wicked learning: reflecting on learning to be drier · wicked learning: reflecting on learning to...

Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 49, Number 3, November 2009

Wicked learning: Reflecting on Learning to be drier 545

APSC 2007: 1) underlying the presenting problem of drying. We conclude that solutions to the messy or wicked problem of drying in an interconnected Basin will lie in the social domain. This will include building a wider knowledge and acceptance of the problems and likely future risks across the Basin including all parts of communities. The problem of drying as well as its causes and solutions are multidimensional, and will involve comprehensive learning about all five key characteristics of other ‘wicked’ policy problems identified in previous research in the environmental arena. The narratives that we have heard identify the extreme difficulty in all four sites of rational and learned responses to being drier as the problem has unfolded. All narratives about being drier that we have heard involve a recognition of a combination of the five characteristics common to wicked problems: multidimensionality, scientific uncertainty, value conflict and uncertainty, mistrust as well as urgency. All narratives identify the importance of social learning: to be productive, to be efficient, to survive, to live with uncertainty, to be sustainable and to share. Combating the extent and effects of drying, causality aside, will require new forms of learning through new community, social and learning spaces, apart from and in addition to new technological and scientific learning.

Introduction

Ourfirstpaper(Golding&Campbell2009)setouttheparametersandpresuppositionsofourresearchincludingourresearchquestions,methodandliteraturethathelpinformourmethod.OurfirstresearchquestionwasabouthowandwhatadultslearninresponsetochangesinwateravailabilityinthesouthernMurray-DarlingBasin.Oursecondquestionwasabouthowthelearningisexperiencedbythedifferentstakeholders.Ourthirdquestionwasabouthowstakeholdersarelearningtorespond.Theteampapers(Foley&Grace2009;Golding&Angwin2009;Brown&Schulz2009;Smith&Campbell2009)answerthequestionsusinginterviewdatacollectedfromeachoffoursites(alpine,mid-river,lowerriveranddryland

Wicked learning: Reflecting on Learning to be drier

Barry Golding, Mike Brown, Annette Foley and Erica SmithUniversity of Ballarat

Coral Campbell, Christine Schulz, Jennifer Angwin and Lauri Grace

Deakin University

In this final, collaborative paper in the Learningtobedrier edition, we reflect on and draw together some of the key threads from the diverse narratives in our four site papers from across the southern Murray-Darling Basin. Our paper title, Wickedlearning, draws on a recent body literature (Rittel & Webber 1973) about messy or ‘wicked problems’ as characterised by Dietz and Stern (1998). It picks up on our identification of the difficulty and enormity of the learning challenges being faced by communities, associated, at best, with a decade of record dry years (drought) and severely over-committed rivers. At worst, drought is occurring in combination with and as a precursor to recent, progressive drying of the Basin associated with climate change. Our research is suggestive of a need for much more learning across all segments of the adult community about ‘… the big picture, including the interrelationships among the full range of causal factors …’ (Australian Public Service Commission,

546 Barry Golding, Mike Brown, Annette Foley, Erica Smith, Coral Campbell, Christine Schulz, Jennifer Angwin and Lauri Grace


Reflecting on some limitations (and strengths) of the method

OurabilitytodrawacoherentpictureoflearningaboutdryinginfoursitesinthesouthernMurray-DarlingBasintomid2009islimitedbyanumberoffactors.Theseincludethesmallnumberofsitesselected,thelimitedtimeeachteamhadoneachsiteandthelimitedrangeofintervieweetypesandindividualsselectedoravailableforinterview.Aswithallresearch,theprojectandeachofoursitepapershavebeenshapedbypeoplewithdifferentexperiencesandinterestsinlearning.Theseincludewhatisvaluabletostudy,howtocollectandreportdata,whichliteraturetoconsult,whichtheoreticalperspectivesbestinformandanswertheselectedresearchquestionsandhowbesttocommunicateourfindingsinthisacademicpaperformat.Inthatsense,wedonotclaimtopresentanobjectiveorunbiasedview.Weacknowledgethedifficulty,particularlyindrylandareas,ofseparatingouttheevidenceofgeneralruraldecline,fromtheeffectsofaprolongeddrought,andparticularly,fromtheeffectsofhypothesisedclimatechange.

Wehavestudiedlearningasacommunity-based,socialconstructivistphenomenon,inwhichlearningissituated(Lave&Wenger1991),andwhichtakesplacesocio-culturallyincontextasexploredbyVygotsky(seeKozulin2003).Whileweregardthisapproachasappropriateinrurallocationsandcommunitieswhereuniversitiesandcomprehensivetechnicalandfurthereducation(TAFE)provisionareeffectivelymissing,wehavenotheardabout‘higher’formsofinstitutionalandaccreditededucationandtraining.Theadvantage,however,ofchoosingtohearwhatadiverserangeofpeoplearesayingon siteaboutdrying,isthatwehaveheardawiderangeofperspectivesandnarratives,thattendnottocomethroughsomescientificandtechnicalpapers.

respectively).Inthiscollaborativepaperwelookbackonanddrawtogethersomeofthekeythreadsfromthediversenarrativesinthefoursitepapers.

