happened near to village settlement, most of them are man made fire.

Large patches of forest were burnt in PoUachi, Udumalpet, Amaravathi and Valpari ranges

(Plate-10.1).

X. Cviii. Prey species spatial use pattern

The overall encounter rate of different prey species varied significantly (t=51.4;

df=413; p=0.00) between intact forest and human disturbed habitats. The overall

encounter rate of different prey species was 0.15±0.01 and 0.12±0.01 in undisturbed and

disturbed area. The encounter rate of different prey species in disturbed and undisturbed

transect were compared to know influence of human interference on prey movement

pattern (Figure-10.7). The encounter rate of chital, elephant, tahr and black naped hare

was higher in undisturbed transects. Where as for certain species such as wild pig, sambar

and gaur it was higher in disturbed area implies the tolerance of human disturbance by

these species.

There is profound seasonal variation was observed among different species in

disturbed and undisturbed habitats. The prey species such as chital, elephant and Nilgiri

tahr showed substantial variation in the encounter rate but it always less in disturbed

habitats (Figure-10.8). On contrary to this the encounter rate of gaur, sambar and wild

boar was higher in disturbed area during different seasons of the study period.

Irrespective of the habitat the prey species such as barking deer, chital and Nilgiri

tahr encountered higher in undisturbed area (Figure-10.9). Among species gaur and sambar

encountered higher in imdisturbed area of EGF. Elephant, mouse deer and wild pig were

mostly encountered in undisturbed area of SF but it is encountered more frequently in

disturbed areas of MDF and DDF.

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X. C.ix. Variation in group size of prey species

The mean group size of different prey species was compared to find out variation in

the grouping tendency of prey species in response to human disturbance. The mean group

size of cliital, elephant, gaur and Nilgiri talir was higher in undisturbed forest areas

(Figure-10.10). But the other prey species such as sambar and wild pig group size did not

show any significant variation in the grouping pattern between the disturbed and

undisturbed habitats.

X. C.X. Spatial use pattern of predators

The spatial use pattern based on number of all three predators signs encountered

per kilometer showed clear avoidance of disturbed areas (Table-10.6). The encounter rate

of tiger sign per kilometer was 2.09±0.14/km and undisturbed area, and it was 1.54±0.76

/km which varied significantly (t=3.53; df=646;p=0.00) between disturbed and undisturbed

areas. But leopard and wild dog has only marginal variation between disturbed and

undisturbed area. Among five habitats EGF, MDF and SF has significant variation

between disturbed and undisturbed area. Thus spatial use pattern of three large carnivores

signifies the importance of active avoidance of disturbed habitat.

For tiger there is no temporal variation in the encounter rate of signs during

different seasons except during the SWM (t=2.42; df=157; p=0.01) where <0.5 tiger

signs/km were sighted in disturbed area (Figure-10.11). Though there is no significant

variation in the mean tiger signs among other seasons, it was always less in disturbed area

than undisturbed emphasis the avoidance of tiger to human use areas. Contradictorily the

encounter rate of leopard signs was always higher in disturbed forest in all seasons of the

year (Figure-10.12) and it is highly significant during summer (t=1.806; df=158; p=0.07).

The mean wild dog scat encoimtered among seasons varied between undisturbed and

disturbed area, the encounter rate was higher in undisturbed area during summer and NEM

conversely it was higher in disturbed during SWM and Winter (Figure-10.13).

191

The encounter rate of tiger sign varied among habitats and between disturbed and

undisturbed area. In general EGF, MDF and GL habitat were considered as undisturbed

and SF and DDF were more disturbed habitats. The encounter rate of tiger signs was more

in undisturbed habitats of former habitats, and it is higher in disturbed habitats of later

habitats (Figure-10.14). The student t-test also showed significant variation between

disturbed and undisturbed area in all habitats. Similarly leopard signs were more in

undisturbed habitats, while in SF which is considered as more disturbed habitats it was

higher in disturbed area (Figure-10.15). Similar variation was obiserved in wdld dog scat

encounter also (Figure-10.16)

All the disturbed roads were ranked based on number of several factors such as

woodcutting, nearest village, number of peoples using the road. Then the relationship

between the numbers of carnivore sign per kilometer distance covered was correlated to

find out relationship between carnivore usage pattern and human disturbance. This

showed a strong negative relation for all three carnivore (Tiger, leopard and wild dog) in

IGWS & NP with r-value of-0.92, -0.92 and -0.66 all are significant at a= 0.05 level. The

linear regression between human disturbance ranking and carnivore encountered per km

were shown in the Figure-10.17.

