wireless communications engineering
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Wireless Communications Engineering. Cellular Fundamentals. Definitions – Wireless Communication. What is Wireless Communication? Ability to communicate via wireless links. Mobile Communication = + ?. Wireless Communication. Wireless Communication are of two types: - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Wireless Communications Engineering
Cellular Fundamentals
Definitions – Wireless Communication
What is Wireless Communication?
Ability to communicate via wireless links.
Mobile Communication = + ?
Wireless Communication Wireless Communication are of two
types: Fixed Wireless Communication Mobile Wireless Communication.
Mobile Wireless Communication
Mobile Wireless Communication (Infrastructured Network) Single Hop Wireless Link to reach a
mobile Terminal.
Mobile Communication = + ?
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks Infrastructureless or Adhoc Network Multihop Wireless path from source to destination.
Mobile Radio Environment
Mobile Radio Environment
The transmissions over the wireless link are in general very difficult to characterize.
EM signals often encounter obstacles, causing reflection, diffraction, and scattering.
Mobility introduces further complexity. We have focused on simple models to help
gain basic insight and understanding of the wireless radio medium.
Three main components: Path Loss, Shadow fading, Multipath fading (or fast fading).
Free Space loss Transmitted signal attenuates over distance
because it is spread over larger and larger area This is known as free space loss and for isotropic
antennas
Pt = power at the transmitting antenna
Pr = power at the receiving antennaλ = carrier wavelengthd = propagation distance between the antennasc = speed of light
2
2
2
2 )4()4(
c
fdd
P
P
r
t
Free Space loss For other antennas
Gt = Gain of transmitting antenna
Gr = Gain of receiving antenna
At = effective area of transmitting antenna
Ar = effective area of receiving antenna
trtrr
t
AA
d
GG
d
P
P 2
2
2 )()4(
Thermal Noise Thermal noise is introduced due to thermal
agitation of electrons Present in all transmission media and all electronic devices a function of temperature uniformly distributed across the frequency spectrum and
hence is often referred to as white noise amount of noise found in a bandwidth of 1 Hz is N0 = k T
N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth k = Boltzman’s constant = 1.3803 x 10-23 J/K T = temperature, in Kelvins N = thermal noise in watts present in a bandwidth of B = kTB where
Free Space loss Transmitted signal attenuates over distance
because it is spread over larger and larger area This is known as free space loss and for isotropic
antennas
Pt = power at the transmitting antenna
Pr = power at the receiving antennaλ = carrier wavelengthd = propagation distance between the antennasc = speed of light
2
2
2
2 )4()4(
c
fdd
P
P
r
t
Free Space loss For other antennas
Gt = Gain of transmitting antenna
Gr = Gain of receiving antenna
At = effective area of transmitting antenna
Ar = effective area of receiving antenna
trtrr
t
AA
d
GG
d
P
P 2
2
2 )()4(
Thermal Noise Thermal noise is introduced due to thermal
agitation of electrons Present in all transmission media and all electronic devices a function of temperature uniformly distributed across the frequency spectrum and
hence is often referred to as white noise amount of noise found in a bandwidth of 1 Hz is N0 = k T
N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth k = Boltzman’s constant = 1.3803 x 10-23 J/K T = temperature, in Kelvins N = thermal noise in watts present in a bandwidth of B = kTB where
Data rate and error rate
Bit error rate is a decreasing function of Eb/N0.
If bit rate R is to increase, then to keep bit error rate (or Eb/N0) same, the transmitted signal power must increase, relative to noise
Eb/N0 is related to SNR as follows
B = signal bandwidth (since N = N0 B)
R
B
N
S
N
Eb 0
Doppler’s Shift When a client is mobile, the frequency of received
signal could be less or more than that of the transmitted signal due to Doppler’s effect
If the mobile is moving towards the direction of arrival of the wave, the Doppler’s shift is positive
If the mobile is moving away from the direction of arrival of the wave, the Doppler’s shift is negative
Doppler’s Shift
wherefd =change in frequency
due to Doppler’s shiftv = constant velocity of the mobile receiverλ = wavelength of the transmission
θ
S
XY
cosv
fd
Doppler’s shift
f = fc + fd
where f = the received carrier frequencyfc = carrier frequency being transmitted
fd = Doppler’s shift as per the formula in the previous slide.