Whiletherehasbeenmuchrecentresearchintothesignificantlychangedwaterregimeandclimate-relatedparametersassociatedwithchangeintheBasin,therehasbeenverylittlepreviousresearchofpeople’slearnedresponsestothesechanges.Wewereuncertainattheoutsetastowhichtheoreticalconstruct(s)wouldbemostusefulinorganisingandinterpretingthedata.Wedecided,afterevaluatingalternativetheoreticalperspectives,tostructureourfinalpaperanditstitlearoundtheperceived‘wickedness’oftheproblemsinvolvedindrying,‘notinthesenseofevil,butratherasanissuehighlyresistanttoresolution’(APSC2007:1).Wenoteveryrecentresearch(Lazarus2009)thatidentifiesglobalclimatechangeasa‘super-wicked’problem,becausetimemayberunningout,thereisnocentralauthorityandsomeofthoseseekingtosolvetheproblemarealsocausingit.DryingofthesouthernMurray-DarlingBasin,evenifitwasnotrelatedtoglobalclimatechange,arguablysharessomeofthesamedefiningcharacteristics.

Theliteratureonwickednesshasitsoriginsinsocialpolicyplanning,andbearsnorelationtothewaymanyyoungpeoplenowusethetermtomean‘reallygood’.Wickedproblemsareseen,bycontrast,tobemessy,difficultorimpossibletosolve.Theytypicallyinvolveincomplete,contradictoryandchangingrequirements,thatareoftenhardtorecognize.Werecognizethattheresolutionofadryingissue(orclimatechange)inaninterconnectedBasin,asRittelandWebber(1973)wouldlikelyargue,cannotbetreatedwithtraditionallinear,analyticalapproaches.Inasimilarway,weidentifythenecessaryadultlearningaswicked,inthesenseofbeinghighlyresistanttoresolution,usingthelimitedandfragmented,existinglearningopportunities,organisationsandsystems.



Allareashavebeen,astheProductivityCommission(2008:xx)Inquiry into government drought supportputit,

…experiencinghardshipfromthelatestsevereandprolongeddrought.…Whilethisisnotnewtodrylandfarming,‘irrigationdrought’isunchartedterritory.

Eveninthelargelyforested,alpinesite,aseriesofunprecedenteddryyearshadincreasedfirefrequencyandintensityandledtosignificantchangestothealpineenvironment.Thesechangeshadplacedthissiteanditstourism-dependentcommunitiesinunchartedterritoryintermoftheireconomies,aswellasintermsofpublicsafetyandenvironmentalrisks.

Whilethecausesofbeingdrier(drought,climatechangeorboth)remaincontestedandhighlypoliticised,therisksofbecomingevendrierthreatentheviabilityandsustainabilityofmostwater-dependentbusinessesaswellastheenvironmentinallfoursites.Notimehasbeenmoreurgent,asasubmission(28,p.1)totheProductivityCommission(2008:187)putit,for:

…[i]mprovededucation,research,informationprovision,andmostimportantly,publicandprivateextensionservices…tounderpinAustraliandrought…responses.Thehumancapitalonfarmsandintheadvisorysectorneedsurgentinvestmentasitcopeswithatorrentofnewinformationandcomplexissues.

Ourresearchshowsthatbeingdrierhassignificantandoftendebilitatingflow-oneffectstoallfamilies,businesses,armsofgovernment,industrysectorsandcommunityorganisationsinallfoursites.Thisextensionshouldarguablybemuchbroaderinitsscopethanagriculture.If,asYoungandMcColl(2008:32)conclude,‘Nowisthetimetoconfidentlyinformthosewhodependon,andlovetheMurrayDarlingBasinwhattypeoffuturetheyandthesystemcanexpect’,allsectorsofthecommunityneedtobesoinformed,andurgently.Aslongasthereiswidespreaddistressindrought-affectedruralcommunities(Hennessy,Fawcett,Kironoetal.2008),there

Reflecting on the evidence across the sites

ThelocationofourfoursitesinthesouthernMurray-DarlingBasin,includingthreedifferentstatesinsouth–easternAustraliaareidentifiedinFigure1.

ThesitesrangedfromanalpinewaterharvestingareaintheheadwatersoftheMurrayRiveraroundMountBeautyinVictoria,toadrylandareawithlittlesurfacewateraroundBirchipintheVictorianMallee.Themid-riversitewasontheMurrumbidgeeRiveraroundHayintheNewSouthWalesRiverinaregion.AfourthsitewasonthelowerMurrayRiveraroundRenmarkintheSouthAustralianRiverlandregion.TheRiverlandandRiverinasitesprovidedperspectivesfromareaslargelydependentonirrigationdrawnfrommajorriversintheBasin.



through‘waterbankingupstream’andhadtypicallyadaptedtopreviousfluctuationsinwateravailability.Neverbeforehadirrigatorsbeenforcedtolearnhowtocope,asin2009,withclosetozerowaterallocations,ortoallocationsof‘critical’watersimplytokeepvinesandtreesalive.Water-dependentcommunitiesinthemid-riverandlowerriversiteswerealreadyseentobelocatedtowardsthe‘pointiest’andmostriskyendofwhatislikelytobetheriskofclimatechange.Howeveradultsacrossthecommunityinbothsiteswererelativelypoorlyprepared,bytheirrespectivelocalandstategovernmentsortheirnationalgovernment,tounderstand,learnaboutandbeartherisks.BothGoldingandAngwin(2009)andBrownandSchulz(2009)identifiedanurgentneedforbetterandmoreaccessibleinformationandunderstandingaboutthelikelihoodofrisks,onwhichfuturecommunity,business,familyandwatermanagementdecisionsmightideallybebased.