X. Cxi. Prey composition

The percent composition of different prey species in tiger scat did not show any

significant (t=-1.43; df=8; p=0.19) variation between undisturbed and disturbed area. But

the percent composition of certain prey species such as sambar and Nilgir tahr in

undisturbed area (Figure-10.18). The other prey species such as gaur, chital, wild pig and

cattle were constituted higher percentages in disturbed area. Leopard prey composition did

not show any variation (t=-0.515; df=12; p=0.62) between disturbed and undisturbed area

and the overall percent composition for the most of the prey species was higher in

disturbed area (Figure-10.19). For wild dog the percent composition of cattle and goat was

higher in disturbed area for other wild prey species sambar, black naped hare and chital

were constituted higher in undisturbed habitat (Figure-10.20).

192

X. D. DISCUSSION

The population size is the best predictor of extinction probability, reserve should be

sufficient in area to preserve large populations of important species. An isolated reserve

that contain only four elephants will not have self perpetuating population. The best

evidence today suggests that populations of at least several hundred reproductive

individuals are needed to ensure the long-term viability of vertebrates. Several thousand

individuals is a desirable goal (Primack, 1993). IGWS & MP with its diverse habitat cover

an area of 958 km2 would suffice for long ranging species such as elephant. Further more

it is part of Anamali conservation area with total forest area of 2338 km . But the irregular

shape and habitat fragmentation created immense pressure in the sanctuary.

IGWS & NP was fractured by about 36 villages reside inside the sanctuary area but

all these settlements could suffer due to wild animals as it is covered by forests. This

increases the likelihood of wild animals coming in contact with human habitation, the

number of cases will then increase. Now the population is small but it is ever increasing

along with proliferation of all developmental activities such as roads, electricity and

commimication systems. Biotic pressure being imposed on the sanctuary resources is

certainly leading towards degradation. The tourism, rapid construction work by villagers,

expansion of tea plantation and formation of big hotels and lodges in the sanctuary are

reasons for increasing human populations. The developmental activities increase the

periphery of the village and gradually this leads to the situation as similar to Assam where

the forest area fragmented now it has became a hell for larger mammals especially

elephants, there are about more than 200 people are dying annually (Sethi, 2003). Long

term construction activities by electricity board have attracted labourers from neighbouring

states in search of jobs with the increase in population of the villages, demand on biomass

resources for fiiel and fodder requirements has increased proportionally. Further

fragmentation divides a large population into two or more smaller populations each of

which is more vuhierable to extinction (Schonewald-Cox and Buechner, 1992).

193

X. D.i. Threats to vegetation

In intact forests, less than 1% of the light energy may reach the forest floor,

keeping it relatively cool, moist and shaded during the day, reducing the air movement and

trapping the heat during the night. When the forest is cleared these effects are removed, as

the forest is exposed to direct sunlight, the ground becomes much hotter during the day.

Without the canopy to reduce the heat and moisture loss, the ground is also much colder at

night and is generally less humid. These effect extinction of many species and reduces

natural regeneration of many species.

X. D.ii. Damage to trees

The comparison of woodcutting intensity and population in a village showed

positive correlation, and the woodcutting by himians has significantly decreased wood

stem availability in adjoining areas of village. The utilization of fuel wood and for

construction of houses by peoples demand cutting of large number of trees illegally.

Woodcutting directly affect the are usage of wild animals, behavioural pattern (Plate-10.2).

Schaller (1967) mentioned changes in foraging time in disturbed areas and damage to

forage species as well as indirect effect such as changes in vegetation composition are

detrimental to prey population and consequently predator also get affected.

X. D.iii. Weed intensity

There is positive correlation was observed between the weed intensity and human

population in a village. Habitat fragmentation dramatically increased the amount of edge

relative to the amoimt of interior habitat. The village settlement represents a disturbed

environment in which many pest species of plants and animals can establish, increase in

numbers and then disperse into the interior of the fragment (Janzen, 1983). Mostly the

seeds of wind-dispersed plants such as Chromolina odorata and Parthinium sp. may be

blown great distances into the interior of the fragments, gaps that occur because of

increased tree mortality (Plate-10.2).

