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Agricultural Extension ServiceThe University of Tennessee

Wood Identification forHardwood and Softwood Species

Native to Tennessee

PB1692

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ContentsIntroduction 3

Wood Surfaces 3

Macro Cross-section Characteristics 4

Preparing the Wood Surface 4

Separating Hardwoods from Softwoods 4

Hardwoods 6

Growth Ring Pore Arrangement 6

Vessel (Pore) Arrangement 6

Wood Rays 7

Tyloses 7

Parenchyma 7

Color, Odor and Density 8

Softwoods 8

Resin Canals 8

Growth Rings: Earlywood and Latewood 8

Color, Odor and Density 9

Summary 9

Other Publications Related to Wood Identification 10

Wood ID: Species Characteristics 11

Ring-Porous Hardwoods 11

Semi-Ring-Porous Hardwoods 12

Diffuse-Porous Hardwoods 12

Softwood Identification 12

Softwood Key 14

Hardwood Key 15

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IntroductionThis publication provides information on how

to identify wood of several species common toTennessee by using a hand-magnifying lens. In-cluded in this publication are a wood identificationkey for some common Tennessee species, a list ofkey specie characteristics and a list of companiesthat sell wood identification sample sets.

Tennessee has a rich variety of tree species,and the wood produced from each of these hasunique structure, physical and mechanical proper-ties. The differences in wood structure and proper-ties allow for the manufacture of wood-basedproducts with many different appearances anduses. Since wood is a popular and useful material,it is important that enthusiasts and professionals beable to distinguish the wood of one species fromanother. For example, how would a barrel manu-facturer tell the difference between red oak, whichdoesn’t hold liquids, and white oak, which does?

Wood of a particular species can be identi-fied by its unique features. These features includestrength, density, hardness, odor, texture andcolor. Reliable wood identification usually re-quires the ability to recognize basic differences incellular structure and wood anatomy. Each specieshas unique cellular structure that creates differ-ences in wood properties and ultimately deter-mines the suitability for a particular use. Cellularcharacteristics provide a blueprint for accuratewood identification.

Wood is composed of many small cells and itsstructure is determined by the type, size, shape andarrangement of these cells. The structure andcharacteristics of wood can vary between speciesand within the same species. With practice, a small

hand lens (10x) can be used to distinguish thedifferent cell types and their arrangements. Byusing the proper techniques, you can becomeefficient and accurate at wood identification.

Wood SurfacesMost of the wood cell structure characteristics

discussed in this publication are best viewed fromthe cross-section surface of the wood. Woodsurfaces are classified into three categories, orgeometric planes of reference, that indicate thetype of surface uncovered after a cut has beenmade. The three reference planes are the crosssection, radial section and tangential section.Figure 1 depicts the three reference planes ofwood. The cross section is produced by cutting thecells perpendicular to the direction of growth in thetree. The cross section is the same surface seen on

Wood Identification forHardwood and Softwood Species

Native to TennesseeBrian Bond, Assistant Professor, and Peter Hamner, Research Associate

Department of Forestry, Wildlife and FisheriesThe University of Tennessee

Figure 1. Three-dimensional orientation of wood material.

Planes of Reference

AnnualGrowth RingIncrement(annual ring)

TangentialSurface

RadialSurface

Cross-SectionSurface

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a stump after felling a tree. It is important todetermine which reference plane you are viewingwhen identifying wood, because cell structure isthree-dimensional and varies based on orientation.

Macro Cross-sectionCharacteristics

By cutting a tree and exposing the crosssection, you can observe the bark, phloem (bark-producing layer), cambium (a thin layer inside thebark where cell division takes place) and xylem(sapwood and heartwood) (Figure 2). The heart-wood is the darker-colored material that is formedin the center of the tree. Although heartwood isformed in the tree center, it may not occur uni-formly across the surface of the section. Theheartwood contains extractives, which are thechemical components that give cedar its pleasantaroma, redwood its decay resistance and walnut itsdark color. The sapwood surrounds the heartwoodand is lighter-colored. The size and width of thesapwood will vary greatly between species. Forexample, the sapwood of locust is a very narrowouter band and the sapwood of black cherry is verywide. The color and odor of heartwood can also beuseful in identifying certain species like redcedar,sassafras and black walnut.

