writing-on-stone: rock art on the northwestern plains

Writing-On-Stone: Rock Art on the Northwestern PlainsAuthor(s): James D. KeyserSource: Canadian Journal of Archaeology / Journal Canadien d’Archéologie, No. 1 (1977), pp.15-80Published by: Canadian Archaeological AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41102181 .

Accessed: 12/06/2014 19:47

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

Canadian Archaeological Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access toCanadian Journal of Archaeology / Journal Canadien d’Archéologie.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 195.78.109.54 on Thu, 12 Jun 2014 19:47:40 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=caaa

http://www.jstor.org/stable/41102181?origin=JSTOR-pdf

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp


CANADIAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY No. 1, 1977 15

Writing-On-Stone: Rock Art on the Northwestern Plains

James D. Key ser

Introduction

Writing-On-Stone is a short stretch of the Milk River valley in southern Alberta (Fig. 1) that houses one of the largest concentrations of Indian rock art in Western North America. Known since the early 1900s (Smith 1923; Dempsey 1973), there has been preliminary recording of some sites in the area (Dewdney 1964), but no systematic investigation and analysis of the area's rock art before 1976. To provide data for the development of an interpretive program at Writing-On-Stone Provincial Park, the Alberta Recreation, Parks and Wildlife Department, Parks Planning and Design Branch sponsored an inventory of the rock art at Writing-On-Stone in the summer of 1976. During the course of this project 58 petroglyph and pictograph sites were recorded.

Writing-On-Stone is in extreme southern Alberta, approximately 25 km east of Coutts, Alberta and 8 km north of the United States/Canadian border. In this area the Milk River is deeply entrenched in a narrow valley flanked on both sides by sheer cliffs of the Milk River Formation. These cliffs are as high as 35 m in some places. The river valley was originally formed at the end of the Pleistocene by meltwater from the receding continental glacier that exposed the thick, horizontally lying strata of Milk River Sandstone (Beaty 1975: 66-67). Wind and water erosion have since created a bizarre topography of hoodoos (balanced rocks) and towering cliffs (Fig. 2) along the main Milk River channel and in several of the larger tributary coulees such as Police and Rocky coulees (Beaty 1975: 81-82).

The terrain flanking the river valley is a gently undulating prairie broken only by the Sweetgrass Hills in northern Montana. The Sweetgrass Hills, three large igneous stocks, reach an elevation of over 2000 m (Beaty 1975: 84-85) and form a landmark visible for many km in this area of the Northwestern Plains.

The predominant vegetation at Writing-On-Stone is a shortgrass prairie composed primarily of several species of short bunchgrass, prickly pear and pincushion cactus, and relict patches of sagebrush. On the Milk River floodplain and in the deeper coulees there is a more luxurient vegetation that includes cotton wood trees, wild roses and other bushes, and large patches of poison ivy. Deciduous and evergreen forests grow at higher elevations in the Sweetgrass Hills.

The Rock Art

The rock art at Writing-On-Stone consists of petroglyphs and pictographs on the sandstone cliffs



16 JOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARCHEOLOGIE No. 1, 1977

along the Milk River valley and its two largest south-bank tributaries in the area - Police and

Rocky coulees. Petroglyphs are by far the more common composing nearly 90% of the figures in the study area, but pictographs occur at 17 sites. Pictographs are commonly isolated figures or small groups of figures painted at panels composed predominantly of petroglyphs, but eleven sites are composed primarily of pictographs or have large concentrations of pictographs.

At Writing-On-Stone there is no apparent functional difference between petroglyphs and

pictographs. Both forms of rock art include the same subject matter and examples of every major motif.

Petroglyphs at Writing-On-Stone were made by four techniques - incising, scratching, abrading, and pecking. Incised and scratched figures are about equally common and together compose approximately 95% of the recorded petroglyphs. The remaining 5% of the figures are

split almost evely between abraded and pecked designs. Incised petroglyphs (Fig. 3) are deep grooves cut in the soft sandstone with bone or stone

tools. Often the grooves forming these glyphs are as much as 1 cm wide and 1 cm deep. Scratched petroglyphs (Fig. 4) were made by cutting faint scratches in the sandstone surface with bone, stone or metal tools. Many of these are now difficult to see except under optimum lighting conditions. (Experiments indicated that when freshly made these scratches are marked

by a powdery white "streak" of crushed sandstone, and are readily visible. Only after several weeks of exposure does this streak disappear and the glyphs become difficult to see.)

Abraded (or "rubbed") petroglyphs (Figs. 12e, 20d, 26e) were made by lightly rubbing the sandstone surface with a bone or stone tool to produce a smooth, almost polished surface that contrasts with the coarse, grainy texture of the unaltered surface. In all instances abrading is used in combination with scratched lines - the figure was first completely or partially outlined with faint scratches before the interior was lightly abraded. Abrading is not used in combination with incised lines. Pecked petroglyphs (Fig. 5) were made by pounding the soft sandstone surface with a harder stone - probably a quartzite cobble from the glacial till common in the area. Repeated blows produce a small shallow pit that can be enlarged to the desired shape by pecking at the margins. Several of the pecked figures have appendages formed by incised lines.

Pecking is not used in conjunction with scratched petroglyphs. Pictographs were produced by three techniques - painting, chalking, and drawing with a

grease paint "crayon". Various shades of red and red-orange are the predominant colors, but black was used extensively at one site.

Painted pictographs occur at six sites. All are a deep red colour. Finger- width lines indicate that most of these designs were painted with the fingers, but shield bearing warriors at DgOv-2 and DgOv-83 were painted in thin even lines made with a brush. Painted motifs include shield

bearing warriors and rectilinear abstracts similar to incised petroglyphs. Chalked pictographs (Fig. 7) were made by drawing directly on the rock surface with an

unprepared lump of ochre or charcoal. This method produces a characteristic "streak" -

orange-red from ochre, and black from charcoal - that bonds to the rock surface through natural weathering. These pictographs are characteristically fine-lined and depict historic scenes

including guns and horses. Because of poor bonding to the sandstone surface they are more

fragile and usually more weathered than the painted pictographs. Charcoal pictographs at

DgOw-21 are similar to pictographs at Pictograph Cave in south-central Montana (Conner 1967), but pictographs drawn with ochre chalk have not been reported elsewhere on the Northwestern Plains.



CANADIAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY No. 1 . 1977 17

i

O 1/3

O

I CO

<

I O C/5

o

Ö CO

£ O 55 O ¿o e

H

Ì so

Z t 1 ^^ - '•^^^^

2 (0 JsNf « co ï Vt ,

"■ O cl Vi toJ7"ii||<»w

ÏC a) ^

I ^ i - ^u co




Figure 2 Hoodoo field above campground in Writing-On-Stone Provincial Park.

Grease paint pictographs (Fig. 6), drawn with a crayon composed of powdered ochre mixed with an organic binding agent (animal fat is known to have been used to make similar crayons used by Historic Period Plains Indians) are characteristically fine-lined and "waxy" textured. All grease-paint pictographs at Writing-On-Stone date from the Historic Period, and depict horses, guns and humans.

Five examples of combination pictograph/petroglyphs were recorded at Writing-On-Stone. At DgOv-42 the shallow incisions composing a horse and an anthropomorph were outlined with red grease paint. At DgOw-21 a large scratched anthropomorph holds a circular object drawn with red grease paint, and at DgOv-88 two associated, incised lanceolate outlines are filled in with red paint. Several tool grooves also at DgOv-88 have been partially filled with orange ochre "chalk".



CANADIAN JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY No. 1 , 1977 19

The rock art sites at Writing-On-Stone vary greatly in size, ranging from single isolated

glyphs (e.g. DgOv-66, DgOv-75) to large concentrations of panels with thousands of individual glyphs (e.g. DgOv-2, DgOw-29). Due to sporadic recording by several different individuals throughout the last 20 years, site size is arbitrary, and, although some sites (e.g. DgOv-57, DgOv-76) are single panels of glyphs that form an apparent unit, others (e.g. DgOv-2, DgOv-49, DgOw-31) are composed of several widely separated panels, each of which could perhaps as defensibly have received a separate site designation. Because most of these sites had been assigned numbers used in publications (Dewdney 1964: Dempsey 1973) I retained the numbers although units resulted that are not comparable in size or composition: some sites are small enough to be work of one artist while others are the work of many artists visiting the site over a period of many years.

The 58 sites at Writing-On-Stone occur in two major concentrations (Fig. 1). One area of concentration is in and around Writing-On-Stone Provincial Park where sites occur on both sides of the river and along both sides of Police and Rocky coulees - large southbank tributaries to the Milk River. In this area sites are scattered from the Turner ranch, approximately 3 km upstream (west) from Writing-On-Stone Provincial Park, to the Penrose ranch which is adjacent to the east (downstream) side of the park. The other area of site concentration is just above the confluence of the Milk River and Verdigris coulee, a large, dry, northbank tributary coulee formed by Pleistocene glacial meltwater. In this area there are five extensive petroglyph sites on south-facing cliffs in five adjacent natural amphitheaters formed by abandoned river meanders. These sites are approximately 8 km upstream from Writing-On-Stone Provincial Park. There are no rock art sites recorded in the area between the turner ranch and Verdigris Coulee, which may be explained in part by the scarcity of suitable cliff surfaces but also may reflect the absence of close examination of the few suitable surfaces.

The rock art sites in both areas at Writing-On-Stone typically are located on broad, exposed cliff surfaces facing the Milk River floodplain or the open coulee bottoms in Police and rocky Coulees. A few of the sites (e.g. DgOv-44, DgOv-92, and parts of DgOw-29) are situated in small clefts somewhat difficult of access, but most are on easily accessible faces. At a few sites (e.g. DgOw-24, DgOw-32) the glyphs can now be reached only with a ladder, but the surface on which the artists stood has been destroyed by erosion. This destruction has occurred subsequent to 1960 at DgOw-32 (Dewdney 1964:27).

Only three sites at Writing-On-Stone appear to be " secluded". These are on surfaces away from the river in areas where the extensive hoodoo fields and eroded cliffs provide numerous useable surfaces. Two small sites are on hoodoos in extensive hoodoo fields, and one panel at DgOv-2 is a simulated handprint, two small shield bearing warriors, and finger painted tally marks in a small cleft cave near the cliff top. The scarcity of rock art on the numerous hoodoos in the area indicates that the artists selected for the exposed faces and made little use of the numerous secluded surfaces in the hoodoo fields and eroded cliffs.

Description and Comparison of the Motifs

Designs recorded at Writing-On-Stone comprise five major categories: anthropomorphic figures, zoomorphic figures, material culture items, tool grooves and tally marks, and geometric figures. Examples of each category occur as both petroglyphs and pictographs.




Figure 3 Incised bison at DgOv-66. Bison is approximately 28 cm long.

Figure 4 Combat scenes scratched at DgOv-60.




Figure 5 Pecked petroglyphs at DgOv-76. Note row of pecked anthropomorphs above crack in cliff.

Figure 6 Grease paint pictographs at DgOv-78. Note C-shaped horse tracks in upper right.




Figure 7 Battle scene pictograph at DgOv-57. Note swordsman in center of scene (photograph taken in 1895, courtesy of Glenbow Foundation).

Figure 8 Hanging scene, chalked by phtographer at DgOv-2 (photograph taken in 1895, courtesy of Glenbow Foundation).




Anthropomorphs

Anthropomorphs are the most common rock art motif at Writing-On-Stone. Nearly 700 were recorded occurring at 46 of the 58 sites (Table 1). A variety of phallic representations identify many anthropomorphs as males, and depictions of the vulva identify single anthropomorphs at

DgOv-2, DgOv-74, and DgOw-29 as females Figs. Ill, 25a), but the sex of most of the

anthropomorphic figures is not indicated. It is likely that most of the anthropomorphs without

sexually distinguishing features represent males, reflecting the higher status of males in those

aspects of Plains Indian culture (warfare, religion, and hunting) that are the subject of this rock art.

For descriptive purposes I have classified the anthropomorphs at Writing-On-Stone into six

categories: shield bearing warriors, V-neck figures, rectangular body figures, hourglass body figures, stick figures, and "unique" figures.

Shield-Bearing Warriors

The shield-bearing warrior (Fig. 9) is a distinctive motif found throughout the Northwestern Plains, depicting a pedestrian warrior whose torso is hidden behind a large circular shield.

Occasionally the warrior's body outline is also shown as if the shield were transparent; hence, a few shield bearers are also V-neck anthropomorphs. the classic shield-bearing warrior motif is differentiated from the few rock art representations of Historic period warriors carrying small shields on the basis of shield size and posture. Four Historic period pedestrian warriors at

Writing-On-Stone carry small shields; two hold the shield in front of their body, and two are similar to classic shield-bearers except that the shields cover only a limited area of the upper torso. Because these anthropomorphs are readily distinguishable from classic shield-bearing warriors and significantly different morphologically, they are classified by their body shape.

In addition to the large shield, classic shield-bearing warriors have several characteristic features. Most are very carefully incised with deep, even grooves. Some shields are almost

perfectly circular and must have been drawn with a simple thong-and-pin compass. Many shield-bearing warriors have an upraised staff or weapon projecting from behind the shield, and most shields are fringed and/or decorated with an heraldic design assumed to represent the spirit helper of the warrior as did similar designs painted on Historic period Plains Indian shields (Wissler 1907: 22-31; Lowie 1954: 77). Shield designs recorded at Writing-On-Stone include a wide variety of geometric figures, celestial objects, and zoomorphs (Figs. 9, 13a). Many shield-bearers wear a headdress composed of horn-like projections, rake-like objects, radiating lines, or series of dots.

Three shield-bearing warriors at site DgOw-32 are mounted on horseback, astride crudely-drawn boat-shaped horses (Fig. 14a). Similar figures occur infrequently in Montana plains rock art (Conner and Conner 1971: 14, 20-21). The awkwardness of these depictions suggests that the artists had not mastered the style of drawing mounted men, and the crude boat-shaped horses suggest that these animals were still a novelty in Plains Indian culture when the petroglyphs were made. Hence, these mounted shield bearing warriors date to the middle 1700s, before rock art portrayals of horsemen were refined (Dewdney 1964: 28-29). This hypothesized date is supported by the absence of guns associated with mounted shield-bearing warriors, which suggests that they were drawn prior to A.D. 1750 - the approximate date for




Table I Distribution of Anthropomorphs at Writing-On-Stone

ça Q o j? c Q g? ¡ I o i ¡r I g |

c = I I I ? Site g,o(gg.g.Q-^Q-3ggnj gj g £

DgOv2 156 31 29 17 25 7 4 43 20 11 1 1 1 DgOv3 20 10 3 3 2 2 4 DgOv9 14 1 11 2 3 1 DgOv42 2 1 1 DgOv43 5 4 11111 DgOv45 2 2 1 DgOv49 12 3 2 1114 2 DgOv50 1 1 DgOv52 1 1 1 DgOv53 2 1 1 DgOv54 1 1 DgOv55 12 10 2 2 DgOv56 2 1 12 DgOv57 13 13 4 2 1 DgOv59 4 2 2 DgOv60 24 12 6 2 4 7 3 DgOv63 5 3 11 DgOv64 6 1 2 2 11 DgOv69 3 2 1 1 DgOv73 1 1 DgOv74 7 2 3 1 1 1 1

DgOv75 1 1 1 DgOv76 4 4 DgtOv77 1 1 DgOv78 4 2 2 1 DgOv79 10 4 2 2 2 2 1

DgOv80 7 4 11 12 DgOv81 115 43 70 2 3 3 1 DgOv83 2 2 DgOv85 3 1 2 2 DgOv86 2 2 DgOv87 3 111 DgOv88 17 1 8 6 11 DgOv89 6 2 2 2 1 DgOv90 1 1 DgOw20 15 2 4 9 6 2




Table 1 (Continued) Distribution of Anthropomorphs at Writing-On-Stone

¡If I ¡ ¡ I 5 I | Î S Site E Scg £ £ £3 £ a s* g 5 5 as

DgOw21 7 115 3 11

DgOw24 7 6 1

DgOw26 1 1 1

DgOw27 16 7 5 4 11 1 1

DgOw28 17 10 4 2 11

DgOw29 64 5 36 11 4 4 4 2 3

DgOw30 15 3 4 2 4 2 4 1

DgOw31 10 2 3 4 12 1

DgOw32* 35 653 11 19156 1 Turner* 12 7 2 3 2

These sites not yet fully recorded.

the introduction of the gun into this area of the Northwestern Plains (Secoy 1953: 45-47). At a few sites other than DgOw-32, both horses and shield bearers are depicted on the same panel, but stylistic variation and differences in the methods of producing the glyphs indicate that they were made at different times.