194

Increased wind, lower humidity and higher temperatures make fire more likely.

Fires may be spread into habitat fragments from nearby agricultural fields that are burnt

regularly or from the irregular activities of farmers practicing slash and bum agriculture.

Fires not only affect the flora and fauna, it also helps to spread of exotic species in the

periphery of the villages in tropical forest (Subramani, 2002). The fire in tropical forest

does not kill the mature trees, but the rich perinnial wildflower community and insect

fauna on the forest floor would be gradually eliminated. Primak (1993) was reported that

frequent himian-set fires in grasslands reduce the species diversity, as only those species

that are fire tolerant can survive. Thus in IGWS & NP more fire tolerant exotic species

such as Choromolena odorata and Lantana camera are spreading widely in the sanctuary

extricate the natural flora.

X. D.iv. Prey species spatial use pattern

The different prey species showed remarkable spatial variation according to human

disturbance. The encounter rate of Chital, Elephant, Tahr and Black-naped Hare was

higher in undisturbed fransects. Nilgiri Tahr, which is sensitive to human disturbance

found in lower densities in disturbed forest. Where as for certain species such as wild pig,

it was higher in disturbed area, which implies the tolerance of these species to human

disturbance by these species. In general omnivore animal such as wild pig may found near

human use areas where they can eat foods of both undisturbed and disturbed habitats

(Yahner, 1988). While sambar and gaur distributed in disturbed forest implies that they

may be attracted towards cleared habitats. Alverson et al, (1988) also suggested

population of herbivores can build up in edge areas and overgraze the vegetation.

This brings the wild animals being in closer proximity to domestic animals.

Diseases of domestic animals can then spread more readily to wild animals, which have

little resistance to them and the high rate of contact between the infested livestock (host)

and the wild ungulates (Anderson, 1982).

195

X. D.v. Predator spatial use pattern

The spatial use patter of all the three carnivores were studied by indirect evidences

such as scat and scraps that itself showed the clear avoidance of disturbed or human use

areas by the carnivores. But the scattered distribution of villages throughout the IGWS &

NP may force the carnivores come into contact with human beings and it could be main

reason for increased himian carnivore conflict. The higher proportions of cattle in the diets

of carnivore were also recorded in the sanctuary (Refer chapter-9) than other similar

tropical forests.

X. D.vi. Poaching

Though in recent years many coimtries have implemented strict protection

following dramatic decline in carnivore population. The large felids in India are totally

protected by laws both inside and outside Pas. Even problematic animal that stray into

human settlements and kill livestock are preferred for translocation (Chellam and Johnsing,

1993). But still poaching has been one of the major threats to large carnivores. The

international trade for tiger bones and products (Hemley and Mills, 1999) has lead to

imprecedented poaching pressure on tigers and also on leopards. Though IGWS 8c NP

endowed with protection of forest officials the pressure due to poaching especially in

adjoining Kerala part is higher (Plate-10.2). There are about two incident of poaching of

large carnivore were reported in IGWS & NP during the study period. One tiger was

poached in Topslip beat Ulandy range and a leopard was poisoned in MonompoUy range.

The incidences of human animal conflict recorded were given in table-10.7. The

fragmented habitat due to settlements also made leopard to prey on cattle and occasionally

on human beings, which created negative presumption of large carnivores in adjoining

areas. Oaklear (2003) correlated wolf predation on livestock and fovmd that the

vuhierability to predation was correlated with spatial proxunity of calves to wolf home

range. The present plight of tiger population in Sariska tiger reserve suggests that the

problem is very serious in India (The Hindu, June- 2005). Unlike elephant poaching where

the guns and large size of the carcass make it more easily detectable, tiger poaching is

usually done using snares (most effective) and small size of the carcass make it very

difficult to detect. The \jse of snares that can be set away from regularly used patrolling

paths, which made the poaching activity go undetected.

196

X. E. SUMMARY

Prey and predator spatial use pattern on different vegetation in relation to habitat fragmentation, human disturbance and villages were studied in IGWS & NP using both direct and indirect methods during the study period (2001-04). The impacts of settlements, methods to control disturbance and future management of the park were also suggested.