Another feature that can be observed whenviewing the cross section is the growth rings. Agrowth ring represents one year of wood forma-

tion. The development of the wood material insidea growth ring is caused by the changes that occurduring the growing season. Earlywood, orspringwood, is formed in the spring and earlysummer at the beginning of the growing seasonwhen warm and wet conditions promote rapidgrowth. Earlywood cells have large diameters andthin cell walls. Latewood, or summerwood, isformed in late summer and fall toward the end ofthe growing season when dryer conditions slow thedevelopment of new wood growth. Latewoodoccurs at the outer region of a growth ring, and ischaracterized by cells with greatly thickened cellwalls and narrow diameters.

Preparing theWood Surface

To view the cellular characteristics of wood,it is very useful to have a 10-power (10x) handlens to magnify the section you are looking at.Preparation of the wood surface is important andcan affect your ability to locate and identifyspecific cell types. The cross section is the bestsection to begin your observation of the cellstructure in wood. To prepare a cross section forviewing, make a thin, clean cut with a razor bladeor sharp knife. Make the cut across the surface at aslight angle. It is important not to take off toomuch material or to cut too deeply. You are betterto make several thin slicing cuts to enlarge theviewing area rather than trying to make one largecut. Using a dull blade or cutting too deeply willcreate a poor surface and mask otherwise usefulidentifying features. Only a small area with a fewgrowth rings is needed for adequate observationand identification.

Identifying wood is a process of elimination.The best strategy is to search for particular featuresthat will help you to categorize the species orgroup of species withe those features, and thuseliminate others that do not. The use of an identifi-cation key can be helpful for this separation. Awood identification key is provided for the speciesdiscussed in this publication.

Separating Hardwoodsfrom Softwoods

After preparing a surface to view, the firststep is to determine whether a specimen is soft-wood or a hardwood. The terms softwood and

Outer bark

Phloem

Cambium

Sapwood Heartwood

Woody Stem Nomenclature

Figure 2. Primary layers of wood tissue through thediameter of a tree.

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hardwood are used to reference the taxonomicaldivision that separates a species and have little todo with the actual hardness of the wood. Hardwoodtrees have broad leaves and are deciduous – theylose their leaves at the end of the growing season.Hardwoods are angiosperms – using flowers topollinate for seed reproduction. Oaks, maples,birches and fruit trees are examples of hardwoodtrees. Softwood trees are conifers (evergreens),have needles or scale-like foliage and are notdeciduous. Softwoods are gymnosperms, meaningthey do not have flowers and use cones for seedreproduction. Examples of softwoods includepines, spruces, firs and hemlocks.

Softwood cellular structure is simple and 90-95 percent of the cells are longitudinal tracheids.Longitudinal tracheids function in water conduc-tion and support. The limited number of cell typesmakes softwoods more difficult to differentiatefrom one another.

Hardwood structure is more complex thansoftwood structure, and varies considerably be-tween species. The majority of hardwood volumeis composed of fiber cells that offer structuralsupport to the stem. The major difference betweenhardwoods and softwoods is the presence of vesselelements, or pores, that exist in hardwoods only.The main function of vessel elements is waterconduction. Vessel elements can vary greatly insize, number and spacing from one species toanother, and from earlywood to latewood. Somespecies, like oak, have vessel elements that are

extremely large and numerous. Other species, suchas yellow-poplar, gum and birch, have vesselelements that are uniform in size and number, andare evenly spaced throughout the growth ring. Byusing a hand lens, you can determine if vesselelements are present or not, thus separating hard-woods from softwoods. Figure 3 illustrates thethree dimensional differences between hardwoodand softwood cell structure.

After determining whether a wood sample is ahardwood or softwood – based on the presence orabsence of vessel elements – we can begin to lookmore closely at other cell types for further assis-tance with identification.

earlywood

vessel

ray cellsfibers

latewood

Hardwood Softwood

ray cells

earlywoodlatewood

thick-walledtracheids

thin-walledtracheids

resin cells

How to prepare a good surfacefor viewing wood structure

with a hand lens

• A sharp blade is required for good surface prepara-tion. A razor blade is best.

• A good clean surface is one where cells have beencleanly cut rather than torn.

• Do not cut too deep. Deep cuts will resort in tornfibers in the wood section and possible injury toyour hands and fingers!

• Only a few growth rings on the cross section areneeded.

• Wetting the surface with water can be helpful ingetting a good, clean section.