GoldingandAngwin(2009)foundarapidlychangingcontextinthemid-river,Riverinasite.Mostadultswerestrugglingtolearnaboutbeingdrierthroughexistingcommunitiesofpractice.Therewasnolocaladultorcommunitylearningorganizationinthisregion.Thelearningthattookplacewasrestrictedamongstwateruserstowhatasmallnumberoffarmershadlearnedthroughthevariousindustryandgovernmentorganizations.Otherwise,whatmostpeopleknewhadcomefrompersonalnetworks,community-basedorganizationsandthepopularmedia.Confusionaboutanappropriate,learnedresponsewascomplicatedbyparallel,nationallypoliticizedcontestationaboutclimatechange,globalemissionandcausality,nonationalBasinplanoragreement,andastategovernmentwateragencystillindenialaboutclimatechangeinitscommunicationwithwaterusers.Inthiscontext,GoldingandAngwin(2009)identifyanurgentneedfornewinformationanddialogueaboutlikelyfuturescenariosandmanagementoptionsforwaterusersacrossthesite.Theyparticularlysuggestedtheneedfornewboundary andbridging organizationsthatareabletobringtogetherdifferentcommunities

isaneednotonlytomanagethewater,butalsotoaccountforthewellbeingandfamiliesandcommunities.

Learning issues by site

The alpine site

Thealpinecasestudy(Foley&Grace2009)foundcopiousevidenceofcommunitylearningtakingplaceintheregion.Thiswasseenthroughstrategiestomaintainthetouristeconomy,strategiesandprogramstoassistwithenvironmentalissuesrelatedtofiredamagetotheenvironment,andcommunitymembersbeingawareofandmodifyingtheirusageofwater.Itdrewitsconclusionsusingthenotionof‘framesofreference’from Berkhout,HertinandGann(2006).Thatis,participantsfocusedtheirunderstandingsaboutwidespreaddryingthroughcommunitybeliefsandparadigmswithintheir‘patch’oftheAlpineregionspecifically.ThereisevidencehereofwhatBerkhoutetal.(2006:151)categoriseas‘handlingandmanaging’risks.

TheaestheticbeautyoftheAlpineregionanditsrelatedvaluetotourismwasunderstoodbymanyinthestudyastheframeofreferencefromwhichdecisionswerebeingmadeaboutdrying.Morethaninothersites,thisunderstandingincludedmoreacceptanceofclimatechange.Thecasestudyconclusionsawthattheframesofreferenceoftheparticipantsweretowardsthebeginningofastageoflearning,understandingandmanagingchangethroughalocalfocus,whichwasseenbyFoleyandGrace(2009)asanecessaryprecursortounderstandingclimatechange.

The mid-river site

Themid-riverandlowerrivercasestudies(Golding&Angwin2009;Brown&Schulz2009)identifiedbothregionstobesignificantlyaffectedby‘irrigationdrought’,andthereforeindifficultandunchartedterritoryintermsofpreviouslylearnedorexperiencedresponses.Bothregionshadpreviouslyreliedonwatersecurity



water supplywasimportantbutlessdirectlylinkedtofarmingfuturesthaninthetwoirrigationsites,astheregionwasprogressivelymovingfromopenchannelswithhightransmissionlossestoapipedstockanddomesticsupply.Drylandfarmerswithoutaccesstoirrigationwaterfromriversandwithminimalgroundwaterresourceshadalwaysreliedonandlearnedtoadapttoanaturallyvariableandhighlyseasonalrainfall,andwerefoundtobeinaqualitativelydifferentlearningspace.Learning to be drier in farmingwasfoundbySmithandCampbell(2009)tobealreadyhighlydevelopedintheirsite,overseverallifetimesofdrylandcroppingandgrazing.Thisrecentdecadeof‘droughtyears’,whileunprecedentedinscale,wasfamiliarintermsofitseffectsandinvolvedalearned,copingresponsebyfarmers.Ithadbroughtfurther,incrementalchangesincroppingsystems,waterretentionefficienciesandtechnologies.Ithadalsohastenedfurther‘farmconsolidation’,whichmeansanexitfromfarmingforthosefarmingfamilieswhoselandhasbeenconsolidated,althoughdepopulationwasnotamajorissueinthelocaltowns.Thedroughtyearsandwaterrestrictionsinthetownshadimpactedongardensinawaynotseenbefore,butaswithfarming,peopleseemedtobecoping.

Asinthetwoirrigationsites,themostdifficultandimportantlearningasidefromfarmingandlivinginadrierenvironmentwasthelearning needed to cope with the economic, social and community changes.Unlikeintheirrigationsites,thedrylandsitehadarangeofcommunity-basedandlocalgovernmentlearningorganisationsineachsmalltown,alreadywelladaptedtoleadandfacilitatethelearning.However,sometimesitseemedthattheinitiativesmayhavecarriedwiththemsomepre-existingattitudesandperceptionsthatwerenotalwaysorentirelyfunctional.Therewasalsoevidenceinthissiteofchanges to formal learning systemsbothincommunitycentresandschools,includingchangestocourseofferingstoreflectshiftsinthelocaleconomy.

ofpractice,inclusiveofwater-dependentstakeholders,tohelpcommunicatecommonunderstandingsofthecomplexandrapidlychangingissues(Hahnetal.2006;Guston2001)topeopleacrossthesite.