• The areas of utilization by village people in IGWS & NP were studied by creating a buffer layer around each village using Mapinfo. Inside the sanctuary the total area under disturbance is about 52km^ and the total perimeter under the disturbance is about 145 km. The disturbance was higher in villages such as Mavadappu, Thalanji, Kurumalai and Easalthittu.

• Among the six communities of people Puliyar and Malasar commimities is dominating the others consisting of 2056 families and 1025 peoples.

• There are about 13 different products have been collected from most of the villages. They are honey, bees wax, seekai, soapnut, turmeric, ginger, wild cardamom and Amla. Thus Non Timber Forest Product (NTFP) collection is the major threats to the park

• The most of the crops cultivated are food species of elephant, which directly attract elephant to the cultivation. In IGWS & NP, the total area imder cultivation is 17442 acres. Main crops cultivated are paddy, ragi, banana, sweet potato and ground nut.

There is strong positive correlation was observed between the population of people in a village and precent tree damaged. But there was no positive correlation between the available tree species and damaged, this emphasis that prolonged use of this area might reduce the number of available tree species.

The weed species intensity was higher in close proximity to villages showing that the variation in the microclimate could enable the infestation of weed around human settlements.

The occurrence of fire was more frequent near human settlements and most of them were man made fire. Large patches of forest were burnt in Pollachi, Udumalpet, Amaravathi and Valpari ranges during the study period.

The overall encounter rate of different species were studied in relation to human disturbance the encounter rate was higher in undisturbed forest for prey species such as Chital, Elephant, Nilgiri tahr, and Black naped-hare, whereas for certain species such as wild pig, Sambar and Gaur were mostly frequently sighted near human disturbed forests.

197

The influence grouping pattern of different prey species is correlated with the human disturbance for prey species such as Chital, Elephant, Gaur and Nilgiri Tahr group size was more in undisturbed forest than disturbed areas.

Predator spatial use pattern in relation to human disturbance was studied by using carnivore signs. Tiger showed active avoidance of human use areas, whereas other two carnivores did not show any significant variation in their spatial use pattern.

198

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Table-10.2 Details of quantity (Average of 10 years from 1993-2003) of different non-timber forest produces colleted and sold in Co-operative stores of MarmompoUy and UUandy range of IGWS & NP.

S.No. Name of products

Mean quantity collected (kg)/Nos.

Rate/kg Annual income

1 Honey 1241.00 90 111690.00 2 Bees Wax 97.78 25 2444.44 3 Seekai 7588.40 8 60707.20 4 Soapnut 738.00 15 11070.00 5 Black Dammar 1240.17 25 31004.17 6 WhiteDammer 3920.33 30 117610.00 7 Turmeric 6978.00 7 48846.00 8 Ginger 4877.75 20 97555.00 9 Wild Cardamom 186.00 900 167400.00 10 Nellikai 597.00 5 2985.00 11 Reeds - Bundles 16613.00 30 498390.00 12 Cane - Bundles 1649.00 25 41225.00 13 Eendh leaves 195.25 30 5857.50

Figure-10,4: The relationship between the number of people and the per cent wood cutting in a village in IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04)

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Number of peoples in a village

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y = 0.0522X + 55.657 R = 0.0903

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Number of peoples in a village

Figure-10.7: Difference in the encounter rate of different prey species in disturbed and undisturbed forest area of IGWS &, NP during the study period (2001-04).

0.45

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Prey species Q Undisturbed • D'sturbed

Table-10.4: ANOVA for the regression between the per cent woodcutting and human population of IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04).