Figure 3. Three-dimensional cell level comparison between hardwood and softwoods.

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HardwoodsGrowth Ring Pore Arrangement

The next major step in identifying hardwoodsis to observe and categorize how the change, ortransition, in pore size occurs from earlywood tolatewood within a growth ring. There are threegeneral classifications for this earlywood/latewoodtransition, as depicted in Figure 4.

(1) Ring-porous hardwoods (Figure 4a). For somegroups of species (oaks and elms) the earlywood/latewood transition occurs abruptly and is verydistinct. Within each growth ring, a band of largeearlywood vessels (pores) is clearly visible to thenaked eye, after which a band of latewood vesselsappears much smaller and requires the use of ahand lens to see.

(2) Semi-ring-porous hardwoods (Figure 4b). Foranother group of species (black walnut, butternutand hickory) the pore transition from large tosmall diameter within a growth ring is gradual.The pores in the earlywood zone have a large

diameter that gradually decreases in size as poresenter the latewood zone.

(3) Diffuse-porous hardwoods (Figure 4c). The lastgroup of species has vessels (pores) that areuniform in size across the entire growth ring(yellow poplar, gum and maple). These vessels areusually small, uniform in size and are very difficultto see with the naked eye (a hand lens is needed).

Vessel (Pore) ArrangementVessel elements (pores) can be described by

their position relative to each other in a crosssection. Different species have unique vesselarrangements. Figure 5 shows some of the morecommon vessel arrangements.

Solitary pores (Figure 5a): single pores thatdo not touch any other pores – evenly spacedacross cross section (maples).

Pore multiples (Figure 5b): arrangementwhere two to five pores appear grouped together.

Figure 4. Classification of pore transition from earlywood to latewood.

Figure 5. Vessel (pore) arrangement.

(A) Ring-porous (B) Semi-ring-porous (C) Diffuse-porous

A.Solitary pores

B.Pore multiples

C.Pore chains

D.Nested pores

(clusters)

E.Wavy bands (ulmiform)

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Pore multiples usually occur in radial rows (cotton-wood), but can occur in both radial and tangentialdirections (Kentucky coffeetree).

Pore chains (Figure 5b): arrangement wherepore multiples appear in radial direction only.

Nested pores (Figure 5c): when largernumbers of pores contact each other both radiallyand tangentially (cluster).

Wavy bands (Figure 5d): Pores are arrangedin irregular concentric bands. Also called ulmiformbecause this characteristic is distinctive of all elms(also hackberry).

Wood RaysOnce the pore distribution and arrangement

have been identified, it is important to look at thesize and arrangement of wood rays. Wood rays areseen as narrow stripes or lines that extend acrossthe growth rings in the radial direction – from thebark to the center of the tree. Wood rays functionto transport food and water horizontally across thediameter of a tree.

The size and distribution of rays on the crosssection are quite unique for many species andgroups of species. Species such as red and whiteoak have very wide rays (many cells wide) that areeasily seen without a hand lens. Species such asyellow-poplar, ash and maple have numerous andextremely narrow rays (just 1-2 cells wide). Thedistribution of rays can also be used to separatesome species. For example, beech and sycamoreboth have large, conspicuous rays with fine,narrow rays running between them. Another usefulcharacteristic of rays that can be observed on thecross section of some species is the presence ofnodes, or a swelling of the ray, at the intersectionof a new growth ring – where the earlywood zonebegins. Ray nodes are seen in yellow-poplar, beechand sycamore.

When viewing a piece of wood from eitherthe radial or tangential surface, wood rays can be akey characteristic to help identify the species. Raysvary not only in width, but also in height. Theheight of a ray is best observed from the tangentialsurface. Ray height varies between species fromimperceptibly small to several inches high. Forexample, in red oak, ray height never exceeds 1inch, while in white oak, the height of the rays areconsistently greater than 11/4 inch.

When wood is cut radially, across the planewhere rays extend through the diameter of thecross section surface, many rays are split andexposed in patches on the radial surface. Inmany species – maple, sycamore and beechespecially – these patches of split rays contrastin color from the longitudinal tissue around themand form a freckled pattern on the radial surfacecalled ray fleck.