The lower river site

BrownandSchulz(2009)identifiedclusteringaroundsixdifferentformsofadultandcommunitylearningtypesinthedatafromthelowerriversite.Threeoftheselearningtypeswereorientedtowardsdevelopingandmaintainingsustainablebusinessesandcommunities,usingandextrapolatingfromlearningprinciplesandexperiencesfrompreviousfluctuationsinirrigationwateravailability.Theyincludedlearning to be productive,to be efficientandto be sustainable.Threeoftheotherformsoflearningwerenewerandmoreacute.Onewaslearning to surviveontheirallocationof‘criticalwater’,theamountofwatersimplytokeeppermanentvineandtreeplantingsalivewherenoproductivecapacitywasanticipated.BrownandSchulzalsoidentifiedthecommunityneedtolearn about support servicestoassistthosewhoareexperiencingemotional,relationship,financialandbusinessdifficulties.

Thelowerriversiteissituatedinadifficultpointinthecatchment.ItislocatedtowardsthebottomendofagiantBasin,inwhichalmostallofthewaterusedisharvestedfromandalreadysharedbetweenthreeother,upstreamstates.Thewaterneedsofitsstatecapitalcity,Adelaide,hadyettobetakenoutdownstream.Theother,newlearningneedsidentifiedbyBrownandSchulz(2009)inthelowerriversite,furtherdiscussedinthecurrentpaperinrelationto‘wicked’learning,werelearning to live with uncertaintyandlearning to share.

The dryland site

SmithandCampbell(2009)dividedthelearningfromthetranscriptdatainthedrylandsiteintofourcategories.Learning about the



Whilewereceivedconsiderablelocalsupportforourresearch,therewasanunderlyingandlearneddistrustamongstsomepeople‘ontheland’ofauthoritiesandexperts.Localpeoplehadbeenmetaphoricallyburnt,severaltimesbefore,byresearchfindings,recommendationsandpredictions,mostrecentlyaboutfire(inthealpinesite)wateravailability(inthemid-riverandlowerriversites),salinity(inthedrylandsite)andenvironmentalflows(inallsites).Withanarguablelackofunderstandingaboutthecomplexityandlikelywickednessofthecausesofchange,ithadbeendifficultinallsitestolearntomanagetherisks.Ithadbeenrelativelyeasytoblameothers:experts,environmentalistsandpoliticians,andwaterusersupstreamordownstream.Thehardestlearninghadbeenaboutlearningtoacceptthatthechangesinwateravailabilitymaybeduetoclimatechange.Insomecases,businessesandfamilieshadinternalisedthemostdifficultlearning:thatsometimestherewasnoviableoptionsbuttowalkawayfromtheland,thecommunityand/ortheirbusinesses.

Discussion: reflections on learning

Reflecting on the learning responses observed

Therewasextensiveevidenceinallsitesthatwater-relatedstakeholderswithanincentive(financial,environmentaloridealistic)tosavewater,hadlearntmuchaboutwater savings systems and technologiesinthecontextofdrying.Thisparticularlyincludedwaterconservation,distribution,meteringandrecyclingtechnologiesinirrigationareasaswellascroppingsystemsinallsites.Mostofthislearninghadbeenachievedthroughacombinationoflearningbytrialanderroraswellasviagovernmentandindustryadvice.

Similarly,therewasevidencethatsignificantlearninghadtakenplaceinlearningaboutnewways of doing businessindryerconditions.Learninginfarmingbusinesseshadtypicallyoccurredbyindividualsactivelyseekinganswerstoproblems,bytrialanderror,fromtheneighbour,byreadingthepaperorbygoingontheinternet.

Reflecting on the learning choices available across sites

Thediversityoflocalandpublicadultlearningchoicesavailabletoadultsinthefoursitesdiminished,asonemightexpect,withthedecreasingsizeofthecommunity,butalsodifferedbystate.Community-basedlearningopportunitiesandorganisationswereobservedinallruraltownslargeenoughtosupportsecondaryschoolsintheseandotherdrylandandalpinetownsinVictoria.Stategovernment-supported,community-basedadultlearningorganisationsprovidedimportant,local,‘firststeps’tohelpadultslearntocopewithawidevarietyofchanges.Theirapproachtendedtobemoreinclusiveofcommunitydevelopmentapproachesthantonarrowvocationalpreparationandretraining.Inmid-riverNewSouthWalestherewerenosuchorganisationsinlargerruraltowns.Inthelowerriversitethereweresomegovernment-sponsoredlearningorganisationsavailableandmentionedbyparticipants.Howevertheredidnotappeartobeagreatemphasisonaccessingorsupportingthem.