Model Sum of Squares df Mean

Square F P

Per cent woodcutting

(R=36%)

Regression 824.308 1 824.308 4.955 0.033 Per cent woodcutting

(R=36%)

Residual 5656.212 34 166.359 Per cent

woodcutting (R=36%) Total 6480.520 35

Table-10.5: Regression showing the per cent woodcutting and human population of IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04)

Model Parameters Unstandardized

Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t P Model Parameters

B SE K t P

Per cent woodcutting

(R^=1.27)

(Constant) 30.664 3.427 8.947 0.000 Per cent woodcutting

(R^=1.27) Population 3.970E-02 0.018 0.357 2.226 0.033

Table-10.6: Difference in the encoimter rate of carnivore signs/km between disturbed and undisturbed habitats of IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04)

Predators Number of signs/km

t df P Predators Undisturbed Disturbed

t df P

Tiger 2.09±0.14 1.54±0.76 3.54 646 0.00* Leopard 1.26±0.69 1.06±0.56 2.27 646 0.02* Wild dog 0.45±0.05 0.41±0.02 0.91 646 0.36

*P value significant at 0.05 level

Table-10.7: The number of human animal conflict incidence recorded during 1996-2001 based on the IGWS & NF Forest Department Reports and based on author's direct observation.

SI.No Area Date Damage Animal Range Compensation (Rs.)

1 Annanagar 21-03-00 Injury Leopard Valparai 5000

2 Topslip 15-12-99 Child (2.5 years)

Leopard Topslip 50,000

3 Valparai 3/7/1999 Cow calf Leopard Valparai 3,000

4 Valparai Tan Tea 31-08-99 Goat Leopard Valparai 500

5 Stunmore 31-08-99 Cow Leopard Valparai 2,000 6 Valparai 27-04-00 Goat Leopard Valparai 1,500 7 Valparai 27-03-00 Cow Leopard Valparai 2,000 8 Valparai 5/2/2000 Human (D) Elephant Valparai 1,00,000 9 Valparai 10/11/00 Human (D) Elephant Valparai 1,00,000 10 Valparai 18-12-00 Human (D) Elephant Urlikal Estate 1,00,000 11 Valparai 16-02-01 Human (D) Elephant Urlikal Estate 1,00,000 12 Valparai 20-02-01 Human (D) Elephant Urlikal Estate 1,00,000

13 Plant velly estate 20-06-01 Human (D) Leopard Valparai 1,00,000

14 Balaji estate 18-09-01 Human (D)-5 years old Leopard Valparai 1,00,000

15 Kamaraj nagar 07/09/98 Cow death Leopard Valparai 2,000 16 Stunmore 26-03-97 Cow death Leopard Valparai 2,000 17 Palalai estate 27-06-98 Cow death Leopard Valparai 2,000 18 Palalai estate 27-06-01 Cow death Tiger Valparai 2,000 19 Kamaraj nagar 02/09/98 Cow death , Leopard Valparai 2,000 20 Urlikal 10/03/01 Cow death Tiger Valparai 2,000 21 Ayerpadi 21-06-01 Cow death Tiger Valparai 2,000 22 Vellaimala estate 30-04-01 Cow death Leopard Valparai 2,000 23 Kavarkal 18-04-99 Cow death Leopard Valparai 2,000

Figure-10.8: Encounter rate of different prey species in undisturbed and disturbed habitats of IGWS & NP during difference seasons of the study period (2001-04)

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Seasons NEM SUMM SWM WIN

Seasons NEM SUMM SWM

Seasons WIN

Figure-10.9: Encounter rate of prey species in different habitats of IGWS & NP in relation to human disturbance

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Habitats

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Habitats

Figure-10.10: The mean group size of different prey species in disturbed and undisturbed forest areas of IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04)

EiElE tL^atJE Chital Elephant Gaur Nilgiri Sambar Wild pig

tahr

B undisturbed ^ ^ • Disturbed

Figure-10.11: Encounter rate of tiger signs in different seasons of the study period (2001-04) atlGWS&NP.

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isturbted isturbted -T^ - i Dis urbed

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Figure-10.12: Encounter rate of leopard signs in different seasons of the study period (2001-04)atIGWS&NP.

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r

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Figure-10.13: Encounter rate of wild dog signs in different seasons of the study period (2001-04) at IGWS&NP.

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Figure-10.14: Encounter rate of tiger signs in different habitats of IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04).