In only one instance at Writing-On-Stone is a shield-bearing warrior associated with a flintlock rifle (Fig. 9e), and this is a somewhat abstract association with a crudely drawn rifle. These characteristics, as they do in the instances of mounted shield-bearers, suggest an early Historic Period date (prior to A.D. 1770) for this glyph. Shield-bearing warriors and rifles occur

together at two sites in central Montana (Conner and Conner 1971: 20-21; Goodwin 1963). The absence of historic objects associated with most shield-bearing warriors dates them to the

Late Prehistoric period (prior to A.D. 1730). The few examples that can be reliably dated to the

early Historic period by their association with historic objects indicate that the shield-bearing warrior motif persisted until approximately A.D. 1750-1770. It appears to have been discontinued after the early Historic period.

V-Neck Anthropomorphs

V-neck anthropomorphs (Fig. 10) are the most common anthropomorphic figures in the rock art of Writing-On-Stone, occurring as petroglyphs and, less often, as pictographs. Three varieties of V-neck anthropomorph occur at Writing-On-Stone.

The most common V-neck figure (called "Pointed Shoulder Man" by Dewdney [1964] ) is a

simple, parallel- sided, front view human representation with legs that are continuations of the




sides of the torso. The torso is usually terminated by a horizontal line. The upper torso - the neck and shoulder region - is delineated by a V-shaped line between the shoulders with a neck

extending from the central angle of the V. Most classic V-neck figures have extended arms, bent at the elbows. These figures are rarely shown in action scenes; those few that are shown on horseback appear as awkwardly depicted

" stiff" riders (Fig. 19). In addition to these basic features, many classic V-neck humans have other features. Often

hands and feet are depicted and calves or thighs are added to the legs. Many figures have phallic representations. Approximately half of these classic V-neck human figures have a head

represented by an outlined circle or a dot atop the neck, but facial features are only rarely portrayed. Many V-neck anthropomorphs have a heart-line - a vertical line extending from the neck into the body, some with elaborate triangular, almond, or diamond shaped designs at the lower end of the line. A single classic V-neck figure is shown in side view, all others are front view, the exception is a 3/4 side view depiction at DgOv-63, and the artist's difficulty in

drawing this figure is readily evident in the peculiar composition of the lines forming it. A few

shield-bearing warriors have V-neck style bodies. A few depictions of historic objects associated with classic V-neck anthropomorphs indicate

that V-neck anthropomorphs are contemporaneous with shield-bearing warriors. Classic V-neck

anthropomorphs are shown as horsemen in five instances; and, like mounted shield-bearing warriors, these are awkward depictions of men riding boat-shaped horses (Fig. 19). Classic V-neck figures are associated with a crudely-drawn flintlock rifle in only one instance - a combat scene at DgOw-32 (Fig. 13c).

In sum, it appears that most classic V-neck anthropomorphs were made during the Late Prehistoric period, but a few were drawn in the early part of the Historic period perhaps as late as A.D. 1770.

The second variety of V-neck anthropomorph consists of a group of human representations that lack the diagnostic attributes of the classic variety - other than the V-neck - and have elaborations not characteristic of classic V-neck figures. These figures date to the Historic

period at Writing-On-Stone. Similar V-neck anthropomorphs occur at a few sites in south-central Montana (Conner and Conner 1971: 18).

These Historic period V-neck figures (Fig. 7) are often more sophisticated than the classic V-neck figures. Some have broad X's delimiting the upper and/or lower torso areas, and many are shown in side view. Often realistic action and characteristic conventionalized positions indicating death, horseback riding, or striking an enemy are shown. It seems unlikely that these

sophisticated figures are derived from the classic V-neck anthropomorphs, since the only attribute in common is the V-neck (Conner and Conner 1971: 21).

There are a few V-neck anthropomorphs unlike either the classic variety or the sophisticated Historic period variety. These are simple, lightly scratched M- shapes that usually lack arms, heads, necks, and feet, and never have heart-lines. Many have no line delineating the lower torso. These figures may represent an Historic period development from the classic V-neck

anthropomorph, or they may be crude copies of classic V-neck figures drawn by Historic period artists. The latter interpretation seems to best explain most of these figures since they are never executed with the same skill or care used to draw other varieties of Historic period anthropomorphs.




Rectangular Body Anthropomorphs

A heterogeneous group of anthropomorphs with more-or-less rectangular bodies (Fig. 1 la,l) are

grouped together for descriptive convenience. As a group these figures display more viariation than either shield-bearing warriors or V-neck figures, and examples are associated with all other

types of anthropomorphs. A few are morphologically very similar to classic V-neck

anthropomorphs (Fig. 1 le) and have heart-lines, arms, feet, heads, and headdresses that are like those on V-neck anthropomorphs. These figures are associated with shield-bearing warriors and V-neck anthropomorphs at DgOv-2, DgOv-88, DgOw-28, and DgOw-29. Other smaller, and

usually simpler rectangular body human figures occur in association with historic period hourglass body figures. Some occur alone in some of the most recent historic art (e.g. the

hanging scene (Fig. 8) at DgOv-2). These figures usually lack heart-lines and have heads

represented by a small dot atop a short neck. Arms, when depicted, usually extend straight from the shoulder. Phalli are rarely depicted.

Humans with rectangular bodies are one of the most common rock art motifs in North

America, and occur in all areas of the continent (Grant 1967). The simplicity of a rectangular body probably precludes the definition of significant functional types of this style of

anthropomorph.

Hourglass Body Anthropomorphs

Human figures whose bodies are represented by a large X (Figs. 1 lg, 12d,g,h), the midpoint of which represents the waist, are common in Writing-On-Stone rock art. All recorded examples are scratched or shallowly incised (as at DgOv-81) and many ride horses. All but two hourglass body anthropomorphs can be dated to the Historic period by their association with horses or

guns. One of those not associated with historic objects is an isolated figure, the other is scratched near a shield bearing warrior at DgOv-3, but the hourglass body figure appears to have been added to the panel after the incised shield-bearer was made. No example of an hourglass body anthropomorph is contemporaneous with a shield-bearing warrior or a classic V-neck

anthropomorph (the elongate X on the shield bearer at DgOv-2 [Fig. 13b] is a shield design, not meant to represent the body.)

Hourglass body anthropomorphs show little variation. Heads are dots or small outlined circles, usually on a short neck. Arms, if present, are usually straight, outward extending lines. Heart-lines are never depicted.

With few exceptions, the hourglass body anthropomorph is restricted to the northern portion of the Northwestern Plains area. Only three sites in the central Montana area are known to include such figures (Conner and Conner 1971: 23, 41; Conner 1973; Eichhorn 1958). None are

reported from Wyoming. All of the hourglass body figures in Montana are Historic Period

petroglyphs (Conner and Conner 1971: 41; Eichhorn 1958; Cramer 1974). Outside the Northwestern Plains, similar hourglass body anthropomorphs are found in rock art in the Northern Woodlands/Great Lakes region of south central Canada (Grant 1967; Dewdney and Kidd 1967).




Stick Figure Anthropomorphs

Stick figure anthropomorphs (Fig. I la,c) with elongated linear bodies and legs formed by an inverted V are rare at Writing-On-Stone, as they are throughout the Northwestern Plains

(Conner and Conner 1971: 18). Four examples were recorded at Writing-On-Stone. The scarcity of these figures is one of the major differences between Northwestern Plains rock art and Columbia Plateau rock art where most anthropomorphs are stick figures (Corner 1968; Keyser and Knight 1976; Keyser 1977b).

Unique Anthropomorphs

Approximately one-third of the anthropomorphs at Writing-On-Stone do not fall into any of the above described categories. Most of these are amorphously-shaped horsemen, often represented by just one or two lines or a simple geometric abstract on a horse's back (Fig. 12b,e,f). No two of these horsemen are alike in detail. Others of these anthropomorphs are unusual or unique forms with almond, triangular, or oval shaped bodies (Fig. llb,i,k, 12a). A large number of unclassifiable anthropomorphs are incomplete figures lacking the upper torso area that would allow classification into any of the other types.

The pecked anthropomorphs at DgOv-76 (Fig. 5) warrant special mention because, although they are unique in the study area, they are similar to pecked figures in Wyoming and southern Montana (Conner and Conner 1971: 19). These pecked figures at Writing-On-Stone and elsewhere on the Northwestern Plains have solidly pecked rectangular or thickened linear

bodies, pronounced sexual features (including standardized depictions of the vulva), and a Prehistoric period age in common. Although the distribution of these figures is poorly known and appears to be discontinuous, they may be related in origin.

Anthropomorphs of every type are often depicted in action scenes including horseback riding, combat, battles, hunting, and sexual acts. Horseback riding (Fig. 12) is the most common. Often the horsemen are isolated, but many are part of larger action scenes (Fig. 13) showing warfare and hunting activities. Combat scenes (Fig. 13) are also common, especially in Historic

period art. These scenes typically show either two pedestrian warriors or a horseman and a

pedestrian warrior. No combat between two horsemen was recorded. Examples of every kind of

weapon depicted in Writing-On-Stone rock art (see Items of Material Culture, below) except the

bow-spear occur in combat scenes. Combat scenes involving every type of anthropomorph found at Writing-On-Stone were

recorded, but those involving shield-bearing warriors and/or classic V-neck anthropomorphs are more abstract and lack the "fluid" realism of Historic period combat scenes involving horsemen and hourglass and rectangular body warriors. Combat scenes provide good evidence for the association of various types of anthropomorphs. There are scenes depicting various combinations of shield bearing warriors, classic V-neck anthropomorphs, and large elongated rectangular body figures. However, no shield-bearing warrior or classic V-neck human is in combat with an hourglass body figure, an Historic period V-neck human, or a small rectangular body anthropomorph. Numerous combat scenes involving various combinations of hourglass body anthropomorphs, small rectangular body figures, and Historic period V-neck figures were recorded. Combat scenes similar to those at Writing-On-Stone occur at many other rock art sites on the Northwestern Plains (Conner and Conner 1971).




Warfare is also illustrated by battle scenes (Figs. 7, 14, 15). These differ from combat scenes in that they depict opposing forces of several men each. Five battle scenes were recorded at

Writing-On-Stone. Two (Fig. 14) are simply groups of several closely associated combat scenes

involving shield-bearing warriors, classic V-neck humans and large rectangular body anthropomorphs. These scenes, like combat scenes between shield-bearing warriors, show action in a "stiff somewhat abstract manner. The other three battle scenes show opposing forces composed of combatants and non-combatants and various items of material culture

including tipis, horses, travois, and battle pits. Stylistic conventions for indicating camps, routes of travel, and movement are also in each of these three scenes. Anthropomorphs in these battle scenes are rectangular and hourglass body humans and sophisticated Historic period V-neck figures.

Two battle scenes warrant detailed description. The petroglyphs at DgOv-81 (Fig. 15) show an entire battle involving 1 15 warriors, their weapons, and equipment. The details in this scene indicate that it represents an actual historic event. Composing the scene are two opposing forces of large numbers of hourglass and rectangular body anthropomorphs. The larger force (to the

right) is attacking a large encampment indicated by a camp circle of 24 tipls. Within the

encampment are three irregular ovals encircling several anthropomorphs. These ovals

apparently are defensive earthwork "rifle pit" fortifications, as are similar representations on Blackfeet hide paintings (MacLean 1894: 119, Plate III; Dempsey 1973: 1 1). In the center of the

camp is a large tipi with three anthropomorphs inside (Fig. 15a). Scattered throughout the camp are several hundred dots and short dashes representing bullets and other projectiles. A vertical row of 14 flintlock rifles represents the camp's defenders.

The attacking force is composed of 71 anthropomorphs, weapons and horses. The

anthropomorphs are hourglass body and rectangular body humans, two of which carry small shields. Six horses at the far right edge of the scene drag travois. Scattered tipis above and below the right part of the scene probably represent the attackers camp. The 28 rifles used by the attackers are flintlocks, identified by the cock and striking steel above the trigger. Lines of dots

representing bullets extend from many of the gun barrels. There are three individual combat scenes, each involving two warriors, scattered in the battle scene. One of these, in the

approximate center of the panel (Fig. 15b), shows a large hatchet- wielding man striking down a smaller falling rifleman. Nine bullets extend in a line from the gun barrel past the large warrior's waist, and a dot in the larger man's chest represents a wound. The exaggerated size of this scene, the detail depicted, and its central location - with the rest of the battle apparently structured around it - suggest that this large hatchet- wielding warrior represents the panel's author counting coup (Key ser 1977a). The number of guns and horses in this scene indicate a late historic date for this petroglyph, probably between 1800 and 1850.

In Rocky Coulee, at DgOv-57, there is a complex battle scene (Fig. 7) done in orange ochre chalk that involves 13 anthropomorphic figures, a variety of weapons, 4 horses, 4 tipis, and a sunburst. The anthropomorphs are sophisticated V-neck figures arranged in two groups - five to the right and eight to the left - representing opposing forces. The five to the right are pedestrian warriors. Three of them shoot guns, one shoots a bow and arrow, and the central figure holds a sword. Two of these figures are in combat scenes with horsemen. Four of the eight figures in the left half of the scene are mounted. Two have guns, one has a spear and one has no weapon. Four weaponless pedestrian warriors stand in a row at the bottom left of the scene near the tipls. The sunburst is to the left of the uppermost rider.



30 JOURNAL CANADIEN D'ARCHEOLOGIE No. 1 , 1977

The details in this scene suggest that it probably represents an actual event. Horse tracks to the left of the central mounted figure indicate that the mounted men came from the group of tipis to the far left. A series of short dashes to the right of the pedestrian warriors indicates their path. Two combat scenes in the center of the panel show a horseman spearing a falling pedestrian rifleman and the swordsman striking a falling horseman. The "bent-over" posture of the losers probably indicates death. Small dots representing bullets occur in lines between the pedestrian riflemen and the three horsemen to the far left. Because the pedestrian warriors to the right are more carefully executed and in each instance, except the uppermost combat scene, are killing the horsemen, they probably represent the victors. The four unarmed anthropomorphs in a row to the left may represent captives.

The stylistic conventions used in this battle scene to indicate action and form a story line are the same as those used in the historic pictography of the Blackfeet (MacLean 1894: 1 19- 120, Plate III) and other plains tribes (Mallery 1972: 459, 573), and similar to those used at other sites at Writing-On-Stone (e.g. DgOv-60, DgOv-81). The sword, guns, and horses date this scene to the mid 1800s.

In summary, as with combat scenes, these detailed Historic period battle scenes utilize stylistic conventions for indicating death and movement and show more realism and fluid action than those involving shield-bearing warriors and classic V-neck anthropomorphs.

One other battle scene has been recorded in Plains rock art. It involves a group of mounted and pedestrian warriors at Castle Butte in south-central Montana (Conner and Conner 1971: 21-22).