Inallsitesandcommunities,therewasatop-downconservatismandinertiaassociatedwithformalandsectorallyseparateapproachestoeducationandtraininginschoolsandpost-compulsoryvocationaleducationandtraining.Inseveralimportantsensesandwithsomeexceptions,formaladulteducationinstitutionsandtheirstaffweretosomedegreeinsulatedfromandbufferedagainstthedirecteffectsofchange.Mostoftheseinstitutionsbenefitedfrompeopleandbusinessesneedingtochangeandretrainandsomeofthiswasteachingpeopletobedrier.Bycontrastbusinesses(includingfarmingbusinesses)wereatthecuttingedgeofchangeinthatthey had tolearntobedrierorfailasbusinesses.Thisincludedlearningnewwaystobemorewaterefficientandgrowdifferentcropswithverylittleornowaterallocations.Inadditiontothis,themostrecentlearninginbothirrigationsiteshadbeenabouthowtotradewater.



separatetreatmentofagricultural‘extension’from‘educationandtrainingprograms’intheirreportisindicativeoftheimplieddifference,whichweregardasunhelpfulandartificial,between‘farmerslearningnewthings’(p.187)andalargelyformal‘educationandtrainingsystemthatservicesagriculture’(p.196).

Theterm‘remote’isoftenappliedfromafartositesandcommunities(likethosestudied)thataredistantfromcitiesandtheircomprehensiveservices.Lookingoutwardsfromeachofthesesites,formaleducationandtrainingsystemsweregenerallymissing,andwherepresentweresometimesregardedasremotefromorinappropriatetothelifelongandlifewidelearningneedsofplace-boundresidentsinallfour,smallruralcommunities.

Climatechange,asRittelandWebber(1973)notedinIDCC(2009:72),ispartofafamilyofenvironmentallyrelated‘wickedproblems’withnodefiniteformulationandnoclearpointatwhichtheproblemissolved.Assuchtheyposesignificantandarguablywickedlearningchallengesforallfourcommunities.

Learning about the wickedness of the learning problems

DietzandStern(1998)identifiedfivekeycharacteristicsof‘wickedproblems’,allofwhichhavecomethroughstronglyintheinterviewdataaboutlearningtobedrier,whetherclimatechangeiscausallyimplicatedornot.Thefirstcharacteristic,multidimensionalityisdemonstratedbothwithinandacrossallfoursites.If‘beingdrier’istakenasthechangedenvironmentalprocess,itcanbeseen,asDietzandStern(1998:441)describeit,tohave‘manydifferenttypesofeffects,distributedunevenlysothatthoseaffectedfaceunequalshareofthecosts,risksandbenefits’,withineachsiteandacrosstheBasin.

Thesecondcharacteristic,scientific uncertaintyisalsopresentinmany‘Learningtobedrier’narratives.Decisionmakers,includinggovernmentwatermanagersandwater-dependentbusinessesinallsites,wantanddesperatelyneedtounderstandandknowthefuture

Someadvicewasavailablefrompastoral,agricultural,horticulturalandforestryindustryextensionservicesinboththeprivatesectorandgovernment.Importantly,muchofwhatthesegovernment‘experts’knewcameinturnfromtheexperienceofpeople‘ontheland’.Astheperiodofdryinghadlengthened,learningaboutwatertrading(buyingandselling)andsubstitutingwaterfromothersources,particularlyfromgroundwater,hasalsogrown.

Thelearningoptionsforwater-dependent,non-agriculturallocalbusinesses(suchasirrigationsuppliers,lasergraders,farmproduceprocessorsandcartagecontractors)havebecomeverylimitedinirrigationsites.Asthe‘longdry’hadcontinued,manysuchbusinesseshadtriedtodiversifyandextendthelocationinwhichtheyoperatedtoincludeotherareasofthestate,andinsomecases,tootherstates.Manyotherserviceandretailbusinesseshadbeenverybadlyaffectedinallsiteswhereagriculturewasamajorindustry.Thishadresultedinbusinesseseitherreducingstaff,orinsomecases,closingupandmovingelsewhere.

Therewasmuchdifficultylearningabout new family and social models thatfitwiththechangedcircumstances.Whileoff-farmincomehadbeenanimportantsupplementtofarmincomesinAustraliaforseveraldecades,morerecentlyoff-farmincomehadbeentheonlythingtokeepmanyfarmfamiliesviable.Thehardestlearning,again,hadbeenlearningaboutwaysofunderstandingwater-relatedcausalityandsolutions.Inmanyinstances,thishadalsorequiredlearningtolearnindifferentandnewways.

Learning to extend knowledge of the risks and possible responses

Agricultural‘extension’,astheProductivityCommission(2008:188)observed,washistoricallydeliveredthroughstategovernmentdepartmentsbuthadmorerecentlybeen‘woundback’.Manyextensionarrangementswerenowconductedinpartnershipwith,andpartlyfundedby,theprivatesector.TheProductivityCommission’s



Severalformsof mistrust,thefourthwickedcharacteristic,areapparentinnarrativesdevelopedfromallsites.Thereisamistrustofthevariouslevelsofgovernmenttorespondinacoordinated,systematicandlogicalmannertolesswater.Inthemid-riveranddrylandsites,thereisevidenceofamistrustofeducationopportunities.Weweretoldthatthebestwaytogetparticipantstoattendtrainingopportunitieswasto‘lurethem’and‘don’tcallittraining’.Inseveralofthesitestherewasalsoamistrustandwarinessofusasresearchers,catalysedbytheirpreviousexperienceofthosewhohadtakenknowledgeawayonlytoseeitmisusedormisinterpreted.