TylosesTyloses are inclusions that form inside the

vessels of some hardwoods. Because tyloses areunique to certain hardwood species, they are usefulfor wood identification. Tyloses are outgrowths ofparenchyma cells into the hollow lumens of vesselsand they look like bubbles or cellophane-likestructures clogging the openings of the vesselelements. Tyloses may be absent or sparse, as inred oak; variable, in the case of chestnut and ash;or densely packed and abundant, as they appear inwhite oak and locust. Tyloses effectively clog thevessels and subsequently restrict moisture move-ment. The presence of tyloses is the reason whiteoak is used for making whisky barrels.

ParenchymaParenchyma are small, thin-walled, longitudi-

nal cells that provide food storage. These cells aresparse in softwoods but are often quite significantin hardwoods. Parenchyma are often very smalland difficult to see. However, there are manyspecies with visible and unique arrangements ofparenchyma cells that offer a clear structuralfeature for decisive identification.

There are two basic types of parenchyma:paratracheal and apotracheal. The major differ-ence between them is that paratracheal parenchymamake contact with the pores or vessel elements,while apotracheal parenchyma are separated frompores by fibers or rays. Figure 6 shows the varioustypes of paratracheal and apotracheal parenchyma.

In most species, apotracheal parenchyma arenot be useful in identifying wood with just a handlens. One exception is yellow-poplar, which has afine, clear, bright line of marginal apotrachealparenchyma at the edge of every growth ring.Since yellow poplar is a diffuse porous species, thepresence of marginal parenchyma aids tremen-dously in its identification. Paratrachal paren-chyma appears in many forms, and is often more

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useful for identification. For example, in hickorythe banded parenchyma looks like a reticulate,“web-like” formation as it connects between therays and pores. This “web-like” appearance isunique to hickory.

Color, Odor and DensityOther characteristics of wood species that are

fundamental to wood identification include: color,odor and density. These characteristics are remark-ably variable in hardwoods and often provide thefirst clue to identify a particular wood species.Hardwoods come in a variety of colors and shadesthat often allow immediate and unmistakablerecognition. Consider the lush reddish brown ofblack cherry, the deep chocolate brown of blackwalnut or the creamy white of hard maple.

Less obvious, but certainly helpful to woodidentification are odor characteristics. Many hard-woods have distinctive natural odors. Black cherry,for example, has an unmistakably fragrant aroma,while red oak is more bitter and acidic smelling.

Hardwoods also vary significantly withrespect to density. The density of wood is relatedto its hardness, strength and weight. Typically, adense species of wood is heavier, harder andstronger than other, less dense species. Hardness isparticularly useful when distinguishing betweenhard and soft maple. Soft maple can be easilydented with your fingernail or sliced with a razorblade, while hard maple is significantly moredifficult to make an impression. Hickory, black

locust and osage-orange are quiteheavy compared to most otherspecies. It is often helpful to keepin mind how difficult or easy it isto make a cut on the cross sectionof a piece of wood when prepar-ing the surface for examination.

SoftwoodsResin Canals

The first step after makingthe determination that a woodspecimen is softwood – due to theabsence of pores – is to inspectthe cross-section surface for thepresence of resin canals. Resincanals are tubular passages inwood that exude pitch, or resin, toseal off wounds that occur due to

insect or mechanical damage. Resin canals mostoften occur in or near the latewood zone of thegrowth rings. Softwoods can be separated into twoclassifications based on the presence or absence ofresin canals. Species that have resin canals includepines, spruces, larches and Douglas-fir. The spe-cies that do not have resin canals include firs,hemlocks, cedars, redwood, baldcypress and yew.

Woods with resin canals are further separatedinto two groups: (1) those with large resin canals –pines, and (2) those with small resin canals –Douglas fir, spruce and larch. Using a sample woodidentification set to compare the size and number ofresin canals of different species is useful in deter-mining how much they can differ between species.For example, most pines have quite large andnumerous resin canals that can be seen without theaid of a hand lens. Spruce and larch, on the otherhand, have much smaller resin canals that occur lessfrequently. Douglas fir has many small resin canals.Because the presence of resin canals is quite vari-able, it may be necessary to make several cuts onthe cross section of a specimen to uncover enoughsurface area to make a good determination.