Hunting scenes (Fig. 16) portraying horsemen in pursuit of bison and other animals occur at four sites. In no instance does the hunter have a weapon, but the animal in the scene at

DgOw-22 has a line projecting from his back that may represent a spear or arrow. Similar

hunting scenes occur in Montana plains rock art (Conner and Conner 1971: 29-30). Sexual acts depicted at Writing-On-Stone (Fig. 1 1 l,m) include an explicit depiction of

fellatio at DgOw-21 and two horizontally oriented anthropomorphs at panel 17 of DgOv-2 that

suggest a less explicit sexual act. Depictions of sexual acts occur in Northwestern Plains rock art at several sites in Montana and Wyoming (Mulloy 1958: 123, 131; Conner and Conner 1971: 23).

One scene at DgOv-2 (Fig. 8) shows an Historic Period hanging. This scratched petroglyph (now difficult to see because of lichen growth and water runoff erosion) shows two humans hanging from gallows, a horse drawn wagon with driver, two other anthropomorphs, a second horse, a large sunburst, and three large rectangles. One gallows has a flag attached. The mature

style horses and an hourglass body anthropomorph indicate Indian authorship of this panel. Two of the anthropomorphs, including the wagon driver, have cross-shaped heads that probably indicate white men. The large rectangles, each of which has a chimney-like projection at its top; probably represent buildings or a fort, as do similar figures in Plains Indian winter counts

(Mallery 1972:277-315). Although the incident illustrated in this scene cannot be identified from ethnohistoric records

so far compiled for this area of the Northwestern Plains (Susan R. Sharrock, personal communication 1976) it probably was a late Historic period hanging that occurred at one of the

nearby forts, mining towns, or Mounted Police outposts. Since the petroglyph is of Indian origin and the wagon driver and one pedestrian are white men, it is likely that the men being hanged are Indians.




Humans are also represented at two sites (DgOv-2, DgOv-88) by simulated handprints. Similar handprints occur at numerous rock art sites in Montana.

Zoomorphs

Numerous zoomorphs are depicted in the rock art at Writing-On-Stone (Table 2). In a

preliminary analysis of these zoomorphs Selwyn Dewdney (1964: 26-29) defined three distinct

styles - naturalistic, boat-shaped, and mature. He suggested that naturalistic zoomorphs (Fig. 17) were the oldest style, followed by boat-shaped zoomorphs (Figs. 18, 19), and finally mature

style zoomorphs (Figs. 20, 22a, f) which were drawn in the Historic period (Dewdney 1964: 29). However, his classification was admittedly preliminary, and formulated on the basis of a limited

familiarity with the rock art at Writing-On-Stone. Complete analysis of a much larger sample of the rock art in the area shows that there are too few naturalistically depicted animals (less than 15 examples) to verify whether or not they are, in fact, a single style, and if so, whether they are the earliest. However, the boat-shaped and mature styles do appear to be separate entities of different ages.

Boat-shaped zoomorphs (Figs. 18, 19) have a characteristic crescent shape, and usually have ribs and/or a heart-line depicted. Legs are simple stick appendages. Other anatomical details are often stylized and exaggerated, especially on horses drawn in this style.

Several factors indicate that boat-shaped zoomorphs are older than mature style zoomorphs. All boat-form animals are associated with shield-bearing warriors or classic V-neck

anthropomorphs which date to the Late Prehistoric period or early Historic period. None is associated with mature style animals or houglass body anthropomorphs characteristic of late Historic period art. Only one boat- shaped animal - a horse in a combat scene with a rifleman - is associated with an historic object. Seven boat-shaped horses occur, but these lack the characteristic stylized trappings such as halters and features such as hook hooves and brands that are associated with late Historic period horses. Support for an early Historic period age for boat-form horse depictions is provided by the fact that two of them wear leather horse armor

(Fig. 14a) which dates them to the early Historic period, since such armor is known to have been abandoned on the Northwestern Plains prior to A.D. 1770 (Secoy 1953: 60-61). The fact that

only one boat-shaped horse is associated with a rifle suggests that the style was not used after

approximately A.D. 1750 when guns became relatively common in this area of the Northwestern Plains (Secoy 1953: 45-47).

Stylistic criteria also support an early Historic period age for these boat- shaped horses. Horses drawn in this style have very exaggerated manes and tails and awkwardly depicted riders. These criteria suggest that the boat-shaped horses were drawn when the horse was a

novelty in Plains Indian culture and stylistic conventions for depicting them and their riders had

yet to be developed (Dewdney 1964: 28). Since the horse was first introduced into this area of the Northwestern Plains between A.D. 1730 and 1740 (Haines 1938; Secoy 1953: 33-38; Lewis 1942: 60; Ewers 1955) and mature style horses were being drawn on buffalo robes collected on the Northwestern Plains in the period between 1770 and 1810 (Barbeau 1960: 224-227) these boat-form horse depictions can be reliably dated to the period between A.D. 1730 and approximately A.D. 1770.

In summary then, the boat-shape style of drawing zoomorphs originated in the Late Prehistoric period and survived into the early Historic period, but was discontinued prior to




Table 2 Distribution of Zoomorphs at Writing-On-Stone

c/3 ¿> Od a g.

Site tggigS&Sjgllfrag DgOv2 83 65 1 4 1 1119 DgOv3 1 1 DgOv9 6 4 2 DgOv42 4 4 DgOv43 1 1 DgOv45 2 2 DgOv46 1 1 DgOv49 16 16 DgOv50 1 1 DgOv51 1 1 DgOv52 1 1 DgOv54 2 2 DgOv55 4 4 DgOv56 3 3 DgOv57 4 4 DgOv59 1 1 DgOv60t 10 10 DgOv63 2 2 DgOv64 2 1 1 DgOv65 1 1 DgOv66 1 1 DgOv69 2 2 DgOv73 2 2 DgOv75 2 1 1 DgOv76 1 1 DgOv77 8 2 3 12 DgOv78 1 1 DgOv79 6 4 2 DgOv80 6 6 DgOv81 12 12 DgOv84 4 4 DgOv85 3 3 DgOv87 2 2 DgOv88 4 2 2 DgOv89 2 1 1




Table 2 (Continuted) Distribution of Zoomorphs at Writing-On-Stone

ss i £

Site I S S 1 p? § iilsl&IS? DgOv91 1 1

DgOwl9 8 8

DgOw20 11 11

DgOw21 15 9 1 1 1 2 1

DgOw22 11 11

DgOw25 14 14

DgOw26 1 1

DgOw27 26 23 1 2

DgOw28 4 1 3

DgOw29 28 4 2 444 3 7

DgOw30 7 5 2

DgOw31 6 6

DgOw32* 29 25 4 Turner* 4 3 1

tNumerous horses' necks not counted. These sites not yet fully recorded.

approximately A.D. 1770. However, the boat-form style may not simply reflect an earlier time

period. Throughout the Northwestern Plains, animals associated with classic V-neck

anthropomorphs and shield-bearing warriors are usually boat-shaped (Mulloy 1958: 134; Haberman 1973: 26; Grey and Sweem 1961: 6-8; Conner and Conner 1971: Figs. 3, 11), hence, this style may be associated with the Shoshone - the artists responsible for the

shield-bearing warrior motif and classic V-neck anthropomorphs (Keyser 1975; Dempsey 1973: 20-21; see Comparisons and Interpretations, below). Support for this interpretation is provided by the boat-form style used to depict deer and mountain sheep in Great Basin rock art in the area of the original Shoshonean homeland (Grant et al 1968).

Mature style zoomorphs are predominantly horses (Figs. 20, 21), but other animals including bear, deer, elk, bison, a dog, and several specifically unidentifiable zoomorphs (Figs. 16, 22) are also drawn in this style. All mature style zoomorphs date to the Historic period. This style is

very "fluid", emphasizing elongated bodies and necks with little attention paid to legs. The nose is usually left open, and often the head is simply represented by the open end of the two curved parallel lines that form the neck. Unlike boat-form animals, mature style zoomorphs do not have ribs or heart-lines depicted.




Mature style horses and other zoomorphs are depicted in rock art throughout the Northwestern Plains (Dewdney 1964; Conner and Conner 1971: 24, Figs. 9, 13, 18, 37; Cramer

1974; Bozovich and Bozovich 1968) and also in Historic period Plains Indian hide painting (MacLean 1894: Plate III).

The zoomorphs at Writing-On-Stone represent 12 different animals. Horses, bison, bear, deer, elk, mountain sheep, birds, a dog, skunks, antelope, a snake, and an insect were identified. A small group of zoomorphs is composed of representations that lack sufficient anatomical detail for specific identification.

Horses

Horses (Figs. 12, 16, 19, 20, 21) are by far the most common zoomorph depicted in

Writing-On-Stone rock art. More than 250 were recorded at 41 sites. Most horses are mature

style, but seven boat-shaped horses were recorded. The boat-shaped horses (Figs. 14a, 19) are crude animal representations that probably could

not be identified as horses if there were no rider. Three even lack heads. Four of these horses have exaggerated feathery tails and two have exaggerated flowing manes. Two have hooves

represented by small circles or dots and one has large C-shaped hooves. The riders on these horses are awkwardly depicted; often they are shown standing on the horses's back, or even

slightly above the horse. Mature style horses (although still somewhat stylized) are more realistic than boat-form

horses, and are much better able to convey the gracefulness of this animal. Horses of this style have elongated bodies and necks, with heads often represented only by the curving parallel lines at the terminus of the neck. When a head is drawn the nose is usually left open. Legs are usually simple stick appendages, and ears and the mane are often depicted. The tail may be long and

feathery; or may be shown as a single line. Hooves are rarely depicted, but when they occur they are C or U shaped hooks (Figs. 16c, 21b). Apparently the hooked hoof depicts the idea of the animal's characteristic track (Smith 1943: 113-114). Several sites have series of horse tracks

represented by C shapes. Horses with hooked hooves are found in rock art at several sites on the

plains in Montana (Conner and Conner 1971: 22, 40) and in the Historic period hide painting of

numerous Plains Indian tribes including the Cree, Crow, Blackfeet, Mandan, and Sioux (Ewers 1939: 19; Barbeau 1960).

Three mature style horses at two sites - DgOv-63 and DgOw-21 - are branded on the left

hip (Figs. 16c, 27). Since Indians are known not to have branded horses (Ewers 1955) these

probably represent horses stolen from ranches or the military and date to the mid 1800s or later. A few horses in Montana rock art also bear brands (Conner and Conner 1971: 23) as do some

horses in historic Blackfeet painting (MacLean 1894: Plate I). Several horses have "forked" ears (Figs. 13g, 27). The Blackfeet are known to have split

their horses' ears for decorative purposes (Ewers 1955: 99). Horses with forked ears have not

been recorded elsewhere in Plains rock art.

Many horses have associated items of material culture, including feather forelock

decorations, stylized decorated halters, saddles, bridles, and travois (see Horse Equipment, below).




Approximately half of the horses depicted have riders of various sorts, ranging from well-drawn anthropomorphs of several styles (Figs. 12g, 13g) to simple amorphous line abstracts (Fig. 12b). One horse at DgOw-32 has four stick figure riders (Fig. 12f). A somewhat similar horse with four riders occurs at the Canyon Creek Pictographs in Montana (Conner 1962: 15). Riders often hold reins and occasionally they use whips.

Mature style horses occur in herds (Fig. 21) at five sites - DgOv-2, DgOv-60, DgOw-19, DgOw-22, and DgOw-25. At DgOv-60 horses composing two large herds are represented in a

stylized "shorthand" fashion by necks only (Fig. 21c). Similar depictions of herd animals, where one characteristic feature is used repeatedly to represent many animals, occur in rock art elsewhere in the world (Jelinek 1975: 317-320). Herds of horses represented by necks only occur in historic Plains Indian hide painting (Smith 1943: 114). Horse herds may record successful horse raids, as do herds depicted in Plains Indian hide paintings (Smith 1943: 1 14; MacLean 1894: 119, Plate III).

In two instances - the combat scene at DgOv-9 and one boat-form horse at DgOw-30 - a horse is shown being killed or wounded. The horse at DgOv-9 has an arrow in its neck (Fig. 13g) and the horse at DgOw-30 (Fig. 19b), like two nearby shield figures, is overlapped by a crude spear. Horses at several Montana rock art sites are shown being shot with guns or pierced with spears (Conner and Conner 1971: 20, Fig. 18; Goodwin 1963: 8).

Bison

Bison are rarely depicted in plains rock art (Conner and Conner 1971: 24), even though they formed the economic basis for Late Prehistoric period Indian culture. Only 12 examples (Figs. 3, 16a,d, 22b) occur at 6 sites at Writing-On-Stone. All rock art bison are identified by their characteristic hump, and most also by depicted horns. None are as anatomically detailed or as well drawn as those in Columbia Plateau rock art (Keyser and Knight 1976: 5; Nesbitt 1968; Figs. 9, 10; Cain 1950). Bison are shown at three sites at Writing-On-Stone being pursued by horsemen (Fig. 16a,d).

A single pecked bison track (Fig. Ila) occurs at DgOv-88. This track is similar to those

pecked on petroglyph boulders in northern Montana (Hoy 1969; Johnson 1975), the nearest known one being at Wahkpa Chu'gn, a large bison kill on the Milk River at Havre, Montana, approximately 185 km downstream.

Bear

Single bears (Fig. 22f,g), identified by posture and long claws on both front and hind feet, occur at DgOw-21 and the Turner Ranch site just upstream from Writing-On-Stone Provincial Park. The bear at DgOw-21 is a scratched petroglyph done in mature style, the bear at the Turner Ranch site is a naturalistically depicted animal. The pronounced hump on the bear at DgOw-21 (Fig. 22f) indicates that it represents a Grizzly bear. This bear is also pierced by a spear. Both bears are similar to those depicted elsewhere in Northwestern Plains rock art (Mulloy.1958: 133).

Bears are also represented at four sites by incised bear tracks. These tracks (Fig. 22d,e) are typical examples of the bear track motif, which occurs in rock art throughout western North America (Grant 1967: 55-56).




Elk and Deer

Zoomorphs with branching antlers (Fig. 23) representing elk and deer occur at five sites at

Writing-On-Stone. Two examples (at DgOv-2, and the larger antlered zoomorph at DgOv-9) are identifiable as elk by outsized antlers and, on the example at DgOv-9, the beard characteristic of elk. The other antlered zoomorphs could represent either deer or elk. Deer and elk are drawn in

naturalistic, boat-shaped, and mature styles. The elk at DgOv-2 and the antlered animal at

DgOw-21 have hooves indicated by two short parallel lines perpendicular to the leg. Hooves indicated similarly occur on an elk at Davidson Microcave in Montana (Conner and Conner 1971: Fig. 26). The elk and deer at Writing-On-Stone do not occur in recognizable hunting scenes, although a man above the elk at DgOv-2 holds a spear. Two of the boat-shaped style deer or elk at DgOw-29 (Fig. 30b) have ribs and a heart-line depicted.

Elk and deer often occur in Northwestern Plains rock art in Montana (Conner and Conner 1971: 25; Mulloy 1958: 134) and Wyoming (Hinthorn 1962; Bozovich and Bozovich 1968;

Grey and Sweem 1961).

Mountain Sheep

Mountain sheep, distinguished by boat-shaped bodies and long, exaggerated, swept-back horns

(Fig. 18a,b,c) occur at sites DgOw-28 and DgOw-29 near Verdigris Coulee. A total of seven mountain sheep occur. Three of these have ribs and a heart-line similar to those on the

boat-shaped deer at these sites. A juvenile mountain sheep at DgOw-29 looks over its shoulder in a unique posture for zoomorphs at Writing-On-Stone. Mountain sheep are found at a few sites in the Montana Plains (Conner and Conner 1971: 25; Haberman 1973: 26), and boat-form mountain sheep similar to those at Writing-On-Stone occur throughout the Great Basin (Grant et al 1968; Schaafsma 1971).