Thefinalcharacteristic,urgency,wasevidentinparticipants’voicesastheyspokeabouttheirexperienceswithlesswater.Therewaspain,emotionandfrustration.Inthemid-riversite,therewerethosewhoovercametheirmistrustof‘notanotherbloodystudy’tospeaktous,because“Wehavetodosomething,anything,aboutthewaterandifthereisachancethatthiswillhelp,let’sdoit.”

Discussion

Itisimportant,beforeconcluding,toacknowledgethatconsistentwiththenatureofwickedproblemsasdefinedbyConklin(2005),theproblemsofdryinginthesouthernMurray-DarlingBasin,andparticularlytheproblemofclimatechange,willrequirelargegroupsofindividualsinsideandoutsideoftheBasintolearnenoughabouttheproblem,tochangetheirmindsetsandbehaviours.Giventhatpeople’sresponsesacrosstheBasinwilldependtoalargeextentontheirbeliefsaboutcausality(over-commitmentofwater,drought,climatechangeoracombinationoftheseandotherfactors),thelearningrequiredwillbesimilarlywicked.

WhileAustralianrainfallwasrecognizedmorethanadecadeagoasbeing‘morevariablethancouldbeexpectedfromsimilarclimateselsewhereintheworld’,Nicholls,DrosdowskyandLavery

risksinordertomakedecisionsaboutfuturefire,environment,riverflow,irrigation,businessandcroppingrisks.Howeverthescienceofclimatechangeandpredictionistoouncertaintoprovideanythingotherthanalternativeprobablescenarios.

Wealsoidentifyrecurringthemesinthenarrativesassociatedwiththethirdcharacteristicof‘wickedproblems’,value conflict and uncertainty.AsDietzandStern(1998:444)putit,

Peopledifferintheimportancetheyattachtothedifferenteffectsofanyaction,andthesejudgementschangeaspeopleexperiencehowtheirownandothers’actionsaffectthethingstheyvalue.

Valueconflictanduncertaintyofthisnaturewaspresentinthenarrativesinallfoursites,goingwellbeyondthecontestednatureofcausality.People’sdifferentvaluepositionsabouttherelationshipbetweenfire,controlburning,theenvironmentandwoodyweedsaregoodexamplesfromthealpinesite.TherewereconflictingvaluepositionsbetweenresidentsintheRiverinasitetomaintain‘greenlawnsandnaturestrips’andriparianwaterrightsandthoseoutsideofthesite(includingtheresearchers).Valuepositionsassociatedwithwhethertotradewatertemporarilyorpermanentlyawayfromasite(andparticularlyinterstate)wereparticularlyconflictualinbothirrigationsites.Therealsoseemedtobevaluesconflictinthedrylandsitebetweenthosewhoattendedassiduouslytotheneedtoadoptpracticesconsistentwithreducedwateravailability,andthosewhopaidlessattentiontoit.Whilesomerespondentsweretoleranttowardspeople’svaryingadoptionsof‘better’practices,othersappearedquitejudgementaltowardsthosewhowereseentobelagging.Also,conflictingviewswereexpressedaboutthemotivesofsomeofthosewhoprovidedinformation.Forexample,theroleofagronomistsworkinginagriculturalextensionforprivatecompanieswasstronglyendorsedbysomerespondents,butcritiquedbyothers.



bedividedbylocation,becausetheyappearedtohavedifferentperceptionsandexperiencesofdrynessdependingonwhichpartofthesitetheylived.Thoseatthehigheraltitudelocationbelievedthatwaterwasmoreplentifulbecauseofnearbystoragefacilitiesforthehydrosystem.Thoseattheloweraltitudelocationhadalivedrealitythatwaterwasmorescarce,astheirriveronlyhadwinterrunoffandbecamedryerintheotherseasons.Peopleinbothlocationswereconcernedaboutchangestotheregionwhichwouldaffectthelocaleconomythatcentredaroundtourism.Bothcommunitiessawthepotentialchangesasbeingofgreatconcern.Importantly,lesswatermeanthigherriskofwildfire.Weedsthathadgrownasaresultofthelastbushfirearealsoseenasathreattotheexistingaestheticsandlivelihoodsbeingmadeintheregion.

Inthemid-riversitepeoplearoundHaypeopleareaskingsomeveryfundamentalquestionsaboutwhytheyliveintheregion.Withwaterscarce,somefacedthehardshipofdecisionsaboutstayingormoving.Whattheyhaddoneinthepastforsomewasnolongerviableorpossible.GoldingandAngwincapturedthewaythatyoungpeopleareaffectedbyschoolsclosingandpeoplechoosingtoleavethedistrict.Ingovernmentterms,thepeopleinthissitemustnowbeartheriskofwateravailabilityandwaterprices.Increasinglytheinternetisbeingusedasaresearchtool,aspeopleseekimmediateinformationtomakeadjustmentstotheirlives.Yetadisjunctionremainsbetweenthemessagefromtheexpertsandtheirscience,andthosewhobelievetheyhavelivedthroughthesamecyclesofdryingpreviously.