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Figure-10.15: Encounter rate of leopard signs in different habitats of IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04)

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Figure-10.16: Encounter rate of wild dog signs in different habitats of IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04)

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Figure-10.17: The relationship between human disturbance ranking and carnivore signs per km in IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04)

3.50

3.00

2.50 R = 0.8424

• Tiger sign/km

D Leopard sign/km

• Wild dog sign/km

— —Linear (Tiger sign/km)

Linear <Leopard sign/km)

^ - Linear (Wild dog sign/km)

5 6 7

Disturbance rank 10 11

Figure-10.18: The per cent composition of different prey species of tiger in undisturbed and disturbed area in IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04)

Sambar Gaur Nilgiri tahr Wild pig Chita! Porcupine Cattle Bnhare Unid

Prey species

Figure-10.19: The per cent composition of different prey species of leopard in vmdisturbed and disturbed area m IGWS & NP during the study period (2001-04)

/ / ^ ^ </ ^ cy c / / / y ^ Prey species

Figure-10.20: The per cent composition of different prey species of dhole in undisturbed and disturbed area in IGWS &. NP during the study period (2001 -04)

30

25

c .o •(5 o Q. E o o

20

15

10

• Undisturbed

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1

MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS

Short-term measures

Patrolling

Intentional killing of carnivores by human beings is a major and rising threat to

carnivore population viability (Rabinowitz, 1986; Jhala and Giles, 1991). It is widely

discussed that without strictly protected areas it is nearly impossible to conduct

longitudinal studies of carnivores that are critical to scientific management. While PAs

have better protection due to better staff strength and infi'astructure, reserve forest

adjoining them are less effective as they lack staff strength as well as basic infi'astructure

and resources. So, in this context of dwindling population of large carnivores, especially

tiger and leopards, an effective method of monitoring such populations and the poaching

activities are the need of the hour. Hence interstate co-operation and co-ordination in the

protection of large carnivore are required. Intensive patrolling of the protected and their

adjoining area could minimize the poaching activities. Policy decisions and the

commitment of the forest officials have showed the perpetuation of the animals to this

extent. Nevertheless, they have reached their verge of extinction. Strict Insitu and Exsitu

conservation strategies alone could protect such animals from extinction. There is a need

to upgrade the protection capacity within reserve forest. Otherwise all the benefits gained

in the Pas will be lost in the reserve forest.

Avoiding intersection of human and carnivore activities

Barriers such as fences, trenches and walls have been used for millennia. When

made from local material and using traditional technologies, barriers are generally

inexpensive to maintain and sustainable under socio-economic constraints. Electrified

fences are both expensive in capital and time (Shelton, 1984). But caution should be made

before constructing any barrier in corridors, if a barrier even a solar fence is ineffective in

corridors. In IGWS & MP creating barriers around villages did not solve the problem,

further it will fragment the area more and isolate wildlife populations, vdiich will magnify

199

the problem (Thouless and Sakwa, 1995). Some individuals of carnivores have become

dedicated predators of livestock or humans have not been impeded by most of the barriers

and some learn to penetrate the barriers (Shelton, 1984).

Capture and translocation of problematic animal

The capture and translocation of problematic animal is a measure most widely used

to reduce the human animal conflict in most PAs of India. But this method is difficult as

said because it is very difficult to identify the animal, which is responsible for killing of

human beings. The problem will solve only when the problematic animal is captured and

translocated. People will argue that the carnivore animal live in territories and the animal

captured from the problematic area could be the same animal. But the studies on home

range of leopard showed that females were using overlapping ranges, where as males

territories are overlapped with many females but isolated from another male (Silva and

Jayaratne, 1994). This makes difficulties in identifying the problematic animal. On Aug

2000 in IGWS & MP as the management practice to reduce the carnivore and human

conflict a leopard from Valparai range in Planty valley region was captured. Which was

suppose to kill two children and preyed on number of catties. The animal was two year old

male captured using trap with live bait and it was tranquilized and transported to

Udumalpet range where it was released (Plate-10.2). But after one month on 12-Sep 2000

another incident of leopard attack on a small boy were reported. This implies that the

animal responsible for the killing of human may be other animal. Therefore it is difficult

to identify the animal, which kill the human being. Thus the method of capturing and

translocation may be used to reduce the problem only problematic animal is translocated

and that to only for a short term due to following reasons.