Birds

Seven birds (Fig. 22i,j,k) occur at four sites at Writing-On-Stone. Five of these are front-view "thunderbirds" with outstretched wings, one is a bird in flight shown in profile decorating a

shield-bearing warrior's shield (Fig. 13a), and one is a long-necked, goose-like bird decorating another shield-bearer (Fig. 13a). One thunderbird at DgOv-88 is a red pictograph; all others are

petroglyphs. The thunderbirds are similar to those found elsewhere in Northwestern Plains rock

art (Mulloy 1958: 135) and throughout North Amercia (Grant 1967). The most detailed

thunderbird at Writing-On-Stone is the large red pictograph (Fig. 22i) which has zig-zag lines

emanating from each wing and a trident object in its beak. Naturalistic birds and birds in flight, such as those decorating the shields at DgOw-29, occur

elsewhere in Northwestern Plains rock art (Conner 1962: 16, 29; Conner and Conner 1971: Fig. 30; Grey and Sweem 1961: 2).

Dog

One dog (Fig. 22a) and one unidentifiable canid (Fig. 17a) occur in Writing-On-Stone rock art.




The dog, scratched at DgOv-46, is identified by the short body, erect ears, and relatively long, upward arched tail. These characteristics identify dogs in rock art throughout the western United States (Grant et al 1968: 18, 22; Keyser and Knight 1976: 4, 6). The other canine, one of the four naturalistic zoomorphs incised on one panel at DgOv-2, has ears and a bushy tail characteristic of a canine, but whether it represents a wolf, dog, or coyote cannot be determined. Dogs and other canids are not common in Montana rock art. The only good example is at Pictograph Cave (Mulloy 1958: 132). The identification of a canid at Bear Gulch (Conner and Conner 1971: 26; Secrist 1960: 13) is questionable.

Skunks

Three skunks are part of a panel of petroglyphs at DgOw-29. All are boat- shaped zoomorphs (Fig. 22c) identifiable by upraised tails and striped backs. Skunks are not reported elsewhere in North American rock art, but the characteristic tail identifies skunks in Historic Period Plains Indian hide painting and winter counts (MacLean 1894: Plates I, II; Mallery 1972: 457).

Antelope

Four antelope are depicted at DgOw-29. All are boat- shaped animals identified by the characteristic pronghorn (Fig. 18d,e). Antelope have not been positively identified elsewhere in Northwestern Plains rock art (Conner and Conner 1971: 29), but they do occur in Historic period Plains Indian pictography where they are identified by the characteristic horn shape (Mallery 1972: 445, 451; Barbeau 1959: 191, 205).

Snake

A snake (Fig. 22h), its body represented by a vertically oriented sinuous line and triangular head, occurs at DgOv-64. Snakes have been identified at two sites on the Montana Plains (Conner and Conner 1971: 26) and two other sites in southern Alberta (Habgood 1967: 20).

Insect

A large, somewhat abstract zoomorph (Fig. 24) decorating a shield-bearing warrior's shield at DgOv-2, appears to be an insect. It somewhat resembles a V-neck anthropomorph, but appears to have two wings on each side of the body, suggesting that it is a dragonfly or some similar insect. Such insects are not reported in Northwestern Plains rock art, but nearly identical designs are identified as dragonflies in historic Dakota Indian paintings on garments (Wissler 1907: 32-39).

Unidentifiable Zoomorphs

A few quadrupedal zoomorphs in Writing-On-Stone rock art could not be identified to species




because they lack sufficient diagnostic anatomical detail. Zoomorphs in hunting scenes at

DgOv-75 and DgOw-21 (Fig. 16b,c) were represented only by heads and necks; boat-shaped animals at DgOw-29 (Fig. 30a) had ribs and heart-lines similar to deer, antelope, and mountain

sheep at the same site, but lacked identifying horns or antlers. Boat-shaped zoomorphs at

DgOv-77 and DgOv-88 had no species identifying characteristics. Animals at DgOv-65 and

DgOv-2 (Fig. 17), although well-drawn in a very naturalistic style, cannot be identified because

they have no heads. Stylized animals at DgOv-2 have exaggerated snouts, tails, and claws, but these details are not realistically portrayed. These may represent "dream" animals.

Zoomorphs are often part of action scenes. Usually these are horses being ridden alone, or in

combat, battle, or hunting scenes; but bison and other unidentifiable animals are also included in

hunting scenes of Historic period age. Boat-form and naturalistic style animals, except those few boat-shaped horses, are not shown in action scenes. A few zoomorphs, both mature style and boat- shaped style, are depicted with arrows or spears piercing their body. These may represent hunting scenes, although in the two instances where scratched arrows pierce or

overlap incised animals (DgOv-2, DgOw-30) the arrow appears to be a later addition to the earlier petroglyph. A few boat-form animals at DgOw-29 are oriented in an orthograde position (Fig. 18e, 23c). These may represent dead animals.

Items of Material Culture

One major aspect of the significance of rock art is that it often illustrates objects of material culture that are rarely preserved in other archaeological contexts (Mulloy 1958: 1 19- 120). At

Writing-On-Stone a great many items of material culture are depicted (Table 3), often shown in use by a human, presumably representing the artist. Here, I have grouped these objects into four

categories: weapons, horse equipment, clothing and ornaments, and tipls.

Weapons

Many anthropomorphic figures at Writing-On-Stone hold and use weapons, and a few other

weapons are depicted in isolation. Many weapons are in combat or battle scenes. Weapons identified in Writing-On-Stone rock art include bows, arrows, bow-spears, spears or lances, clubs, hatchets, guns, a sword, and shields.

Bows

Bows (Fig. 13d,g) occur frequently in Writing-On-Stone rock art. Usually they are being held or shot, but isolated bows and arrows are depicted at several sites. Both single and double curved bows occur, but with the exception of a single crudely drawn example at DgOw-29, double curved bows are restricted to Historic period art. In many instances bows are associated with arrows, and some are bow-spears tipped on one end with a large projectile point.




Arrows

Arrows (Figs. 1 le, 13g) are usually in association with bows, but isolated ones occur and some are shown overlapping or piercing animals or humans. Arrows occurring in isolation are

distinguished from spears by their fletching.

Bow-Spears

Bow-spears - long bows tipped on one end with a large projectile point - are associated with three shield-bearing warriors and one V-neck anthropomorph at DgOv-2 (Figs. 9i, 10h, 24). Although such weapons are known to have been used by Historic period Plains Indians, all of those at DgOv-2 are apparently prehistoric. That the bow-spears are not being used suggests that

they have a ceremonial function as did those used by Historic period Plains Indians (Lowie 1909: 28). At Pictograph Cave bow-spears were also illustrated with a Late Prehistoric period shield-bearing warrior and a large rectangular anthropomorph (Mulloy 1958: 128, 130).

Spears or Lances

Spears or lances occur commonly at Writing-On-Stone (Figs. 12i, 13f, 14a), usually being carried by humans. They are associated with shield-bearing warriors, V-neck humans, and various horsemen. Often they are feathered or fringed. The spears have large lanceolate or

triangular points, sometimes with a small cross piece just below the point (Fig. 14a). These

large triangular spear points with cross piece have been identified as metal spearpoints which were common trade items in the 1700s and 1800s (Dempsey 1973: 13-14). However, my data

suggest that the identification may be in error. In only one instance (at DgOw-32) are such

points associated with historic objects - the early boat-form horses ridden by shield-bearing warriors. None is associated with a mature style horse, although several riders and pedestrians have spears or lances. In addition, similar triangular points with cross pieces occur on

bow-spears (Fig. 10h, 24) and an arrow at DgOv-2. It is my opinion that the simplicity of the

design precludes positive identification of these as metal trade points. Spears similar to those depicted at Writing-On-Stone are common in Montana Plains rock art

(Conner and Conner 1971: Figs. 8, 18, 27; Secrist 1960: 7-9).

Clubs

Numerous clubs (Figs. 9g, 13a) are depicted at Writing-On-Stone. They are identified only when being held by an anthropomorph. Some have projections and others are outlines, but most

appear as a simple line extending from the hand. These probably represent a variety of clubs and

possibly also coup sticks. At Montana rock art sites, clubs with single projections like that held

by the shield bearing warrior at DgOw-32 have been suggested to be coup sticks (Conner and Conner 1971:22,27).




Table 3 Distribution of Material Culture Items at Writing-On-Stone

Weapons Horse Trappings

s> §-

i S t ? Site I I 1 I I | j 1 I ff | | 1 I I I g DgOv2 684 18 413 721 2 40 DgOv3 2 2 3 1 DgOv9 2 3 11 2 DgOv43 113 3 17 DgOv45 2 DgOv49 1 1 1 DgOv52 1 DgOv53 1 DgOv54 1 1 DgOv56 1 DgOv57 111 5 12 4 DgOv59 1 DgOv60 11 2 1 1 5 1 DgOv63 1 1 DgOv69 1 DgOv74 3 1 DgOv75 1 DgOv78 15 7 1 DgOv79 2 1 1 DgOv80 1 1 3 GdOv81 2 2 1 i 44 4 6 30 DgOv83 1 DgOv84 1 DgOv85 2 DgOv88 1 1 2 DgOwl9 7 DgOw20 12 2 1 5 DgOw21 1 1 DgOw24 1 DgOw26 5 DgOw27 11 5 3 3 DgOw28 1 3 DgOw29 112 4 4 1 11 1




Table 3 (Contintued) Distribution of Material Culture Items at Writing-On-Stone

Weapons Horse Trappings

ü ^

§ g-

> ^ ÍL ffi QÖ H 8

Site ^ ^ 3 I t !? § I. §í 'S' S §• 8 I fr & Ü!

DgOw30 13 1 2 1 1

DgOw31 1 2 1

DgOw32* 11 5 1 1 2 12 14 Turner* 1 2 2

These Sites not yet fully recorded.

Hatchets

Four depictions of metal hatchets or axes occur in the rock art at Writing-On-Stone (Figs. 13g, 15b, 25c, d). Two are shown in use by warriors in combat scenes (at DgOv-9 and DgOv-81) and two are unassociated with other figures. Both isolated examples have short perpendicular lines

crossing the handle and fringes at the butt end. wno hatchet has been identified elsewhere in Northwestern Plains rock art, but an object

similar to the hatchets depicted at Writing-On-Stone occurs at Four Dance Cliff, a petroglyph near Billings, Montana (Conner and Conner 1971: Fig. 16). Although this object is identified as a rifle (Conner and Conner 1971: 39) it seems more likely to represent a hatchet.

Guns

Guns (Figs. 13, 25b) are numerically the most common weapon illustrated at Writing-On-Stone - due primarily to the 44 shown in the battle scene at DgOv-81 . Many guns can be identified as flintlocks by the cock and striking steel. Those without these features may represent breechloading rifles. Most guns are shown being held and fired, but isolated examples also occur. Some of these isolated examples, including a group of rifles at DgOv81 (Fig. 15), are

discharging even though they are not held by humans. Guns like those at Writing-On-Stone are a common element in Northwestern Plains rock art

(Conner and Conner 1971: 27). Discharging rifles not in association with humans also occur at

Pictograph Cave (Mulloy 1958: 139) and they are common in Historic period Plains Indian

pictography (Mallery 1972: 571; Barbeau 1969: 58), where they often represent battles (Denig 1930: Plate 78). Isolated guns in Writing-On-Stone rock art may represent war trophies, as do similar illustrations in Historic period Plains Indian pictography (Mallery 1972: 454; Dempsey 1973: 16).




Shields

Shields shown at Writing-On-Stone include those composing shield-bearing warriors, small shields carried by Historic period warriors, and a few examples not associated with humans.

Shield-bearing warrior shields are apparently three to four feet in diameter, since they cover almost the entire body of the anthropomorph. These are often fringed and decorated with heraldic designs including geometric abstracts, celestial objects and zoomorphs.

At a few sites there are circular motifs decorated like shields, that are not associated with

anthropomorphic figures. Some sites with shield-bearers have several of these (e.g. DgOw-24, DgOv-2). Other sites in Montana and Wyoming have similar isolated shields (Conner and Conner 1971: 15); the best known is Castle Gardens in central Wyoming (Sowers 1964).

The large body shields carried by shield-bearing warriors were apparently too bulky for use

by horsemen. Hence, soon after the horse was introduced into Plains Indian culture the Indians

began to make shields that could be maneuvered more easily on horseback or in close combat. Three classic shield-bearing warriors at Writing-On-Stone (at DgOw-32) are mounted, but their shields are outsized, and the artist's difficlty of depicting these men and their shields on horseback is obvious. There are no horseman using small shields at Writing-On-Stone, but four

pedestrian warriors in combat scenes carry small shields (Figs. 4, 13d). One of these shields is decorated and fringed; the others are undecorated. Two are very crudely drawn in comparison to

shield-bearing warriors' shields. The crudity and absence of designs on these shields probably reflects the general lack of elaboration associated with Historic period anthropomorphs rather than the actual characteristics of Historic period shields, since shields collected in the 1800s were well-made with heraldic decorations (Lowie 1954; Wissler 1907).

Sword

The central figure in the battle scene pictograph at DgOv-57 (Fig. 7) wields a sword, identified

by the circular handguard and the long, upcurved, scimitar-like blade. Swords, guns, clothing, and other military equipment were often captured and used by Plains Indians, and such

equipment has been recovered from Indian burials in Writing-On-Stone Provincial Park

(Dempsey 1973: 116). The sword depicted at DgOv-57 is the only known example in Northwestern Plains rock art, but swords are similarly depicted in many Historic period Plains Indian paintings (e.g. Smith 1943: 119; Mallery 1972: Plate XLI; Rodee 1965: 220, 223; Barbeau 1960: 108-109).

Horse Equipment

Numerous items of horse riding equipment and trappings are depicted in the Historic period rock art at Writing-On-Stone. Recognizable items include feather forelock decorations, bridles,

whips, decorated halters, travois, armor, and saddles.

Bridles

Single or double rein bridles, represented by one or two lines strung between the rider and the




horse's head (Fig. 12) are often depicted. Bridles occur elsewhere in Northwestern Plains rock art (Conner and Conner 1971: 24, Fig. 19; Bozovich and Bozovich 1968: 19-20) and were used

by most Plains Indian Tribes (Ewers 1955). They are often depicted in Plains Indian hide

paintings (Barbeau 1959; Rodee 1965).

Whips

Several equestrians in Writing-On-Stone rock art are shown using whips or quirts to beat their horses (Figs. 10g, 16a,c). These are usually represented by short lines forked at the end. The best example is at DgOw-21 (Fig. 16c), but others also occur. Elsewhere in Northwestern Plains rock art horsemen at the Joliet Petroglyphs use horsewhips (Conner and Conner 1971: Fig. 19). Several types of whips were used by the Blackfeet and other Plains tribes (Ewers 1955: 98-99).

Decorated Halter

A type of stylized decorated halter (Fig. 26) is depicted on ten horses at eight sites at

Writing-On-Stone. Of these ten examples, seven are nearly identical rake-like objects connected to or just in front of the horse's nose (Fig. 26). The other three (Figs. 12c, 16d, 26d) are similar but more abstract, being clusters of lines hanging from the horse's lower jaw. Although not

recognized as such, a similar object occurs on a horse at Castle Butte in Montana (Conner and Conner 1971: Fig. 37), and on horses at two Wyoming sites (Helen Schuster, personal communication 1977). Decorated halters identical to those depicted at Writing-On-Stone are shown on hide paintings collected from several Plains Indian tribes (Barbeau 1960: 109, 161; Smith 1943: 112; Denig 1930: Plate 76). At Writing-On-Stone this motif may represent a

stylized decorated halter used by the Blackfeet, which included a feathered banner suspended from the horse's lower jaw (Ewers 1955: 99-100; see Jenness 1963: 103, 323 for pictures of these trappings).