BrownandSchulz,inthelowerriver,Riverlandsite,notedthatduetotheuseofweirsandlocks,thesuperficially‘full’lookoftheRiverisdeceiving.Whereaswaterlevelslookunchanged,flowrateshavemarkedlydiminished.Yetjustfiveminutesinland,awayfromtheriver,thereislittledoubtoftheimpactofthedryness,withtreesacrossthefloodplainindireneedofwater.MostpeopleintheRiverlandareproudoftheirefficiencieswithwater,thoughthisis

(1997:66)identifiedevidencethatsomeofthepreviousrelationshipsbetweengoverningfactorshadalreadyshiftedclimatesystemsintheAustralianregion.Inthedecadesince,allfoursitesinourLearning to be drierstudyinthesouthernMurray-DarlingBasinhadexperiencedanunprecedentedseriesofunusuallydryyearsleadingtosignificantlylessrunoff,consistentwithpredictionsinmostclimatechangemodelsandscenarios.

Itisimportanttoobservethataswecompletedthisfinal,sixthpaperinOctober2009someofthesouthernmostpartsoftheBasinhadexperiencedencouragingrains.Whileinsufficientinmostareastobreaktheirrigationdroughttheywereenoughtogivefarmersinthedrylandareawestudiedtheprospectofonegoodyearinadecade.WhetherthelowerMurray-DarlingBasinwillindeedgetwhatCSIRO(2007)predictsby2030:lowerannualaveragerainfall,runoffandstreamflow,moreseveredroughtsandmorehotdaysover35degreesC,willonlybeknown20yearshence.

Conclusion

Conclusions by site

Inthis,conclusiontothisfinalpaper,wereturntotheinitialresearchquestionswhichformedthefocusofourresearchprojectandourcasestudies:‘HowandwhatdoadultslearninresponsetochangesinwateravailabilityinthesouthernMurray-DarlingBasin?’and‘Howisthelearningexperiencedbythedifferentstakeholdersandhowdothestakeholderslearntorespondtothechangedcircumstances?’Inthissectionwesummariseconclusionsbysite.

Allparticipantshadanunderstandingofwheretherewatercamefromandthattherewaslessofit.InterestinglyFoleyandGrace(2009)makethepointthatthenotionofbelongingtooneofthestakeholdergroupsbecomesproblematicasthepeopleofthesecommunitiesundertakemultiplerolesdisplayingmultipleidentities.Thereforethepeoplelivinginthealpinesitemightmoreusefully



andinevitabledynamicsofthemess.’Conklin’sanalysisofwickedproblemswouldsuggestthattherearelikelytobenoeasy,technicalsolutionsorvalueinapportioningblame.Rather,thesolutionswilllie‘…inthesocialdomain,inbuildingcapacitytocollaborateeffectively’(pp.18–19).Conklin(2008:10)suggeststhat‘…[t]hefirststepincopingwithawickedproblemistorecognizeitsnature.…Thereisapsychologicaldimensionhere—ashiftfromdenialtoacceptance.’Ifclimatechange(andperhapsglobalwarmingassociatedwithhumanaction)areimplicatedandaretobemorewidelyaccepted,thecomplexlearningassociatedwiththeiracceptance,andtheactionstoaddressthem,areonesthatweallshareandneedtolearninaninterconnectedatmosphere.

Evenifthisisa‘natural’butextremeaberrationfromtheexistingclimaticvariability,thepolicysolutionsinvolvedwithchangesinwaterallocationinaninterconnectedBasin,particularlyincatchmentswherewaterentitlementsalreadyexceedsupply,willstillbeverydifficult.Inallcases,includingwherebusinessesandenvironmentalvaluesarealreadylost,damaged,severelycompromisedorunsustainable,thisnecessarilyinvolvessocialandpoliticaldecisionsandvalues,includingconsultingandlearningwithaffectedcommunitiesaboutwhatisdesirableandappropriate.

Theobserveddifferencesinlearnedadaptationstodryingbetweensitesarelikelytoberelatedtothehetrogeneousnatureofthesitesandthecommunities,asanticipatedbyAdger(2003:400).Adgerpostulatedtheformationofa[climatechange]socialcapitalwherecommunities‘findstrategiestomanagerisksthroughstrategicandlocalnetworksandinteractions…manifestingdifferentformsofsocialcapitalindifferentcircumstances’.Adger(2003:401)suggestedthat…

Althoughinsightsfromsocialcapitalandcollectiveactioncaninformtheprocessesofadaptation,societiesthataredependentonclimatesensitiveresourcesarethemselvesheterogenous

relativetootherusersupstreaminthebasin.Manythinkthereisover-allocationofwater,butthisisseenasbeingmoreaboutbeinganupstreamproblemaproblemfortheRiverland.Environmentalistsandconservativelandandwaterresourcemanagersareseenasbeingatloggerheadswiththegrowers.Thehealthoftheriverisdesiredbyall,butprioritisedforonlybysome,asindividualinterestsaremaintained.

InthedrylandsiteoftheWimmera-MalleeregionofVictoria,theresearchagainfoundthatfarmersandcommunitymembersweretryingtoworkandliveusingwatermoreefficiently.Insomecasesnewfarmpracticeswerebeingdeveloped.Newcropsweretried,feedbackwassoughtandinformalevaluationswereconducted.Informationwasbeingobtainedthroughlocalnewspapersandinformationpublishedbythewaterauthorities.Someinformationcamehomeviathechildren’sschools,andincreasinglyviatheinternet.Informaltalksoccurredthroughandoverthefarmfencebetweenneighboursandacquaintances,wheresignificantobservations,informationandideaswereconveyedandexchanged.Explicitattemptsweremadetoengagefarmersthroughafarmers’developmentgroup.Theseoftenemployedprofessionalssuchasagronomiststoprovideadvice.Someothersinthedrylandsiteoptedtoenrolinshortskill-basedcoursesprovidedthroughaneducationortrainingfacility.