Multipath Propagation Wireless signal can arrive at the receiver
through different paths LOS Reflections from objects Diffraction
Occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to the wavelength of the signal
Multipath Propagation (source: Stallings)
Mobile Radio Channel: Fading
Limitations of Wireless Channel is unreliable Spectrum is scarce, and not all
ranges are suitable for mobile communication
Transmission power is often limited Battery Interference to others
Advent of Cellular Systems Noting from the channel model, we know
signal will attenuated with distance and have no interference to far users.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, work began on the first cellular telephone systems.
The term cellular refers to dividing the service area into many small regions (cells) each served by a low-power transmitter with moderate antenna height.
Cell Concept
Cell A cell is a small geographical area served by a
singlebase station or a cluster of base stations
Areas divided into cells Each served by its own antenna Served by base station consisting of
transmitter, receiver, and control unit Band of frequencies allocated Cells set up such that antennas of all
neighbors are equidistant
Cellular Networks
Cellular Network Organization
Use multiple low-power transmitters Areas divided into cells
Each served by its own antenna Served by base station consisting of
transmitter, receiver, and control unit Band of frequencies allocated Cells set up such that antennas of all
neighbors are equidistant
Consequences Transmit frequencies are re-used across
these cells and the system becomes interference rather than noise limited the need for careful radio frequency planning
– colouring in hexagons! a mechanism for handling the call as the
user crosses the cell boundary - call handoff (or handover)
increased network complexity to route the call and track the users as they move around
But one significant benefit: very much increased traffic capacity, the ability to service many users
Cellular System Architecture
Cellular Systems Terms Mobile Station
users transceiver terminal (handset, mobile) Base Station (BS)
fixed transmitter usually at centre of cell includes an antenna, a controller, and a
number of receivers Mobile Telecommunications Switching
Office (MTSO) /Mobile Switch Center (MSC) handles routing of calls in a service area tracks user connects to base stations and PSTN
Cellular Systems Terms (Cont’d) Two types of channels available between
mobile unit and BS Control channels – used to exchange
information for setting up and maintaining calls
Traffic channels – carry voice or data connection between users
Handoff or handover process of transferring mobile station from
one base station to another, may also apply to change of radio channel within a cell
Cellular Systems Terms (Cont’d) Downlink or Forward Channel
radio channel for transmission of information (e.g.speech) from base station to mobile station
Uplink or Reverse Channel radio channel for transmission of information
(e.g.speech) from mobile station to base station Paging
a message broadcast over an entire service area, includes use for mobile station alert (ringing)
Roaming a mobile station operating in a service area other
than the one to which it subscribes
Steps in an MTSO Controlled Call between Mobile Users
Mobile unit initialization Mobile-originated call Paging Call accepted Ongoing call Handoff
Frequency Reuse Cellular relies on the intelligent
allocation and re–use of radio channels throughout a coverage area.
Each base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be used within the small geographic area of its cell
Neighbouring base stations are given different channel allocation from each other
Frequency Reuse (Cont’d) If we limit the coverage area within the
cell by design of the antennas we can re-use that same group of
frequencies to cover another cell separated by a large enough distance
transmission power controlled to limit power at that frequency to keep interference levels within tolerable limits
the issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between two cells using the same frequency
Radio Planning Design process of selecting and
allocating channel frequencies for all cellular base stations within a system is known as frequency re-use or frequency planning.
Cell planning is carried out to find a geometric shape to
tessellate a 2D space represent contours of equal transmit power
Real cells are never regular in shape
Two-Dimensional Cell Clusters Regular geometric shapes tessellating a
2D space: Square, triangle, and hexagon. ‘Tessellating Hexagon’ is often used to
model cells in wireless systems: Good approximation to a circle (useful when
antennas radiate uniformly in the x-y directions).
Also offer a wide variety of reuse pattern Simple geometric properties help gain basic
understanding and develop useful models.