Growth Rings: Earlywoodand Latewood

In softwoods, earlywood/latewood character-istics can provide useful information for identifi-cation. The features to compare are: (1) the natureof the earlywood/latewood transition – abrupt or

pores

parenchyma

diffuse diffusein aggregate

Apotracheal

Paratracheal

scanty vasicentric

growth ringboundary

bandedmarginal

aliform confluent

PARENCHYMA TYPES

Figure 6. Classification of parenchyma arrangements around hardwood pores.(cross-section view)

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gradual, and (2) the percentage of latewood occu-pying the growth ring.

When identifying hardwoods, the size anddistribution of pores between earlywood andlatewood are discriminating factors. Since soft-woods have no pores, the difference between theearlywood and latewood zones in the growth ringoccurs due to effects that the growing season hason the longitudinal tracheids (the dominant celltype in softwoods). The earlywood zone of agrowth ring typically consists of thin-walled,larger-diameter cells, while the latewood zonefeatures thick-walled, smaller-diameter cells. Thus,for many species, the earlywood zone appearslighter, contrasting with the latewood zone, whichis often a darker or browner shade.

For some species the transition from thelighter-colored earlywood to the darker-coloredlatewood is distinct and abrupt (southern yellowpine, Douglas fir, redwood). For other woods, thistransition is extremely gradual and even impercep-tible (white pine, cedars). Some species have anearlywood and latewood transition that fallsbetween gradual to abrupt (spruce, fir, hemlock).

Color, Odor and DensityAs with the hardwoods, color, odor and

density are useful characteristics in identifyingsoftwoods. Some species have distinct colordifferences, while others do not. Eastern white pineis consistently yellowish white, darkening to lightbrown with age. Eastern redcedar has a distinctivedeep purplish-red color, and redwood a deepreddish-brown. Examples of odors include the“piney” fragrance of pines, the “cedar chest” scentof eastern redcedar and the relative absence ofsmell in spruce, firs and hemlocks.

Softwoods also vary substantially in density.Because many species are quite dense and strong,softwood lumber is typically used for structural orconstruction purposes. Southern yellow pine,spruce, hemlock, fir and Douglas fir are all com-monly used in the construction industry. Whitepine and cedars, on the other hand, are consider-ably less dense and lighter in weight than the otherspecies, while white pine and cedars are easier toslice with a razor blade when preparing a surfacefor identification.

SummaryBecoming familiar with wood characteristics

and structure, as well as the techniques used toidentify them, requires practice and dedication. Ifyou know what to look for and where to look, youreye can be trained to pick up unique wood charac-teristics, enabling accurate and efficient woodidentification. While this publication outlines thegeneral principles of wood identification using ahand lens, anyone seeking more in-depth andcomplete methods should refer to one of thepublications listed below.

Other PublicationsRelated toWood IdentificationPanshin, A. J. and C. de Zeeuw. Textbook of Wood

Technology. McGraw-Hill. 1980.

Hoadley, R. B. Identifying Wood: Accurate Resultswith Simple Tools. Taunton Press, Inc. Newton, CT.1990.

Woods of the World CD-ROM. Tree Talk Inc. 1994.Burlington, VT.

Sources of Wood Samples for IdentificationCarolina Biological Supply Company2700 York RoadBurlington, NC 27215919-584-0381

International Wood Collectors Society13249 Hwy. 84 NCordova, IL 61242-9708309-523-2852

Wisconsin CraftsW6407 20th St.Necedah, WI 54646608-565-2101

Garret Wade Company161 Avenue of the AmericasNew York, NY 100131-800-221-2912

Educational Lumber Co., Inc.Box 5373Asheville, NC 28803704-255-8765

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Wood ID: Species CharacteristicsRing-porous hardwoods

American ElmUlmus Americana

Average specific gravity: 0.50Heartwood color: Light brown to brown or

reddish brownPore distribution: Ring-porousEarlywood: Pores large, in continuous rowLatewood: Pores in wavy bandsTyloses: Present in earlywood, but usually sparseRays: Not distinct without lens; homogeneous 1-7

(mostly 4-6) seriate.

AshFraxinus spp.

Average specific gravity: 0.60Heartwood color: Light brown or grayish brown.Sapwood color: Creamy white (may be very wide)Pore distribution: Ring-porousEarlywood: 2-4 pores wide; pores moderately large,

surrounded by lighter tissueLatewood: Pores solitary and in radial multiples of

2-3, surrounded by vasicentric parenchyma orconnected by confluent parenchyma in outerlatewood. Thick-walled.