Travois

Six horses in the Battle Scene at DgOv-81 pull travois (Fig. 15c) represented by elongate, horizontally oriented V-shapes with cross bars. At DgOv-78 seven similar horizontally oriented

V-shapes apparently also are travois, even though they are not associated with horses. One has two cross bars similar to those on the travois at DgOv-81. One vertically oriented inverted V with elaborate cross bars at DgOv-74 is also tentatively identified as a travois.

The only other travois reported in Plains rock art is being pulled by a horse at the Spring Creek Petroglyphs in extreme south-central Montana (Haberman 1973: 22-23).

Armor

Two horses ridden by shield bearing warriors in the battle scene at DgOw-32 are covered by protective armor represented by a cross-hatched blanket-like cover encasing all of the horse

except the head, feet, and part of the shield bearing warrior (Fig. 14a). A third horse in this




battle scene is not armored. These are the only known depictions of horse armor in Plains rock art. The Shoshone, who made armor from hide, glue, and sand, are the only Northwestern Plains tribe known to have used horse armor (Dempsey 1973: 14; Ewers 1955: 204; Secoy 1953).

Feather Forelock Deocrations

Two rubbed petroglyph horses at the Turner Ranch site (just upstream from Writing-On-Stone Provincial Park) are shown in Dewdney's unpublished drawings with a "fringe" projecting from the forehead. This probably represents a feather decoration in the forelock (Habgood 1967: 8). Historic period Plains Indians often tied feathers in the manes and tails of their mounts (Ewers 1955: 100).

Saddles

There are what appear to be saddles on two horses at Writing-On-Stone. One, apparently a pad saddle, is indicated by an outlined rectangle formed by lines crossing the side of a horse at

DgOv-56 (Fig. 12c). Pad saddles were commonly used by Indian males in hunting and warfare (Ewers 1955: 156).

An elaborate line abstract on a horse at DgOv-63 (Fig. 27) probably represents a saddle with

pommel, cantle, and stirrups. This type of saddle was used by the Indians as a female's riding saddle (Ewers 1955) and was also used by white men. Since the male figure associated with this horse appears to be a white man, the abstract represents a saddle much like modern examples.

Clothing and Ornaments

This category of material culture items includes clothing, headdresses, and apparent ceremonial

objects in association with anthropomorphic figures.

Clothing

Aside from headdresses, little in the way of clothing is illustrated at Writing-On-Stone. At

DgOv-2, DgOw-29, DgOw-30, and DgOw-32, there are human figures with fringe-decorated arms and/or legs (Figs. 10a, 1 lh). Such fringing probably indicates fringed or feather decorated

jackets and leggings. Several styles of anthropomorphs are fringed. A rider at DgOw-21 appears to be clothed in a large, triangular, tent-like cover (Fig. 12a), his

legs projecting below a horizontal line scratched on the horse's side that probably indicates the lower edge of the cover. This tent-like covering is suggestive of some sort of poncho or cape.

An hourglass figure at DgOv-63 (Fig. 27) is embellished at the waist and calves in a manner

suggesting chaps or boots, and a waist sash. Branded mature style horses date this site to the latter part of the Historic period, so it is likely that this unique anthropomorph depicts a white rancher or soldier.




A design composed of oblique parallel lines on an anthropomorph at DgOw-29 (Fig. 1 le) that

Dempsey (1973: 14) provisionally identified as a hair pipe breast plate may not represent such a

garment. These breast plates were not in use on the Northwestern Plains until the 1800s

(Dempsey 1973: 14). But this anthropomorph resembles prehistoric period V-neck an-

thropomorphs which often have a herringbone pattern on their chest region. Since this

herringbone pattern is also used on zoomorphs in the chest region it apparently indicates the ribs rather than a garment.

Headdresses

Headdresses are shown in a variety of ways on anthropomorphs of every type. Headdresses

compose two major categories; complex horned and abstract headdresses most often associated with shield-bearing warriors and V-neck anthropomorphs, and single or multiple feathered bonnets associated with Historic period anthropomorphs.

Horned headdresses include single and double horn varieties. The simple, double-horn headdresses (Fig. Ila) probably represent bison horn headdresses. More complex horned headdresses (Fig. 24) include horn-like projections with rakes or fringes attached, and single vertically oriented, branching, tree-like horns (Fig. 10c,d,f).

A few shield-bearing warriors have abstract headdresses represented by sunburst-like rays (Fig. 9a). One is a series of dots around the warrior's head (Fig. 9c).

A V-neck anthropomorph at DgOv-2 wears a headdress composed of three long, upward-emanating zig-zag lines (Fig. 28c) similar to the zig-zag lines emanating from the

wingtips of the thunderbird at DgOv-88. Such lines were used in Historic period Indian art to

represent giving or receiving supernatural power (Mallery 1972: 462-466). A similar

pictograph showing a bird and a V-neck human connected by a zig-zag power symbol occurs at a site near Nanton, Alberta, approximately 200 km northwest of Writing-On-Stone (Habgood 1967: 12, Fig. 34).

Bonnets with long, flowing feathered trailers are worn by numerous horsemen and a few

pedestrian warriors (Figs, llg, 12, 16, 26) in Historic period rock art at Writing-On-Stone. They are not shown on shield bearing warriors, classic V-neck anthropomorphs, or other

prehistoric period figures. These feathered bonnets are depicted as long lines trailing from the rider's head, usually with a fringe of short lines representing feathers. A few (Figs. 12d, 16b) also have bison horns represented. Feathered, and feathered-and-horned bonnets were used as headdresses by many Plains Indian tribes including the Cree, Crow, Mandan, and Blackfeet (Howard 1954). Often those including bison horns were restricted in use to members of the warrior or police societies (Howard 1954). Among the Blackfeet this type of headdress was worn by the leader of the Horn Society (Dempsey 1973: 16).

Several Historic period pedestrian warriors, and a few shield-bearing warriors wear what

appear to be single upright feathers in their hair. Some Historic period examples depict a

drooping single feather. Headdresses similar in style to those recorded at Writing-On-Stone occur throughout the

Northwestern Plains at rock art sites in Montana (Mulloy 1958; Conner and Conner 1971) and

Wyoming (Grey and Sweem 1961; Mack 1971; Bozovich and Bozovich 1968), however, no

example of the distinctive drooping multi-feathered bonnet recorded at Pictograph Cave

(Mulloy 1958: 130) occurs at Writing-On-Stone.




Hats, presumably indicating white men, are worn by anthropomorphs at two sites (Figs. 8, 28a,b). Two anthropomorphs in the hanging scene at DgOv-2, and one on a different panel of the same site have heads represented by a cross, which is the manner in which hats worn by white men were depicted in Historic period Plains Indian pictography (Dempsey 1973: 15). One

anthropomorph firing a gun at DgOw-20 also has this type of hat, and another man riding a horse has a more elaborate version showing the crown in outline.

The classic V-neck anthropomorph at DgOv-2 that has a cross shaped head probably does not

represent a white man, although it has been tentatively identified as such (Dempsey 1973: 15). The cross is actually a natural crack in the cliff and there are no historic objects associated with this figure. In addition this type of anthropomorph dates to the pre- white contact period on the Northwestern Plains (Dempsey 1973: 19; Dewdney 1964: 29).

Rakes

V-neck anthropomorphs at three sites at Writing-On-Stone (DgOv-88, DgOw-28, and

DgOw-29) hold rake-like objects upright in one or both hands (Figs. 10d,i, 25a), and two others have similar rakes as headdresses (Fig. 30b). Shield bearing warriors at DgOw-29 and DgOv-2 (Figs. 13a, 24) also wear similar rake headdresses. Stylistic similarities suggest that these rakes were intended to represent the same kind of object in each instance. Since they have no apparent utilitarian purpose, and they are used as headdress elements they probably represent ceremonial

objects with some sort of supernatural significance. Rakes have not been recorded in association with anthropomorphs elsewhere in Northwestern Plains rock art.

One large rectangular body anthropomorph at DgOv-88 (Fig. 1 la) holds a long staff with a curved end, similar to a shepherd's crook, upraised in one hand. The staff does not appear to

represent a club, and may represent something similar to the rakes depicted at this site and elsewhere.

Tipis

Representations of tipis (Fig. 29) are common in the Historic period rock art at

Writing-On-Stone. These range from simple inverted V shapes to detailed representations showing poles, doorway, and flap. The simple inverted V shapes are identified as tipis only when they occur in action scenes such as the battle depicted at DgOv-57. The detailed examples also occur in action scenes, but a few are found in isolation. Tipis occur in groups at several sites (e.g. DgOv-43, DgOw-19) and are arranged in camp circles at DgOv-2 and DgOv-81 (Figs. 15, 29a). One large tipi in the center of the camp circle at DgOv-81 has three

anthropomorphs within it (Fig. 15a). This representation of people in a tipi is unique in Northwestern Plains rock art (Conner 1961: 4), but a somewhat similar depiction showing four axes in a tipi is painted on a bison hide, illustrating the coups of Crop-Eared Wolf, a Canadian Blood Indian (Barbeau 1960: 58). The other styles of tipis at Writing-On-Stone are found at numerous sites in central Montana (Conner and Conner 1971: 23) and are also shown in Plains Indian pictography of the Historic period (MacLean 1894; Mallery 1972).




Tool Groves /Tally Marks

Long, narrrow, deep grooves incised in the sandstone cliff faces are common at most of the

petroglyph sites at Writing-On-Stone. Some sites have only one or two; others have several hundred (e.g. DgOv-88, DgOv-2). The majority of these marks are randomly oriented and scattered haphazardly across the faces on which the petroglyphs are incised or scratched. Most are found at sites where ceremonial art, composed of shield-bearing warriors and classic V-neck

anthropomorphs, is the predominant art type. Historic period sites usually have few or no tool

grooves. These grooves are commonly referred to as tool sharpening grooves, implying that they

resulted from sharpening bone tools such as awls and fleshing tools, but this function has never been verified. Experiments that I conducted at Writing-On-Stone in 1976 suggest that these

grooves may have had a variety of purposes. Experiments demonstrated that sharp bone

splinters were the most efficient tool for incising or scratching petroglyphs. Through use, the bone splinter quickly dulled, but it could be sharpened on the sandstone surface and several

resharpenings resulted in a typical tool groove. Hence, many tool grooves at Writing-On-Stone probably were whetstones for petroglyph incising tools.

A few tool grooves, such as the wide grooves on one panel of DgOv-2 might well represent sharpening grooves for utilitarian bone tools, since the grooves seem to be too wide to have resulted from sharpening a petroglyph incising tool.

Some tool grooves had a still different function. Characteristics of tool grooves at a few sites indicate that some of these grooves had their own significance. At two relatively inaccessible sites, DgOv-44 and DgOv-92, the only petroglyphs are tool grooves. At other sites the tool

grooves are incised in areas difficult to reach even though more easily accessible areas would have been available to the artists. In addition, at several sites (e.g. DgOv-64, DgOv-88) there are far more tool grooves than would have been necessary to sharpen tools to incise the few other petroglyphs, and at one panel at DgOv-2 two tool grooves are associated with three

shield-bearing warrior pictographs, but no other petroglyphs. These characteristics suggest that these tool grooves are not simply whetstones for sharpening pictograph incising tools or other bone tools. Possibly the act of making a tool groove had intrinsic importance to some artists, or

possibly sharpening a bone tool at certain sites imparted to it a desired quality. Some otherwise typical tool grooves, and short vertically oriented pictograph lines at a few

sites are arranged in neat series. Within each series the grooves or lines are of relatively even

length and width, and evenly spaced. These probably represent tally marks, although the

subjects being counted are unknown. At Writing-On-Stone, as at other sites on the Northwestern Plains (Conner and Conner 1971: 34) tally marks are rare. Usually only one or two series occur at any site and many sites have none.

Geometric Abstracts

For descriptive convenience only, a relatively small group of various designs is best classified as geometric (Fig. 28d,e,f). Some of these are recognizable motifs, such as the sunbursts recorded at three sites. Others are simply rectangles or groups of interconnecting and overlapping straight lines, or scratched curvilinear mazes. At some sites, such as DgOv-67 and DgOv-82, geometric abstracts are the only rock art, and at others such motifs predominate. Some of these abstracts




may be doodles, but the apparent care taken in producing many of them, their placement in relatively inaccessible areas (such as at DgOv-67) and their use to decorate some shield-bearing warriors' shields suggest that most had symbolic meaning to their maker. Except for the few sunbursts none has a sufficient number of attributes for identification as to meaning or function, and no two share a sufficient number of attributes for classification into types.

Comparisons and Interpretations

The rock art at Writing-On-Stone is part of the Northwestern Plains rock art tradition which is distributed from southern Alberta to southern Wyoming, and from the Rocky Mountains to western South Dakota (Habgood 1967; Conner and Conner 1971; Grey and Sweem 1961; Gebhard et al 1964; Over 1941; Grant 1967). Northwestern Plains rock art is best known from sites in south-central Montana (Mulloy 1958; Conner and Conner 1971) and comprises a constellation of distinctive motifs including shield-bearing warriors, V-neck anthropomorphs, various styles of zoomorphs, and historic scenes showing horsemen participating in warfare and hunting activities. Incised and scratched naturalistic petroglyphs predominate, but pictographs of the same style also occur. At Writing-On-Stone these characteristic motifs are carved and painted on the cliffs along the Milk River and its larger tributary coulees.

Northwestern Plains rock art includes elements and motifs from the rock art of two nearby regions - the Great Basin and the Northeastern Woodlands - but the combination of these with numerous indigenous motifs, and the stylistic and compositional features unique to these sites create a rock art tradition that is distinct from that of any other area of western North America.

Plains-Great Basin Relationships

Two distinctive motifs are shared by Great Basin and Northwestern Plains rock art. These are the shield-bearing warrior and the boat-form style zoomorph which are common to both regions but occur infrequently elsewhere. Archaeological evidence suggests that these motifs are of Shoshonean origin, and archaeological and linguistic data suggest diffusion from the Great Basin to the Northwestern Plains sometime after A.D. 1000 (Keyser 1975; see Cultural Affiliation of Writing-On-Stone Rock Art, below).

However, aside from these distinctive motifs, the rock art of the two regions has little in common. Many characteristic Great Basin rock art motifs (see Schaafsma 1971; Grant et al 1968; Heizer and Baumhoff 1962), do not occur on the Northwestern Plains, and there is no

regular association of Northwestern Plains rock art sites with hunting sites (Conner and Conner 1971: 29) as there is between rock art sites and hunting blinds throughout the western Great Basin (Heizer and Baumhoff 1962; Grant et al 1968).

Plains-Northeastern Woodlands Relationships

Northwestern Plains rock art (especially that at Writing-On-Stone) also shares distinctive motifs with the rock art found in the Canadian shield area of the Northeastern Woodlands region in




south-central Canada. Obviously related styles of anthropomorphs, one of which (the hourglass body anthropomorph) is a distinctive motif not found elsewhere in North American rock art, occur frequently in both areas. The hourglass body anthropomorph is an Historic period motif on the plains but occurs prehistorically in Northeastern Woodland rock art, indicating that it

probably diffused from the northeast to the plains. The occurrence of the hourglass body anthropomorph in the Historic period art of the Blackfeet and Cree suggests that it was brought to the plains by these tribes and possibly also the Gros Ventres and Assiniboine, all of whom were Late Prehistoric period and early Historic period immigrants to the Northwestern Plains from the central Canadian woodlands.

However, other than the similar styles of anthropomorphs, Northwestern Plains rock art is not

greatly similar to Northeastern Woodlands rock art. None of the canoes, moose, dressed humans, or distinctive supernatural beings that characterize the pictography of the Canadian Woodlands (Dewdney and Kidd 1967; Grant 1967) occur in Northwestern Plains rock art.