Coverage Patterns
Cellular Coverage Representation
Geometry of Hexagons
Hexagonal cell geometry and axes
Geometry of Hexagons (Cont’d) D = minimum distance between centers
of cells that use the same band of frequencies (called co-channels)
R = radius of a cell d = distance between centers of
adjacent cells (d = R√3) N = number of cells in repetitious
pattern (Cluster) Reuse factor Each cell in pattern uses unique band of
frequencies
Geometry of Hexagons (Cont’d)
The distance between the nearest cochannel cells in a hexagonal area can be calculated from the previous figure
The distance between the two adjacent co-channel cells is D=√3R.
(D/d)2 = j2 cos2(30) + (i+ jsin30)2 = i2 + j2 +ij = N D=Dnorm x √3 R =(√3N)R In general a candidate cell is surrounded by 6k
cells in tier k.
Geometry of Hexagons (Cont’d)
Using this equation to locate co-channel cells, we start from a reference cell and move i hexagons along the u-axis then j hexagons along the v-axis. Hence the distance between co–channel cells in adjacent clusters is given by:
D = (i2 + ij + j2)1/2
where D is the distance between co–channel cells in adjacent clusters (called frequency reuse distance).
and the number of cells in a cluster, N is given by D2
N = i2 + ij + j2
Hexagon Reuse Clusters
3-cell reuse pattern (i=1,j=1)
4-cell reuse pattern (i=2,j=0)
7-cell reuse pattern (i=2,j=1)
12-cell reuse pattern (i=2,j=2)
19-cell reuse pattern (i=3,j=2)
Relationship between Q and N
Proof
Cell ClustersReuse coordinates Number of
cells in re-use pattern
Normalised reuse
distance i j N SQRT(N) 1 0 1 1 1 1 3 1.732 1 2 7 2.646 2 2 12 3.464 1 3 13 3.606 2 3 19 4.359 1 4 21 4.583
since D = SQRT(N)
Co–channel Cell Location
Method of locating co–channel cells Example for N=19, i=3, j=2
Cell Planning Example Suppose you have 33 MHz bandwidth
available, an FM system using 25 kHz channels, how many channels per cell for 4,7,12 cell re-use? total channels = 33,000/25 = 1320 N=4 channels per cell = 1320/4 = 330 N=7 channels per cell = 1320/7 = 188 N=12 channels per cell = 1320/12 = 110
Smaller clusters can carry more traffic However, smaller clusters result in larger
co-channel interference
Remarks on Reuse Ratio
Co-channel Interference with Omnidirectional Cell Site
Propagation model
Cochannel interference ratio
Worst-case scenario for co-channel interference
Worst-case scenario for co-channel interference
Reuse Factor and SIR
Remarks SIGNAL TO INTERFERENCE LEVEL IS
INDEPENDENT OF CELL RADIUS! System performance (voice quality) only
depends on cluster size What cell radius do we choose?
Depends on traffic we wish to carry (smaller cell means more compact reuse or higher capacity)
Limited by handoff
Adjacent channel interference So far, we assume adjacent channels to
be orthogonal (i.e., they do not interfere with each other).
Unfortunately, this is not true in practice, so users may also experience adjacent channel interference besides co-channel interference.
This is especially serious when the near-far effect (in uplinks) is significant Desired mobile user is far from BS Many mobile users exist in the cell
Near-Far Effect
Near-Far Effect (Cont’d)
Reduce Adjacent channel interference Use modulation schemes which have
small out-of-band radiation (e.g., MSK is better than QPSK)
Carefully design the receiver BPF Use proper channel interleaving by
assigning adjacent channels to different cells, e.g., for N = 7
Reduce Adjacent channel interference (Cont’d) Furthermore, do not use adjacent
channels in adjacent cells, which is possible only when N is very large. For example, if N =7, adjacent channels must be used in adjacent cells
Use FDD or TDD to separate the forward link and reverse link.
Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
Adding new channels – often expensive or impossible
Frequency borrowing (or DCA)– frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells
Cell splitting – cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells (microcells with antennas moved to buildings, hills, and lamp posts)
Cell sectoring – cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with their own set of channels
Sectoring Co-channel interference reduction
with the use of directional antennas (sectorization) Each cell is divided into sectors
and uses directional antennas at the base station.