Tyloses: Fairly abundant (some vessels open)Rays: Not distinct to eye, but clearly visible with

lens; 1-3 seriate

Black LocustRobinia pseudoacacia

Average specific gravity: 0.69Heartwood color: Olive or yellow-brown to dark

yellow-brown; dark russet brown with exposureFluorescence: Bright yellowSapwood: Never more than 3 growth rings widePore distribution: Ring-porousEarlywood: 2-3 pores wide; pores large.Latewood: Pores in nest-like groups, which merge

into interrupted or somewhat continuous bands inouter latewood; latewood fiber mass appears denseand dark in contrast to yellowish; tyloses filledpores and rays.

Tyloses: Extremely abundant with yellowish cast andsparkle, solidly packing vessels and makingadjacent pores indistinct.

Rays: 1-7 (mostly 3-5) seriate

HickoryCarya spp.

Average specific gravity: 0.72Heartwood color: Light to medium brown or

reddish brownPore distribution: Ring-porousEarlywood: Mostly an intermittent single row or

thick-walled pores with fiber mass where inter-rupted

Latewood: Pores not numerous, solitary and in radialmultiples of 2-5. Thick-walled.

Tyloses: Moderately abundantRays: 1-4 seriateParenchyma: Banded parenchyma and rays form a

reticulate pattern distinctly visible against thebackground fiber mass with a hand lens (butbanded parenchyma absent from earlywood zone)

Northern Red OakQuercus rubra

Average specific gravity: 0.63Heartwood Color: Light brown, usually with flesh or

pinkish-colored cast.Pore Distribution: Ring-porousEarlywood: Up to 4 or 5 rows or large solitary pores.Latewood: Pores solitary in radial lines, few and

distinct ("countable"), vessels thickwalledTyloses: Absent or sparse in earlywoodRays: Largest rays conspicuous; tallest less than 1 in.

(tangential surface). Narrow raysuniseriate (one cell wide) or in part bisariate

White OakQuercus alba

Average specific gravity: 0.68Heartwood color: Light to dark brown to grayish

brown.Pore Distribution: Ring-porousEarlywood: Up to 4 rows of large poresLatewood: Pores small, solitary or in multiples, in

spreading radial arrangement, numerous andindistinct ("uncountable"), grading to invisiblysmall with lens. Vessels thin-walled.

Tyloses: AbundantRays: Largest rays conspicuous; tallest greater than

11/4 in. Narrow rays uniseriate or in part biseriate.

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Semi-Ring-Porous Hardwoods

Black WalnutJuglans nigra

Average specific gravity: 0.55Heartwood color: medium brown to deep

chocolate brownPore distribution: semi-ring-porousPores: earlywood pores fairly large, decreasing

gradually to quite small in outer latewood; poressolitary or in radial multiples of 2 to several

Tyloses: Moderately abundantRays: fine, visible but not conspicuous with hand

lens, 1-5 seriate, cells appear round in tangentialview

Crystals: Occur sporadically in longitudinal paren-chyma cells

Diffuse-Porous Hardwoods

American BasswoodTilia americana

Average specific gravity: 0.37Heartwood color: Creamy white to pale brownOdor: Faint but characteristic musty odorPore distribution: Diffuse-porous; growth rings

indistinct or faintly delineated by marginalparynchyma, sometimes with blurry whitish spotsalong the growth ring boundary

Pores: Small, mostly in irregular multiples andclusters

Rays: Distinct but not conspicuous on transversesurface with lens. 1-6 seriate; ray cells appearlaterally compressed in tangential view; rays havebright yellow cast

American BeechFagus grandifolia

Average specific gravity: 0.64Heartwood color: Creamy white with reddish tinge

to medium reddish-brownPore distribution: Diffuse porous; growth rings

distinct.Pores: Small, solitary and in irregular multiples and

clusters, numerous and evenly distributed through-out most of the ring; narrow but distinct latewoodin each ring due to fewer, smaller pores

Rays: Largest rays conspicuous on all surfaces;darker ray fleck against lighter background onradial surfaces. Largest rays 15-25 seriate;uniseriate rays common

Black CherryPrunus serotina

Average specific gravity: 0.50Heartwood color: Light to dark cinnamon or

reddish-brownPore distribution: Diffuse-porous; growth rings

sometimes distinct because of narrow zone or rowof numerous slightly larger pores along initialearlywood.