Plains-Columbia Plateau Relationships

There are no indications of relationships between the rock art of the Columbia Plateau and that of the Northwestern Plains. In contrast to Northwestern Plains rock art, Columbia Plateau rock art (found at sites in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana, Idaho, Washington, British Columbia, and western Alberta) is predominantly red, finger-painted pictographs showing a

variety of simple stick figure anthropomorphs; stick figure, block-bodied, or outlined zoomorphs; a variety of complex geometric forms; and numerous tally marks (Keyser and Knight 1976; Corner 1968; Keyser 1977b). The absence of these characteristic motifs in Northwestern Plains rock art and the fact that there are few or no depictions in Columbia Plateau rock art of shield-bearing warriors, V-neck anthropomorphs, horses, and weapons separate completely the rock art of the two regions.

Plains-Central Montana Abstract Style Relationships

Northwestern Plains rock art is also distinct from the Central Montana Abstract style rock art found at numerous pictograph sites in a restricted area along the eastern flanks of the Rocky Mountains in west-central Montana. This latter style consists predominantly of highly abstract human and animal forms (Keyser 1977c; Shumate 1960), no example of which occurs at Writing-On-Stone.

Rock Art Types

On the basis of subject matter, style, and composition of site panels, two functional categories of rock art are distinguished at Writing-On-Stone: Ceremonial Art and Biographic art. Ceremonial Art is older, but overlaps with Biographic Art in the early Historic period between approximately A.D. 1750 and 1775.




Ceremonial Art

Ceremonial Art, composed predominantly of large, deeply incised petroglyphs and a few

finger-painted red pictographs, apparently functioned as part of a ritualized vision quest, variations of which are characteristic of the religion of many western North American Indian

groups. Characteristic ceremonial Art motifs are shield-bearing warriors, classic V-neck

anthropomorphs, and naturalistic and boat- form zoomorphs. Less common motifs restricted to Ceremonial Art are large rectangular body anthropomorphs, angular and rectilinear abstracts, rakes, and bow-spears.

Most Ceremonial Art is prehistoric, since horses, guns, and other historic objects are rarely associated with the characteristic motifs. However, eight boat-shaped horses with awkwardly depicted riders and two flintlock rifles, associated with a shield-bearing warrior and classic V-neck anthropomorphs, indicate that it persisted into the early Historic period. Because these

crudely-drawn horses and riders lack the stylistic conventions characteristic of Historic period Indian art, they were apparently drawn before the Historic period style of depicting horses and riders had been developed (see Zoomorphs, above). Since hide paintings collected between 1775 and 1820 in this area of the Northwestern Plains utilize these conventions (Barbeau 1960:

96-97, 225), Ceremonial Art must pre-date approximately 1775. The fact that no example of Ceremonial Art is superimposed on an example of Biographic Art suggests that Ceremonial Art was quickly replaced by Biographic Art during the mid 18th century (ca. A.D. 1750- 1775).

The maximum age of Ceremonial Art cannot be determined, but the negligible natural erosion of these sites in the last 60 to 80 years (as indicated by comparison of the petroglyphs today with

photographs of them taken in 1895 and 1915) indicates that the deeply incised petroglyphs could be as much as several hundred years old. However, no depictions of atlatls, characteristic of rock art that dates prior to A.D. 1 in the Great Basin and southern Texas (Grant et al 1968:

48-58; Newcomb 1976: 180) occur in Ceremonial Art at Writing-On-Stone or elsewhere on the Northwestern Plains. (The pictographs identified as atlatls at Pictograph Cave [Conner 1962:

16-17] seem to be too recent to represent this weapon, since they date to the Historic period [Mulloy 1958: 1 19, 139] long after the atlatl had been replaced by the bow and arrow on the

Northwestern Plains.) Elsewhere on the Northwestern Plains similar conclusions concerning

dating have been reached (Mulloy 1958: 1 19- 120) and shield-bearing warriors, classic V-neck

style anthropomorphs, and naturalistic and boat-form animals are correlated with the Late

Prehistoric period that spans the time between A.D. 500 and 1750 (Mulloy 1958: 119-120,

222). Since no definite maximum age can be assigned to the motifs that compose Ceremonial Art,

the proposed date of ca. A.D. 1300 for the introduction of the shield-bearing warrior - a major

component of the Ceremonial Art - onto the Northwestern Plains (Keyser 1975: 213) is a

reasonable estimate for the beginning of this art type. In addition to predating Biographic Art, Ceremonial Art is also stylistically distinct.

Ceremonial Art motifs are generally carefully executed and incised or painted on the best

available surfaces. Glyphs rarely overlap one another, and most appear to have been made as

individual designs or small groups of associated figures. Most Ceremonial Art sites or site

panels (e.g. several panels of DgOv-2, and sites DgOv-63, DgOv-83, and DgOv-85) are single motifs or small groups of less than five associated designs. Even the large concentrations of

Ceremonial Art (e.g. DgOw-29 and a few panels at DgOv-2) are shown by close examination to




be composed of numerous autonomous designs and small clusters of three to five associated

glyphs. No example of the well-integrated scenes involving many figures that are characteristic of Historic period Biographic Art are found in Ceremonial Art. These characteristics indicate that Ceremonial Art was produced as solitary figures or small clusters of glyphs, each of which

probably represents the work of a single individual. Concentrations of these designs reflect

repeated occurrences of different individuals incising petroglyphs on the same surface. Action is rarely depicted in Ceremonial Art, and there are no detailed scenes such as those

characteristic of Biographic Art. Action, when depicted (as in the combat scenes between

shield-bearing warriors and classic V-neck anthropomorphs at DgOv-2, DgOw-29, and

DgOw-32) is highly symbolic and shown without the stylistic conventions used in Historic

period Plains Indian pictography and Biographic rock art to show combat, death, travel, and horseback riding. Even the two Ceremonial Art battle scenes (at DgOw-32 and DgOv-2) are

simply small clusters of individual combat scenes with no non-combatants or other details

depicted (Fig. 14). No recognizable example of an event similar in nature to the horse raids, hunting scenes, hanging scene, and sexual acts depicted in Biographic Art occurs in Ceremonial Art.

Anthropomorphs and zoomorphs in Ceremonial Art are depicted for their intrinsic

importance, rather than simply as components of action scenes as they often are in Biographic Art. Anthropomorphs are usually well-made and very detailed, with attention paid to depicting physical features and anatomical details (including heart-lines, limbs, ribs, and facial features). Many of these anthropomorphs are also accompanied by detailed, well-drawn items of material culture including headdresses, weapons, and clothing. Most zoomorphs also have a great amount of anatomical detail (ribs, heart-lines, hooves) depicted in addition to identifying characteristics such as horns, humps, and tails. Like anthropomorphs, they occur as isolated

representations, but many are in symbolic association with anthropomorphs (Fig. 30). Aside from the few horses, no Ceremonial Art zoomorph is shown in an action scene.

Weapons, like zoomorphs, are usually more detailed than their counterparts in Biographic Art. Shields, bows, arrows, spears, and bow-spears often are depicted with minor decorative elements. Weapons are also often shown in isolation, and when associated with humans they are

usually not being used, and often are not being realistically held or carried (e.g. the bow-spears and arrow associated with shield-bearing warriors and V-neck anthropomorph at DgOv-2 - see

figs. 9e,c, 10h). As is the case with other elements of Ceremonial Art, the detailed depiction of these weapons and the symbolic association of them with anthropomorphs indicate that they had their own significance and were not made simply to complement action scenes.

These characteristics of Ceremonial Art suggest that it had a religious function, probably in association with the vision quest. The small groups of well-executed motifs, carefully placed on the best surfaces so as not to overlap one another, indicate planned, purposeful, individualistic instances of rock art production. The absence of depictions of secular activities and utilitarian objects, and the symbolic association of anthropomorphs with one another, with zoomorphs, and with objects that apparently had religious or supernatural significance (shields with heraldic designs, rakes, zig-zag power symbols, heart-lines), suggest that these glyphs represent supernatural experiences rather than actual events.

These characteristics, especially the symbolic association of humans and animals and the absence of depictions of secular events, are similar to those noted for ethnographic and archaeological examples of Columbia Plateau rock art associated with vision quests (Teit 1930;




Keyser and Knight 1976; Keyser 1977b), and rock art elsewhere on the Northwestern Plains that was apparently part of a vision quest ceremony (Keyser 1977c). Such representations would be well suited for illustrating the symbolic associations and relationships between humans and

supernatural beings who often appeared in vision quests in the guise of animals or other

anthropomorphs (Lowie 1954: 170-171). A combination of factors probably caused the inhabitants of the southern Alberta plains to

choose Writing-On-Stone for their vision quests and thus begin making rock art there. The area is isolated, and the towering cliffs and grotesquely-shaped hoodoos are awe-inspiring even

today, especially at dusk when shadows and prairie winds create a variety of shapes and sounds to complement the already bizarre topography. To people who believed that a variety of spirits inhabited the world and congregated in just such areas, Writing-On-Stone would have been an ideal place for contact with the supernatural. In addition, the presence of the first rock art there and the gradual accumulation of more petroglyphs and pictographs would have heightened the illusion of sacredness, much as the presence of the rock art at Writing-On-Stone was the major reason for the Blackfeet attributing great supernatural power to the area (Dempsey 1973:

23-47). Since the vision quest was a personal experience with specific details kept secret, and since the Late Prehistoric period Indians in this area of the Northwestern Plains usually traveled in small transient groups, the failure to correctly attribute this art to humans is easily understood. The accumulaton of the rock art, thought of as the work of supernatural beings, would serve as an incentive to other individuals to make more art at these sites in the course of

attempting to obtain spirit help at Writing-On-Stone, or to record successful visions obtained «elsewhere. Such a feedback system, resulting in the accumulation of more and more rock art at a site or in one area, has been proposed as the cause for large concentrations of pictographs at sites associated with Columbia Plateau vision questing (Malouf 1961: 9; Keyser and Knight 1976: 9- 10) and petroglyphs associated with Great Basin hunting magic (Grant et al 1968: 32-33).

Biographic Art

Biographic Art dates to the Historic period and depicts secular events important in the lives of individual warriors or important to the history of an entire group. This art consists of scratched and shallowly incised petroglyphs, and chalked and grease-painted pictographs. Characteristic motifs are mature style horses, small rectangular and hourglass body anthropomorphs, guns, and tipls. Other, less frequent depictions include a variety of simple V-neck humans, poorly depicted and abstract horsemen, decorated halters, spears, bows, and travois. Aside from

horses, zoomorphs are not common, but a few examples of bison, birds, deer, elk, and a single bear were recorded. Shield bearing warriors, classic V-neck anthropomorphs, and boat-form

style animals are not depicted. The preponderance of horses and guns dates Biographic Art to the Historic period. Stylistic

criteria suggest that it began after A.D. 1750 (Dewdney 1964: 29). Depictions of branded

horses, white men, a sword, and a hanging scene including a wagon, indicate that it was made as recently as the last half of the 19th century.

In contrast to the carefully executed, stylistically precise Ceremonial Art, Biographic Art is

generally more " haphazard", with less care taken in the selection of sites and the execution and

placement of figures.




Although Biographic Art motifs often compose detailed scenes showing combat, hunting, and horse raiding, little effort was made at most sites to select good surfaces or to avoid

scratching glyphs over older ones. Many petroglyphs were scratched across cracks and

pictographs were drawn on exfoliated surfaces that have since deteriorated further. Often these

petroglyphs are scratched or shallowly incised over the older Ceremonial Art and earlier

examples of painted and scratched Biographic Art. Although some unintentional super- imposition undoubtedly resulted from the difficulty of seeing some of the earlier faintly scratched Biographic Art petroglyphs, most of it cannot be so dismissed, because the underlying figures are as obvious or even more noticeable than the overlapping ones. Hence, much of the

super-imposition was either intentional or simply the result of the failure to select a clean surface. These characteristics create extensive groups of jumbled, overlapping figures that contrast markedly with the uncluttered panels of Ceremonial Art.

The depiction of detailed action scenes involving large, well integrated groups of figures and

stylistic conventions indicating death, horse riding, hunting, and other activities also differentiates Biographic Art from Ceremonial Art. Some of these conventions - bent-lftieed

horsemen, warriors in various postures indicative of striking fatal blows or counting coup, falling warriors symbolic of dead or wounded men, and series of dots and dashes representing flying projectiles - impart a "fluid" realism to Biographic Art scenes that is absent in Ceremonial Art. This realism, and other stylistic conventions that represent camp circles, routes of travel, and such specialized objects as branded horses, battle pits, white men, and occupied tipis produce a crude picture-writing with " story-lines" that enable a basic understanding and

interpretation of the events depicted. The highly symbolic Ceremonial Art lacks the realism and story-lines that make Biographic Art a rudimentary picture-writing.

Biographic Art probably functioned in several ways. Many examples are apparently records of individual warriors' personal war, hunting, and sexual exploits, similar in form and function to pictographic records of such exploits and honors painted on buffalo robes and tipi covers by members of most Historic period Plains Indian tribes (MacLean 1894; McClintock n.d.; Mallery 1972; Smith 1943; Barbeau 1960; Rodee 1965; Ewers 1939). Numerous detailed combat, hunting, and horse raiding scenes at Writing-On-Stone are apparently records of such personal exploits, and other examples of single guns, single horses, and horse herds probably also

represent war exploits in a slightly more symbolic manner as was a common practice in Historic Plains Indian pictography (Dempsey 1973: 16; MacLean 1894: Plate III; Barbeau 1960: 58). Since a Plains Indian's status as a warrior rested on his personal accomplishments (coups), which were regularly reaccounted at fraternal gatherings and depicted on his personal equipment (clothing, tipi cover, buffalo robes), Writing-On-Stone would have provided a place where these deeds could be recorded to impress both other tribesmen and also the supernatural.

This interpretation of the function of Biographic Art is supported by information obtained from Indian informants including Jerry Potts, a mixed-blood Piegan Indian who served as

interpreter and scout for the Canadian Mounted Police in the late 1800s. He indicated that much of the rock art at Writing-On-Stone was war records made by Piegan and Blood Indians (MacLean 1894: 118). Although Jerry Potts' interpretation has been questioned by Dempsey (1973: 24) on the basis of modern Indian informants beliefs that the rock art is of supernatural origin, Dempsey's evidence is often contradictory (compare pages 21, 24, and 29) or not

convincing. Modern Indian informants, whose culture has undergone extensive changes since the advent of reservation life in the last quarter of the 19th century, and who probably never had




first-hand familiarity with the rock art, are not likely to be as good a source for information

concerning its function as was Jerry Potts, who was a part of the culture responsible for some of the art.

Other examples of Biographic Art are probably commemorative records of important events that had an historiographie function similar to Plains Indian winter counts. The best examples of this are the battle scenes at DgOv-57 and DgOv-8 1 and the hanging scene and associated camp circle at DgOv-2, but many of the simpler scenes could also have had a commemorative function.

Although most biographic Art consists of records of personal exploits, a few examples may have had a religious function, either as part of a vision quest or as a supplication for success in a future endeavor. At Writing-On-Stone several painted and scratched abstracts (e.g. those at

DgOv-67, DgOv-82, and DgOw-27) as well as zoomorphs and anthropomorphs associated with abstract motifs (e.g. DgOv-42, DgOv-46) may have been produced in conjunction with vision

quests. The difficulty of access to sites such as DgOv-67 probably precludes most of these abstracts being doodles, and supports the interpretation of their ceremonial function. However, the limited number of such representations and the absence in Biographic Art of the characteristic symbolism usually associated with rock art drawn in conjunction with vision

quests (Keyser and Knight 1976; Keyser 1977b; Teit 1930) indicates that most Biographic Art was not made in conjunction with vision quest ceremonies.