Studies on large carnivore have shown even the problematic animal is captured and

translocated the another animal living near by area could occupy the territory in due course

of time it will also start killing the human beings. Thus it will neither reduce the conflict

nor solve the problem. Not only that mostly the fate of translocated animal will be fatel

200

because it usually released in new areas where the area is occupied by another animal, the

animal with frustration and lack of knowledge area especially resources such as water and

other animal dens. Studies on wolf in Africa have shown that translocated animals have

lower annual survival and they showed strong homing tendency so the area of translocation

must be far apart (Bradley, et al., 2003). Translocation of bears, wolves, and some smaller

carnivores has been reviewed by others (Jorgensen et al., 1978; Stander, 1990) they stated

that translocated animal should be placed far apart from home land and in suitable place

with territorial vacancies. Further there are number of animals is being captured and

released inside most of the PAs but there is no study on these animals. Translocation into

PAs already occupied by conspecifics can lead to interspecific aggressions that may result

in many more carnivore deaths than would simply killing the problematic animal (Traves

and Karanth, 2003). Knowing dispersal capabilities of these animals in new environment

can only resolve these problems. So there is much studies carried to find out possible

solution.

Reducing the dependency of village people on forest products

Developing participatory fiiel wood plantation around villages on the periphery of

PAs or Reserve forests can gradually stop fire wood collection. NTFP collection should be

stopped completely with the PAS and well regulated in PAs. Because people entering

forests always cause disturbance especially where the entry is regular and where the

number of people is large.

Reducing the number of cattle

Overgrazing by cattle is results in reduced resources for wild herbivores and this

leads to a decline of prey base and consequently a decline in the predator population.

Cattle grazing has been recognized as major problem in Udumalpet, Amaravathy and

PoUachi ranges. The problem arises mainly as a result of people maintaining large

numbers of scrub cattle whose only output is dung, which is then sold as organic manure.

The system mainly ftinctions because of cheap labour, low cost of scrub cattle and access

201

to grazing in the forest. There is need wean the people away from this harmful practice

possibly by getting them to go in for a better breed of cattle where the productivity comes

from milk and not dung. Obviously this would have to be done along with public

awareness campaign and law enforcement to ensure that grazing does not continue.

Prevention of epidemic diseases

Diseases to wild herbivores remains a major threat as long as domestic livestock

enter the Pas for grazing. Livestock grazing coupled with the presence of captive

elephants may transmit disease to wild animals. One elephant was died in Topslip due to

Antharx. While the vaccination program conducted by forest department are being

resorted to villages and it would be best to gradually reduce and eliminate grazing from

PAs.

Long-term measures

Translocation of villages and settlements

The study indicate that the people suffer from multiple pressure due to wild animals

suffer due to loss of crops, animals and lives. Consequently the people encroaching on the

sanctuary by poaching and farm expansion. Such activities have long-term impUcation for

the management of IGWS & NP. Therefore resettlement is an innovative way to resolve

the problems of local people. It has been employed for over 30 years in Lidia to move

human settlements out of lion and tiger habitat, leading to substantial reduction in conflict

(Karanth et al., 1999). Peoples who are exposed to wildlife, residing in the center of the

park, suffer due to causalities, catastrophic loss of home and income force the people for

relocation. The relocation should be volimtary with participants gaining a net benefit such

as improved life style and access to jobs or essential services. Otherwise traditional

peoples will be imderstandably angry and frustrated and people in such a position are

unlikely to be strong supporters of conservation. The scheme should also be driven by

incentive rather than coercion and must entail fair, transparent process. But this scheme

202

may face political opposition from groups seeking to protect local land claims and culture.

But wildlife is our national asset resettlement may increasingly be the only conservation

option of many large carnivores in densily-populated regions like IGWS & NP.

Creating awareness among public

Creating awareness among the public about the carnivores species, their ecology

and their importance for conservation is the only way for the fixture conservation of

carnivores. Education in the school level will help in the conservation of carnivores in

fiiture.

Further research on carnivores

Though IGWS & NP support the varied wild animals there is no study on the

spatial use pattern of carnivores. Knowing the space usage pattern will enable to know the

impact of the villages on the distribution pattern of carnivores. In the present study there is

significant variation was recorded and disturbed areas were avoided by these carnivores.

Oakleaf (2003) correlated wolf predation on livestock calf and found that the vulnerability

to predation was correlated with spatial proximity of calves to wolf home range. Further

research using scientific tools such as radio tracking will provide exact area of overlap

between carnivore and human beings, which can be used to take effective management of

the park.

203