Each sector is assigned a set of channels (frequencies).
Site Configurations
Sectorized Cell Sites120
Worst case scenario
60Sectorizd Cell Sites
Worst case scenario
Illustration of cell splitting 1
Illustration of cell splitting 2
Illustration of cell splitting 3
Cell Splitting
Design Tradeoff Smaller cell means higher capacity (frequency
reused more).
However, smaller cell also results in higher handoff probability, which also means higher
overhead
Moreover, cell splitting should not introduce too much interference to users in other cells
Handoff (Handover) Process Handoff: Changing physical radio channels
of network connections involved in a call, while maintaining the call
Basic reasons for a handoff MS moves out of the range of a BTS (signal level
becomes too low or error rate becomes too high) Load balancing (traffic in one cell is too high, and
shift some MSs to other cells with a lower load) GSM standard identifies about 40 reasons for a
handoff!
Phases of Handoff MONITORING PHASE - measurement of the quality of the current and
possible candidate radio links
- initiation of a handover when necessary HANDOVER HANDLING PHASE - determination of a new point of attachment - setting up of new links, release of old links
- initiation of a possible re-routing procedure
Handoff Types Intra-cell handoff – narrow-band interference => change carrier frequency – controlled by BSC Inter-cell, intra-BSC handoff – typical handover scenario – BSC performs the handover, assigns new radio channel in
the new cell, releases the old one Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handoff – handoff between cells controlled by different BSCs – controlled by the MSC Inter-MSC handoff – handoff between cells belonging to different MSCs – controlled by both MSCs
Handoff Types (cont’d)
Handoff Strategies Relative signal strength Relative signal strength with threshold Relative signal strength with hysteresis Relative signal strength with hysteresis
and threshold Prediction techniques
Intra-MSC Handoff (Mobile Assisted)
Handover Scenario at Cell Boundary
Handoff Based on Receive Level
How to avoid ping-pong problem?
Handoff – 1G (Analog) systems
Signal strength measurements made by the BSs and supervised by the MSC
BS constantly monitors the signal strengths of all the voice channels
Locator receiver measures signal strength of MSs in neighboring cells
MSC decides if a handover is necessary
Handoff – 2G (Digital) TDMA Handoff decisions are mobile assisted Every MS measures the received power
from surrounding BSs and sends reportsto its own BS
Handoff is initiated when the power received from a neighbor BS begins to exceed the power from the current BS (by a certain level and/or for a certain period)
Handoff – 2G (Digital) CDMA
CDMA uses code to differentiate users.
Soft handoff: a user keeps records of several neighboring BSs.
Soft handoff may decrease the handoff blocking probability and handoff delay
Avoiding handoff: Umbrella cells
Mixed Cell Architecture
Handoff Prioritization The idea of reserving channels for
handoff calls was introduced in the mid 1980s as a way of reducing the handoff call blocking probability
Motivation: users find calls blocked in mid-progress a far greater irritant than unsuccessful call attempts.
The basic idea is to reserve a certain portion of the total channel pool in a cell for handoff users only.
Performance Metrics
Call blocking probability – probability of a new call being blocked
Call dropping probability – probability that a call is terminated due to a handoff
Call completion probability – probability that an admitted call is not dropped before it terminates
Handoff blocking probability – probability that a handoff cannot be successfully completed
Performance Metrics (Cont’d) Handoff probability – probability that
a handoff occurs before call termination Rate of handoff – number of handoffs
per unit time Interruption duration – duration of
time during a handoff in which a mobile is not connected to either base station
Handoff delay – distance the mobile moves from the point at which the handoff should occur to the point at which it does occur
Summary cellular mobile uses many small cells hexagonal planning, clusters of cells cell repeat patterns 3,7,12 etc... re-uses frequencies to obtain capacity is interference not noise (kTB) limited S/I is independent of cell radius choose cell radius to meet traffic
demand N=7 is a good compromise between S/I
and capacity. handoff