Some examples of Biographic Art at Writing-On-Stone may have had a supplicatory function rather than being a record of an actual accomplishment. Since Writing-On-Stone was revered by the Blackfeet as a place of supernatural power (Dempsey 1973) a man desiring supernatural help in some venture might have made a petroglyph or pictograph there as a supplication to the

supernatural to control the actions of the object depicted, thereby insuring future success. Similar sympathetic magic in conjunction with hunting was apparently the function of animals

depicted in the rock art of many areas (Grant et al 1968: 40-41; Keyser and Knight 1976: 10; Conner and Conner 1971: 29-30). The superstitions of the Blackfeet, who felt that petroglyphs at Writing-On-Stone were depictions of future events that could be "read" and interpreted (Dempsey 1973: 26-27) supports this interpretation, even though the Blackfeet deny authorship of the rock art at Writing-On-Stone.

Discussion

The morphologic and stylistic differences between the two art types defined at Writing-On- Stone indicate that Biographic Art did not evolve from Ceremonial Art, even though the two

types probably coexisted for a short time in the early Historic period (ca. A.D. 1750- 1775) and the most recent examples of Ceremonial Art show a transition toward more biographic type scenes. Although shield-bearing warriors, classic V-neck anthropomorphs, and boat-form style horses compose an early Historic period battle scene and combat scene at DgOw-32, that are

apparently the first crude attempts to show action and depict actual events in a biographic manner, these are apparently not ancestral to Biographic rock art since none of the stylistic conventions used in Biographic Art occur and none of the characteristic motifs are shared by both types. Instead, these first crude attempts at biographic drawings apparently were short-lived modifications of the prehistoric Ceremonial rock art that reflect the well-documented




changes in rank, status, and warfare that accompanied the introduction of the horse and gun onto the Plains (Ewers 1955; Mishkin 1940; Secoy 1953; Keyser 1977a). Biographic Art represents the work of new artists whose cultures had just undergone these same changes.

Only one site - the battle scene at DgOv-43 - does not fit this interpretation, since it includes characteristics somewhat similar to those found in both art types. However, this scene is such a confused mixture of designs and stylistic conventions, none of which are classic

examples of either Ceremonial Art or Biographic Art, that its relationship to either art type is not clear. Clarification of the relationships of this site to examples of the two art types awaits the

analysis of additional similar sites.

Cultural Affiliation of Writing-On-Stone Rock Art

Establishing the cultural identity of artists responsible for rock art is often difficult to do with

certainty (Grant 1967), but recent research has shown that some motifs are the work of specific cultural groups (Conner and Conner 1971: 37-40; Keyser and Knight 1976; Keyser 1975;

Dempsey 1973; Grant et al 1968; Schaafsma 1971). By comparing the known distribution of certain characteristic Northwestern Plains rock art motifs with the distribution of tribes on the Northwestern Plains, and comparing these motifs to those found in Historic period Plains Indian

pictography the work of Shoshone, Blackfeet and probably Cree, Gros Ventres, and Assiniboine artists is identified at Writing-On-Stone.

Several characteristic Ceremonial Art motifs at Writing-On-Stone appear to be of Shoshonean

origin. Based on the spatial and temporal distribution of the shield-bearing warrior, and the almost exact coincidence of its distribution with the known range of the Plains Shoshone during the Late Prehistoric period and early Historic period, the shield-bearing warrior has been demonstrated to be of Shoshonean origin (Keyser 1975; Dempsey 1973: 19-21). This conclusion is supported by the coincidence of the distribution of diagnostic Shoshone artifacts with the distribution of shield-bearing warriors, and by the association of such artifacts

(Intermountain Pottery and tubular pipes) with shield-bearing warriors at three sites (Keyser 1975). Further support is provided by the association of pedestrian and mounted shield-bearing warriors at DgOw-32 with illustrations of horse armor known to have been used on the Northwestern Plains only by the Shoshone (Dempsey 1973: 14-20; Secoy 1953; see also Horse

Equipment, above). The close spatial and temporal association of classic V-neck anthropomorphs with

shield-bearing warriors in Northwestern Plains rock art has led some (Conner and Conner 1971: 17-18; Dempsey 1973: 18-20; Mulloy 1958: 122) to suggest that the same artists were

responsible for both. This conclusion is supported by the fact that some shield-bearing warriors

(e.g. those at DgOw-30 and DgOw-32) have classic V-neck style bodies, and the occurrence of a V-neck anthropomorph painted as a shield decoration on a shield-bearing warrior at

Pictograph Cave (Mulloy 1958: 122, 127). In fact, the spatial distribution of classic V-neck anthropomorphs is nearly identical to that of

shield bearing warriors on the Northwestern Plains (Fig. 31), where both motifs often occur at the same sites (Habgood 1967: 11,13; Conner and Conner 1971: 17; Secrist 1960; Mulloy 1958: 122; Grey and Sweem 1961: 2-8; Frison 1970: 26, 30-31; Mack 1971: 78, 86-94; Over 1941: 28-32). This association even occurs in central Kansas (Wedel 1959: 488-490; 1969) where shield-bearing warriors have been attributed to the Commanche, a Shoshonean speaking




group that migrated south from Wyoming in the Proto-historic period (Keyser 1975: 210). Classic V-neck anthropomorphs also show the same temporal span as shield-bearing

warriors. Most are prehistoric, but a few are awkward depictions of men riding boat-shaped horses that date to the early Historic period.

In summary, because of the close spatial and temporal association of classic V-neck

anthropomorphs with shield-bearing warriors and the coincident distribution of the motif with the archaeologically and ethnohistorically defined range of the Shoshones on the Northwestern Plains, the same arguments made for a Shoshonean origin for the shield-bearing warrior (Keyser 1975; Dempsey 1973: 19-21) - with the exception of its ultimate origin in the Great Basin Fremont culture - can be made for classic V-neck anthropomorphs. Hence, I suggest that the classic V-neck anthropomorph was a Shoshonean innovation, adopted soon after they occupied the Northwestern Plains and drawn during the period between approximately A.D. 1300 and A.D. 1750.

Boat-shaped zoomorphs, characteristic of Ceremonial Art, may also be of Shoshonean origin. At Writing-On-Stone these figures are always associated with shield-bearing warriors or classic V-neck anthropomorphs. Throughout the Northwestern Plains this association also seems to hold true (Conner and Conner 1971: 17, 25, 32, Figs. 3,11; Haberman 1973: 22-26; Grey and Sweem 1961: 8), although the general distribution and associations of this style of zoomorph are

imperfectly known. One shield-bearing warrior at the Joliet Petroglyphs has a boat-shaped zoomorph as a shield decoration (Conner and Conner 1971: Fig. 3). Support for this

hypothesized Shoshonean origin is provided by the characteristic boat-form style of Mountain

sheep and deer in the rock art of the western Great Basin homeland of the Shoshone (Grant et al

1968:18). In this area, prior to A.D. 1000 (the approximate date for the beginning of the Shoshone migration across the Great Basin and onto the Plains) the boat-form style zoomorph was the predominant type of animal representation (Grant et al 1968: 18-58). Boat-shaped zoomorphs are not common in the rock art of any other region of North America.

The other major Ceremonial art motifs - naturalistic style zoomorphs and large rectangular anthropomorphs - cannot be specifically attributed to Shoshone artists. Although they occur in association with shield bearing warriors and V-neck anthropomorphs at sites at Writing-On- Stone and elsewhere on the Northwestern Plains (Mulloy 1958: 126-134; Grey and Sweem 1961: 2-8), they are not stylistically unique, and similar figures occur in several areas of North America (Grant 1967).

Much of the Historic period Biographic Art at Writing-On-Stone is probably the work of

Blackfeet, Cree, Gros Ventres, and Assiniboine artists. Writing-On-Stone is located in the center of the territory occupied by these tribes during the Historic Period and many of the motifs characteristic of Biographic Art are similar to those depicted in their hide paintings and winter counts.

The distribution and ethnographic associations of one specific motif - the hourglass body anthropomorph - strongly support this conclusion. Hourglass body anthropomorphs are not common in Northwestern Plains rock art, except at Writing-On-Stone. Only three other sites on the Northwestern Plains (all in central Montana) have this type of anthropomorph (Conner and Conner 1971: 41; Conner 1973; Eichhorn 1958). All hourglass body anthropomorphs at

Writing-On-Stone, and those at the Montana sites, date to the Historic period (Conner and Conner 1971: 23; see Anthropomorphs, above). Similar anthropomorphs are found at rock art sites scattered across southern Canada from Writing-On-Stone to the Woodland areas north of




the Great Lakes (Dewdney and Kidd 1967; Dewdney 1964: 29; Dempsey 1973: 19, 21). In the Canadian Shield region these figures occur in prehistoric and historic rock art.

The spatial and temporal distribution of the hourglass body anthropomorph corresponds very closely to the range of the Algonkian speaking Blackfeet, Cree, and Gros Ventres tribes who migrated from the Great Lakes area to the Plains of southern Canada and northern Montana during the latter part of the Late Prehistoric period and the early Historic period (Mandelbaum 1940; Hewes 1948). Both the Blackfeet and Cree used hourglass body anthropomorphs in their Historic period paintings (Dempsey 1973:19; Mandelbaum 1940:267-269).

Although it is likely that the resident tribes of the southern Alberta and northern Montana plains were responsible for much of the Historic period art at Writing-On-Stone, since they lived in the area year-round, some examples of Biographic Art could be the product of artists from any of several other tribes that are known to have used this area of the Northwestern Plains during the Historic period. These include the Sarcee, Crow, Hidatsa, Cheyenne, Sioux, Kutenai, Flathead, and Shoshone, all of whom hunted and raided throughout the area during the early 1800s (Ewers 1968:70-72). Because the well-documented cultural similarities of these groups are reflected in their Historic period pictography (see Barbeau 1960; Ewers 1939; Rodee 1965), most characteristic Biographic Art motifs - mature style horses, tipis, hooked horses hooves, rectangular body anthropomorphs, feathered bonnets, and decorated halters - could have been drawn by artists of any of these groups.

Conclusions

During the summer of 1976 the Alberta Recreation, Parks and Wildlife Department, Parks Planning and Design Branch, sponsored an inventory of the rock art at Writing-On-Stone on the Milk River in southern Alberta. During the course of this project 58 rock art sites were located and recorded.

The rock art at Writing-On-Stone is part of the widespread Northwestern Plains rock art tradition, examples of which occur at sites in southern Alberta, Montana, Wyoming, and western South Dakota. It is distinctively different from the rock art of all neighboring areas, although it shows affinities with Great Basin and Canadian Shield rock art. These affinities, limited to several distinctive motifs shared by these three areas, suggest that certain rock art elements diffused onto the Northwestern Plains from both the Great Basin and the Northeastern Woodlands, probably in conjunction with the migration of several different groups during the Late Prehistoric and early Historic periods.

Two rock art types are identified at Writing-On-Stone. Ceremonial Art, composed of a group of closely associated, well-executed motifs that includes shield bearing warriors, classic V-neck anthropomorphs, and naturalistic and boat- shaped zoomorphs, apparently had a religious function. The scarcity of depictions of secular activities such as warfare and hunting, coupled with the symbolic association of zoomorphs, anthropomorphs, and apparent ceremonial objects, suggests that Ceremonial Art was made in conjunction with a ritualized vision quest ceremony.

The maximum age of Ceremonial Art cannot be positively determined, but most of it dates to the Late Prehistoric period. The date of A.D. 1300, based on the estimated arrival of the Shoshone (the artists responsible for several of the characteristic Ceremonial Art motifs) on the Northwestern Plains, seems to be a reasonable estimate for its beginning. The relative scarcity of historic objects depicted in Ceremonial Art, and the crude style of the few recorded horses




and riders indicates that this art did not survive long into the Historic period and was probably not used after approximately A.D. 1750.

Ceremonial Art was replaced at Writing-On-Stone by Biographic Art which is composed of a

group of associated motifs that functioned as records of warriors' personal exploits. These motifs are generally less well executed than those in Ceremonial Art. They include mature style horses, guns, tipis, and rectangular and hourglass body anthropomorphs. Detailed similarities between this art and Historic period Plains Indian pictography on buffalo robes, tipi covers and in winter counts indicate that it functioned to record personal war and hunting exploits and also as an historiographie record of important events. The predominance of guns, horses, and tipis, and depictions of a few metal trade axes, white men, branded horses, a wagon, and a hanging scene date this art to the period between approximately A.D 1750 and A.D. 1880.

Shoshone, Blackfeet, Cree, Gros Ventres, and Asiniboine artists are identified as the authors of most of the rock art at Writing-On-Stone. The characteristic Ceremonial Art motifs - shield

bearing warriors, V-neck anthropomorphs, and boat-form zoomorphs - are of Shoshonean

origin (Keyser 1975; Dempsey 1973; see Cultural Affiliations of Writing-On-Stone Rock Art, above), and the spatial and temporal distribution of this art type suggest that the Shoshone may have originated the Northwestern Plains rock art tradition. Ceremonial Art is widespread on the Northwestern Plains, and it accounts for approximately 60 to 75% of the prehistoric rock art in the region. Other prehistoric Northwestern Plains rock art types, such as the highly abstract

styles localized near Din woody, Wyoming (Gebhard and Cahn 1950; Adams 1974) and Great

Falls, Montana (Keyser 1977c; Shumate 1960), have very restricted distributions and few

relationships with rock art elsewhere in the region. However, Ceremonial Art does not appear to be of great age. At sites where it was associated with buried deposits it was dated to the Late Prehistoric period (Mulloy 1958:119-120; Gebhard et al 1964:367), and it includes no

depictions of atlatls characteristic of Archaic Period rock art elsewhere in western North America that dates prior to the beginning of the Late Prehistoric period (approximately A.D.

500). The date of approximately A.D. 1300 is estimated to be the beginning of Ceremonial Art, and no other Northwestern Plains rock art can be demonstrated to be older than this.

The widespread distribution of Ceremonial Art, and the similarity of all examples of the characteristic motifs, suggest that they spread rapidly throughout the area in a relatively short

period during which there was little opportunity for change in the basic designs. Such characteristics suggest that this art was spread by migration rather than diffusion. The Shoshone, who had a well-developed rock art tradition in the Great Basin (Grant et al 1968) which included several motifs similar to the characteristic Ceremonial Art motifs, are the only group known to have spread quickly throughout the area. Hence, they are probably the

originators of the Northwestern Plains rock art tradition.

Biographic Art is probably the product of artists from Blackfeet, Cree, Gros Ventres, and Assiniboine tribes, all of which were resident tribes in this area of the Northwestern Plains

during the 1700s and 1800s. Biographic Art is stylistically similar to the pictography of these Plains Indian tribes and the spatial and temporal distribution of one characteristic Biographic Art motif - the hourglass body anthropomorph - reflects the ethnohistorically documented

migration of these groups from the region north of the Great Lakes to the Northwestern Plains.

University ofTulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S. A.




Acknowledgements The rock art research project at Writing-On-Stone was funded entirely by the Alberta Recreation, Parks and Wildlife Department, Parks Planning and Design Branch. Within the Parks Department I wish to thank the Park Warden at Writing-On-Stone, Fred "Scotty" Shearer, and his wife Nancy, who contributed to the project in numerous ways which helped make the field work very enjoyable.

My appreciation also goes to Bill and Johnny O'Hara and Mr. and Mrs. Howard Penrose who permitted access to sites on their property.

The fieldcrew for the Writing-On-Stone research consisted of the author and Susan Ashley, but several other persons including Eric Kuhn, Robert Ashley, Rebecca and Allan Murray, and Audrey L. Keyser assisted with recording and locating some sites.

The Glenbow Institute of Calgary, Alberta was especially helpful in providing unpublished fieldnotes and manuscripts concerning the rock art at Writing-On-Stone and reproductions and photographs of several sites. Within the Glenbow Institute, I thank Hugh Dempsey, historian, and Mrs. Georgeen Barass, archivist, for their help. Figures 7 and 8 are courtesy of the Glenbow Institute and portions of Figures 10, 11, 13, 14 and 15 are reproduced from previously unpublished drawings or photographs provided by the Glenbow Institute.