Pores: Pores through growth ring solitary and inradial or irregular multiples and small clusters

Gum Defects: CommonRays: Not visible on tangential surface; conspicuous

light ray fleck on radial surfaces; distinct brightlines across transverse surface, conspicuous withlens. 1-6 (mostly 3-4) seriate.

Black GumNyssa sylvatica

Average Specific Gravity: 0.50Heartwood Color: Medium grey or grey with green

or brown cast (wood usually has interlocked grain)Pore Distribution: Diffuse-porousPores: Very small, numerous, solitary and in mul-

tiples and small clustersRays: Barely visible even with hand lens; 1-4 seriate

Eastern CottonwoodPopulus deltoides

Average specific gravity: 0.40Heartwood color: Grayish to light grayish-brown.

Occationally olive.Pore distribution: Diffuse porous or semi-diffuse-

porus. Usually an apparent size graduation fromearlywood to latewood

Pores: Small to medium small; Solitary and in radialmultiples of 2 to several

Rays: Very fine, not easily seen with hand lens

SycamorePlatanus occidentalis

Average specific gravity: 0.49Heartwood color: Light to dark brown, usually with

a reddish castPore distribution: Diffuse-porous; growth rings

distinct due to unusual lighter color of latewood(thinner band and clearer than beech)

Pores: Small, solitary and in irregular multiples andclusters, numerous and evenly distributed through-

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out most of the growth ring; latewood zone evidentby fewer, smaller pores

Rays: Easily visible without hand lens on all sur-faces, appearing uniform in size and evenlyspaced on transverse and tangential surfaces,producing conspicuous dark ray fleck on radialsurfaces. Largest rays up to 14 seriate; uniseriaterays not common.

Sugar MapleAcer saccharum

Average specific gravity: 0.63Heartwood color: Creamy white to light reddish-

brownPore distribution: Diffuse-porous; growth rings

distinct due to darker brown, narrow latewood linePores: Small, with largest approximately equal to

maximum ray width in cross section; solitary or inradial multiples; very evenly distributed

Rays: Visible to eye on tangential surface as veryfine, even-sized, evenly distributed lines; onradial surfaces, ray fleck usually conspicuous.Rays: Two distinct sizes: largest 7-8 seriate;uniseriate rays numerous.

Red MapleAcer rubrum

Average specific gravity: 0.54Heartwood color: Creamy white to light reddish-

brown, commonly with grayish cast or streaks.Pore distribution: Diffuse-porousPores: Small, solitary and in radial multiples, very

evenly distributed; largest as large or slightly largerthan widest rays on cross section.

Rays: May be visible on tangential surface as veryfine, even-sized and evenly spaced lines; on radialsurface, ray fleck usually conspicuous. 1-5 seriate.

Yellow BirchBetula alleghaniensis

Average specific gravity: 0.62Heartwood color: Light brown to dark brown,

reddish-brown.Pore distribution: Diffuse porousPores: Small to medium, solitary and in radial

multiples of two to several poresRays: Rays smaller than pore diameters. Some pores

may appear to be filled with a substance; 1-5seriate.

Yellow PoplarLiriodendron tulipifera

Average specific gravity: 0.42Heartwood color: Green, or yellow to tan with

greenish castSapwood color: creamy white (often wide)Pore distribution: Diffuse-porous; growth rings

delineated by distinct light cream or yellowish lineof marginal parenchyma.

Pores: Small, solitary, but mostly in radial or irregu-lar multiples and small clusters

Rays: Distinct on cross section with lens; produceconspicuous fine light ray fleck on radial surfaces.1-5 (mostly 2-3) seriate

Softwood Identification

Eastern White PinePinus strobus

Average specific gravity: 0.35Odor: Pleasant, pineyHeartwood: Distinct, darkening with ageGrain appearance: Fairly evenEarlywood / Latewood transition: GradualResin Canals: large, numerous, mostly solitary,

evenly distributed

Southern Yellow PinePinus spp.