Abstract

Writing-On-Stone, a short stretch of the Milk River valley in southern Alberta containing 58 petroglyph and pictograph sites, is one of the largest concentrations of rock art in western North America. The several thousand motifs recorded at these sites comprise five major categories: anthropomorphs, zoomorphs, items of material culture, tool grooves/tally marks, and geometric abstracts. Two functional rock art types, Ceremonial Art and Biographic Art, occur. Ceremonial Art dates to the Late Prehistoric and Early Historic periods between approximately A.D. 1300 and 1750, and consists of a constellation of motifs drawn as part of a ritualized vision quest ceremony. Biographic Art is dated by the preponderance of guns, horses, white men and other historic objects to the period between A.D. 1750 and 1880. The common depictions of secular activities and utilitarian objects indicates that Biographic Art functioned as a record of the personal exploits of individual warriors. The artists répons ible for the Biographic Art include members of the Blackfeet, Cree, Gros Ventres, Assiniboine and probably other tribes.

Résumé

Writing-On-Stone, une petite bande de terre dans la vallée de la rivière Milk dans le sud de l'Alberta qui contient 58 sites pétroglyphiques et pictographiques, est une des plus grandes concentrations d'art rupestre dans l'ouest de l'Amérique du Nord. Plusieurs milliere de motifs y ont été relevés; ils se divisent en cinq grandes catégories: motifs anthropomorphiques, zoomorphiques, objets appartenant à la culture matérielle, rainures d'outils/entailles et abstractions géométriques. On y rencontre deux types d'art rupestre fonctionnel: l'art cérémoniel et l'art biographique. L'art cérémoniel remontre à la fin de la période préhistorique et au début de la période historique, c'est-à-dire entre 1300 et 1750 de notre ère environ, et se compose d'une foule de motifs dessinés dans le cadre de cérémonies incantatoires rituelles. L'art biographique remonte à une période située entre 1750 et 1800 de notre ère, à cause de la




prépondérance des fusils, chevaux, hommes blancs et autres objets historiques qu'on y trouve. Les représentations communes des activités quotidiennes et des objets utilitaires indiquent que l'art biographique était une façon d'enregistrer les exploits personnels des guerriers individuels. Les artistes auxquels on doit cet art biographique appartenaient aux tribus Piedsnoirs, Crises, Gros Ventres, Assiniboines et probablement à d'autres encore.

References

Adams, James K. 1974. A Photographie Study of the Trail Lake Petroglyph Site. Wyoming Archaeiologist, 17 (4): 2-27.

Barbeau, Marius 1960. Indian Days on the Western Prairies. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 163, Ottawa.

Beaty, Chester B. 1975. The Landscapes of Southern Alberta. University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge.

Bozovich, Joseph and Joseph F. Bozovich 1968. The White Mountain Petroglyphs. Wyoming Archaeologist, 11 (2): 10-23.

Cain, H. Thomas 1950. Petroglyphs of Central Washington. University of Washington Press, Seattle.

Conner, Stuart W. 1961. Comparison of Prehistoric Picture Writing at Writing-On-Stone Provincial Park, Alberta, with that of Central and South Central Montana. Unpublished manuscript on file, Glenbow Foundation, Calgary.

Conner, Stuart W. 1962. A Preliminary Survey of Prehistoric Picture Writing on Rock Surfaces in Central and South Central Montana. Billings Archaeological Society Anthropological Paper, 2. Billings.

Conner, Stuart W. 1967. Pictorial Sketch of Pictograph Cave. Archaeology in Montana 8 (3): 1-15.

Conner, Stuart W. 1973. Letter to Hugh Dempsey, Glenbow Foundation Historian, dated June 17, 1973.

Conner, Stuart W. and Betty Lu Conner 1971 . Rock Art of the Montana High Plains. The Art Galleries, University of California, Santa Barbara.

Corner, John 1968. Pictographs in the Interior of British Columbia. Wayside Press, Vernon.

Cramer, Joseph L. 1974. Drifting Down the Yellowstone River with Captain William Clark, 1806 - A Pictographic Record of the Lewis and Clark Return Expedition. Archaeology in Montana, 15(1): 11-21.

Dempsey, Hugh A. 1973. A History of Writing-On-Stone. Unpublished manuscript on file with Alberta Provincial Parks Department, Edmonton.

Denig, Edwin Thompson 1930. Indian Tribes of the Upper Missouri. 46th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington.




Dewdney, Selwyn 1964. Writings On Stone along the Milk River. The Beaver, Winter: 22-29.

Dewdney, Selwyn and Kenneth E. Kidd 1967. Indian Rock Paintings of the Great Lakes. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.

Eichhorn, Gary 1958. Petroglyphs at Porcupine Lookout, A Site in Rosebud County. Archaeology in Montana, 1 (1): 3-5.

Ewers, John C. 1939. Plains Indian Painting. Stanford University Press. Stanford.

Ewers, John C. 1955. The Horse in Blackfee t Indian Culture. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 159, Washington.

Ewers, John C. 1968. Was There a Northwestern Plains Sub-Culture? An Ethnographical Appraisal. In: The Northwestern Plains: A Symposium Warren W. Caldwell (ed.). The Center for Indian Studies, Rocky Mountain College, Occasional Papers 1: 69-78.

Frison, George 1970. The Kobold Site, 24BH406: A Post-Altithermal Record of Buffalo Jumping for the Northwestern Plains. Plains Anthropologist, 14 (47): 1-35.

Gebhard, David and Harold A. Cahn 1950. The Petroglyphs of Dinwoody, Wyoming. American Antiquity, 15 (3): 219-28.

Gebhard, David, George A. Agogino and Vance Haynes 1964. Horned Owl Cave, Wyoming. American Antiquity 29(3): 360-68. Goodwin, Jim 1963. An Historic Petroglyph Site in Southern Montana. Wyoming Ar- chaeologist, 6(3): 7-8.

Grant, Campbell 1967. Rock Art of the American Indian. Crowell, New York.

Grant, Campbell, James W. Baird and J. Kenneth Pringle 1968. Rock Drawings of the Coso Range. Maturango Museum Publication 4, China Lake.

Grey, Don and G.D. Sweem 1961. Pictograph Classification and Petroglyph Weathering. Wyoming Archaeologist, 4 (2): 2-13.

Haberman, Thomas 1973. 1972 Archaeological Survey in the Decker ¡Birney Area of Big Horn County, Southeastern Montana. Boulder, Colorado: Resources Development Internship Program, Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education, Boulder.

Habgood, Thelma 1967. Petroglyphs and Pictographs in Alberta. Archaeological Society of Alberta Newsletter 13, 14.

Haines, Francis 1938. The Northward Spread of Horses Among the Plains Indians. American Anthropologist, 40: 429-37.

Heizer, Robert F. and Martin A. Baumhoff 1962. Prehistoric Rock Art of Nevada and Eastern California. University of California Press, Berkeley

Hewes, Gordon 1948. Early Tribal Migrations in the Northern Great Plains. Plains Archaeological Conference Newsletter, 1 (4): 49-61 .

Hinthorn, Juanita 1962. Turner Ranch Pictographs. Wyoming Archaeologist, 5 (4): 13-16.




Howard, James H. 1954. Plains Indian Feathered Bonnets. Plains Anthropologist, 2: 24-27.

Hoy, Judy 1969. Petroglyph Boulders in Phillips County Montana. Archaeology in Montana, 10 (3): 45-65.

Jelinek, J. 1975. The Evolution of Man. Hamlyn, London.

Jenness, Diamond 1963 The Indians of Canada. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 65, Ottawa.

Johnson, Ann M. 1975. Hoofprint Boulder (24RV1026). Archaeology in Montana, 16 (1): 43-47.

Key ser, James D. 1975. A Shoshonean Origin for the Plains Shield Bearing Warrior Motif. Plains Anthropologist, 20 (69): 207- 15.

Keyser, James. D. 1977a. Changes in Plains Indian Warfare and Status as Indicated by the Rock Art at Writing-On-Stone, Alberta. Unpublished Manuscript in Possession of Author.

Keyser, James D. 1977b. The Zephyr Creek Pictograph: Columbia Plateau Rock Art on the

Periphery of the Northwestern Plains. 7977 Review of Alberta Archaeology, (in press).

Keyser, James D. 1977c. Audrey's Overhang: A Pictographic Maze in Central Montana. Plains

Anthropologist, 22(77): 183-87.

Keyser, James D. and George C. Knight 1976. The Rock Art of Western Montana. Plains

Anthropologist, 21 (71): 1-12.

Lewis Oscar 1942. The Effects of White Contact Upon Blackfoot Culture. American

Ethnological Society Monograph 6, Seattle.

Lowie, Robert H. 1909. The Assiniboine. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 4, pt. 1, New York.

Lowie, Robert H. 1954. Indians of the Plains. American Museum Science Book. New York.

Mack, Joanne M. 1971. Archaeological Investigations in the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming. Wyoming A rchaeologist, 14(2-4).

MacLean, John 1894. Picture- Writing of the Blackfeet. Transactions of the Canadian Institute 5: 114-20.

Mallery, Garrick 1972. Picture Writing of the American Indians. Dover Publication of the 10th

Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, New York.

Malouf, Carling I. 1961. Pictographs and Petroglyphs. Archaeology in Montana, 3 (1): 1-13.

Mandelbaum, David 1940. The Plains Cree. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum

of Natural History 37, pt. 2, New York.

McClintock, Walter N.D. Painted Tipis and Picture-Writing of the Blackfoot Indians.

Southwest Museum Leaflet 6, San Diego.

Mishkin, Bernard 1940. Rank and Warfare Among the Plains Indians. American Ethnological

Society Monograph, 3, Seattle.




Mulloy, William 1958 A Preliminary Historical Outline for the Northwestern Plains. University of Wyoming Publications, 22 ( 1 ) .

Nesbitt, Paul Edward 1968. Stylistic Locales and Ethnographic Groups: Petroglyphs of the Lower Snake River. Idaho State University Museum Occasional Papers, 23.

Newcomb, W.W. Jr. 1976. Pecos River Pictographs: The Development of an Art Form. In Cultural Change and Continuity, Charles E. Cleland (ed.). Academic Press, New York.

Over, W.H. 1941 . Indian Picture Writing in South Dakota. University of South Dakota Museum Archaeological Studies Circular, 4. Vermillion.

Rodee, Howard D. 1965. The Stylistic Development of Plains Indian Painting and its Relationship to Ledger Drawings. Plains Anthropologist, 10 (30): 218-32.

Schaafsma, Polly 1971 . The Rock Art of Utah. Peabody Museum Papers 65, Cambridge Mass.

Secoy, Frank 1953. Changing Military Patterns of the Great Plains. American Ethnological Society Monograph 21, Seattle.

Secrist, Kenneth G. 1960. Pictographs in Central Montana. Montana State University Anthropology and Sociology Papers 20.

Shumate, Maynard 1960. Pictographs in Central Montana. Montana State University Anthropology and Sociology Papers 21 .

Smith, DeCost 1943. Indian Experiences. Claxton, Boise.

Smith, Harlan I. 1923. An Album of Prehistoric Canadian Art. National Museum Bulletin, 37, Ottawa.

Sowers, Ted 1964. Petroglyphs of Castle Gardens. Wyoming Archaeologist, 1 (3): 21-52.

Teit, James 1930. Salishan Tribes of the Plateau. 45th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington.

Wedel, Waldo R. 1959. An Introduction to Kansas Archaeology. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 174, Washington.

Wedel, Waldo R. 1969. A Shield and Spear Petroglyph from Central Kansas: Some Possible Implications. Plains Anthropologist 14 (44) pt. 1: 125-29.

Wissler, Clark 1907. Some Protective Designs of the Dakota. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History , I , pt. 2. New York.




Figure 9 Shield-bearing warriors; a-i are petroglyphs,y-m are pictographs. Variable scale.




Figure 10 Classic V-neck anthropomorphs. Stippled area on / is defacement. Variable scale.




Figure 11 Miscellaneous anthropomorphs. Stippled areas on a, b, and/ are pecked, shaded area on a is painted, shaded area on<i is abraded. Variable scale.




Figure 12 Horsemen at Writing-On-Stone; c is a pictograph, the remainder are petroglyphs. Shaded area on e is abraded. Variable scale.




Figure 13 Combat scenes. Note birds decorating shields ina. Variable scale.




1 O

a Urn CO <D

C

I I I CO

•è S s ^

11 „> > o . .n

i: «i

II




5

DO v> «-►

n> 3 O>

&

a 9 I e»

û

§. C/3

o*

1 3 & O *+>

S i. 3

OQ

C/3




Figure 16 Hunting scenes; note bison in a and d and branded horse in c. Variable scale.

Figure 17 Naturalistically drawn zoomorphs. Stippling on b is exfoliation, hatchured area on a is edge of cliff. Variable scale.




Figure 18 Boat-shaped zoomorphs;#, b, ande are mountain sheep, d ande are antelope. Note ribs and heart-lines. Stippling on b is defacement. Variable scale.

Figure 19 Boat-shaped horses with riders. Hatchured area on a denotes broken portion. Variable scale.




Figure 20 Mature style horses, note forked ears on b. Shaded area of d is abraded. Variable scale.

Figure 21 Horse herds at Writing-On-Stone; b is scene depicting horse stealing, shaded area is abraded. Note horses' necks in c, stippled area is exfoliation. Variable scale.




Figure 22 Miscellaneous zoomorphs; a, dog; bt bison; e, skunk; d and e, bear tracks;/ and g, bears; h, snake; /, 7, and k, birds. / is a pictograph, the remainder are petroglyphs. Variable scale.




Figure 23 Elk and deer; a and b identifiable as elk, others may be either elk or deer. Variable scale.




Figure 24 Shield-bearing warrior with insect design on shield. Note bow-spear and rake headdress.

Figure 25 Miscellaneous items of material culture; a, V-neck anthropomorphs holding rakes

(note female figure); b, flintlock rifle (pictograph); c and d, metal hatchets. Variable scale.




Figure 26 Horses wearing stylized decorated halters, shaded area on e is abraded. Variable scale.

Figure 27 Group of scratched petroglyphs at DgOv63.




S- 3 g te H S 8 3 e. K,

il 'il v>' c •o <*

5' S S S- o- 3 11 I| ■g. S"

3 g" os q

"8 H

|I FI í i s-* « g. £. '

CL ri

CO 3




Figure 29 Tipis; a shows camp circle located near hanging scene at DgOv-2. (See also Fig. 8).

Figure 30 Scenes showing abstract association between men and animals. Variable scale.




Figure 31 Northwestern Plains distribution of Shoshonean rock art motifs (adapted from

Keyser 1976 and modified with new data taken from Mack 1971; Over 1941; Habgood 1967; and Grey and Sweem 1962). Letters indicate sites with the following motifs: 5, shield-bearing warrior;K, V-neck anthropomorph; A, shield-bearing warrior and V-neck anthropomorph; M, shield-bearing warrior and boat-shaped zoomorph; O, V-neck anthropomorph and boat-shaped zoomorph; X, shield-bearing warrior, V-neck anthropomorph and boat-shaped zoomorph. Arrows indicate Writing-On-Stone (Alberta), Pictograph Cave (Montana), and Castle Gardens

(Wyoming).

Alberta

Shoshone Rock Art on the

"' Northwestern Plains

Montana ^T^^'^_^ U-

'J' S

SSAVSSVS A

'J'

^'*' S s ss SSAVSSVS x vy M' 1

A - s

'^jv) ^T7^ Wyomin9 s S*S

k s s « I s / s M I



writing-on-stone: rock art on the northwestern plains

Documents