Average specific gravity: 0.51 to 0.61Odor: “pitchy” pine odorHeartwood: DistinctGrain appearance: UnevenEarlywood / Latewood transition: abruptResin Canals: Large, numerous, mostly solitary,

evenly distributed

Red SprucePicea rubens

Average specific gravity: 0.40Odor: NoneHeartwood: Light in color; indistinct from sapwoodGrain appearance: Fairly even to moderately evenEarlywood / Latewood transition: GradualResin Canals: Small, relatively few; solitary or

several in tangential groups, variably distributed

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HemlockTsuga Canadensis

Average specific gravity: 0.40Odor: NoneHeartwood: Indistinct, light in colorGrain appearance: Fairly unevenEarlywood / Latewood transition: Fairly abrupt

to gradualTexture: Medium to medium-coarse

Balsam FirAbies balsamea

Average specific gravity: 0.36Odor: NoneHeartwood: Indistinct, light in color

Grain appearance: moderately uneven tomoderately even

Earlywood / Latewood transition: Very gradualTexture: Medium

Eastern Red CedarJuniperus virginiana

Average specific gravity: 0.47Odor: “cedar-chest” odor, very distinctHeartwood: Distinct, deep purplish red, aging to

reddish-brownGrain appearance: Moderately uneven to fairly

even; latewood narrowEarlywood / Latewood transition: GradualTexture: Very fine

BaldcypressTaxodium distichum

Average specific gravity: 0.46Odor: Faint to moderately rancidHeartwood: Usually distinctGrain appearance: UnevenEarlywood / Latewood transition: Abrupt; early-

wood medium yellow-brown; latewood amber todark brown

Texture: Coarse to very coarse

For more information or to inquire aboutwood identification short courses hosted by TheUniversity of Tennessee and the TennesseeForest Products Center, please contact:

Dr. Brian H. BondAssistant ProfessorThe University of TennesseeTennessee Forest Products Center2506 Jacob DriveKnoxville, TN 37996-4563Email : bbond7@utk.eduWebsite: http://web.utk.edu/~tfpc/Phone: (865) 946-1121Fax: (865) 974-4714

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SOFTWOOD KEY(wood lacking pores)

Large resin canals Small, scarce resin canals

Resin canals present Resin canals absent

Distinctive odor anddeep purplish-coloredheartwood

No distinctiveodor or dark-color heartwood

Gradual earlywood-latewood transition

Abrupt earlywood-latewood transition

Eastern whitepine

Southern yellowpine

Red spruce Eastern redcedar

Dense, no taste

Balsam fir Eastern hemlock

Softer, lessdense, bittertaste

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HARDWOOD KEY(wood with pores)

Pores inradial rows

Pores inwavy bands

Semi-ring porous

Pores soliaryor multiples

Ring porous Diffuse porous

Both thick andnarrow rays

Fine narrow rays

Tylosesabsent orscarce

Tylosespresent

Tylosesabsent orscarce

Tylosespresent

Beech- larger rays morewidely and irregularlyspaced; latewood darkercast

Sycamore- rays moreuniform in size andclosely spaced;latewood has light cast

Walnut - heartwood deepchocolate brown

Sugar (hard) maple-cream color; very dense;very fine rays and slightlythicker rays

Red (soft) maple- lessdense; rays all one size(very fine)

Black cherry- heartwoodreddish, cinnamon brown; raysfine, distinct bright lines

Yellow poplar- heartwood mossgreen to yellowish green; growthrings distinct due to light coloredmarginal parenchyma

Basswood- soft, low density;marginal parenchyma at growthrings (spotty); faint musty odor

Birch- quite hard, dense;growth rings not distinct;rays barely visible to naked eye,pores solitary or in multiples

Cottonwood- soft, low density,medium-size pores; greyish lightbrown color, foul odor when moist

Locust- pores in nestedgroups

Hickory- very dense; alsobanded parenchyma forreticulate pattern on cross-section

Sweet (red) gum- heartwoodreddish brown, streaky; neithergrowth rings or rays distinct,extremely small pores

Black gum (tupelo)- heartwooddarker grey with green or brown cast;otherwise indistinct

Elm- earlywod/latewoodtransition very abrupt

Hackberry- earlywood/latewoodtransition more uneven

Redoak

Whiteoak

Ash

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PB1692-1.5M-2/02 E12-4915-00-010-002

The Agricultural Extension Service offers its programs to all eligible persons regardless of race,color, national origin, sex, age, disability, religion or veteran status and is an Equal Opportunity Employer.

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

and county governments cooperating in furtherance of Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Agricultural Extension Service Charles L. Norman, Dean

Visit the Agricultural Extension Service Web site at:http://www.utextension.utk.edu/