Broader conclusions about learning across sites

Therelativelyrecent,extremedryingofthesouthernMurray-DarlingBasin,whilemorefamiliartodrylandfarmers,hascreatedmajorwaterresourceavailabilityandallocationproblemsacrossthesouthernBasin,andplacedirrigators,watermanagersandfireauthoritiesinunchartedterritory.Ifweacceptthatthisdifficultissueofdryingmightbeawickedmanifestationofclimatechange,ourtask,asConklin(2005:18)wouldsuggest,‘…isnotwhosefaultthemessis—theissueisourcollectivefailuretorecognizetherecurring



CHDGC—CommitteeontheHumanDimensionsofGlobalChange(2009).Informing decisions in a changing climate,PanelonStrategiesandMethodsforClimate-RelatedDecisionSupport,NationalResearchCouncil,Washington:NationalAcademiesPress.

Conklin,J.(2005).‘Wickedproblemsandsocialcomplexity’,Dialogue mapping: building shared understanding of wicked problems,Chapter1:1–20,Wiley,November2005,http://cognexus.org/wpf/wickedproblems.pdf,Accessed19October2009.

CSIRO(2007).Climate change in the lower Murray Darling catchment,ReportbytheCSIROfortheNewSouthWalesGovernment.

Dietz,T.&SternP.(1998).‘Science,values,andbiodiversity’,BioScience48:441–444.

Fiol,M.&Lyles,M.(1985).‘Organizationallearning’,The Academy of Management Review,10(4):803–813.

Foley,A.&Grace,L.(2009).‘Water,weedsandautumnleaves:learningtobedrierintheAlpineregion’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,49(3):451–496.

Golding,B.&Angwin,J.(2009).‘Bearingtherisk:learningtobedriermid-river’.Australian Journal of Adult Learning,49(3):472–496.

Golding,B.&Campbell,C.(2009).‘LearningtobedrierinthesouthernMurray-DarlingBasin’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,November.

Guston,D.(2001).‘Boundaryorganizationsinenvironmentalpolicyandscience:anintroduction’,Science, Technology and Human Values,26(4):399–408.

Hahn,T.,Olsson,P.,Folke,C.&Johansson,K.(2006).‘Trust-building,knowledgegenerationandorganizationalinnovations:theroleofbridgingorganizationsforadaptiveco-managementofawetlandlandscapearoundKristianstad,Sweden,’Human Ecology,34:373–392.

Hennessy,K.,Fawcett,R.,Kirono,D.,Mpelasoka,F.,Jones,D.,Bathois,J.,StaffordSmith,M.,Mitchell,C.&Plummer,N.(2008).An assessment of the impact of climate change on the nature and frequency of exceptional climatic events,BureauofMeteorologyandCSIRO,July.

Kozulin,A.(2003).‘Psychologicaltoolsandmediatedlearning’inKozulin,A.,Gindis,B.,Ageyev,V.&Miller,S(eds.)Vygotsky’s educational theory in cultural context,Melbourne:CambridgeUniversityPress,15–38.

Lave,J.&Wenger,E.(1991).Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Lazarus,R.(2009).‘Superwickedproblemsandclimatechange:restrainingthepresenttoliberatethefuture’,Cornell Law Review,94:1153–1232.

…sowhentheyarefacedwithsignificantchangesinclimateregimesandextremesofweatherinthefuture,differentsocietieswillclearlyadoptradicallydifferentstrategies…determinedinpartbytheirnetworksandsocialcapital.Differenttypesofnetworkswillsettleondifferenttypesofstrategiesforadaptation.

Aswellasplannedlearning,thereisevidenceofagreatdealofunplannedlearning(CommitteeontheHumanDimensionsofGlobalChange—CHDGC2009)occurringinallfoursites.Muchofthelearningoccurringisundertakenbyindividuals.HoweverasbothSenge(1990)andFiolandLyles(1985)indicate,organisational(orinthiscasecommunity)learningisnotjustanaccumulationofindividuallearning.Itisaboutensuringthatalearningcultureispresenttonurturealllearning,sothattheknowledgebecomesbeneficialinawidersense.ThechallengeinallcommunitiesacrosstheBasinmightbehowtocreatebothacommunityofpractice(Wenger1998),whereknowledgeandlearningissharedamongstallstakeholders.Thereisalsoaneedtosupportdoublelooplearning(Argyris&Schön1974),sothatacoordinated responsetolesswatermightoccuratevery level.

References

Adger,W.(2003).‘Socialcapital,collectiveaction,andadaptationtoclimatechange’,Economic Geography79(4):387–404.

Agyris,C.&Schön,D.(1974).Theory in practice: increasing professional effectiveness,London:Jossey-Bass.

APSCAustralianPublicServiceCommission(2007).‘Tacklingwickedproblems:apublicpolicyperspective,‘http://www.apsc.gov.au/publications07/wickedproblems.htm,Accessed19October2009.

Berkhout,F.,Hertin,J.&Gann,D.(2006).‘Learningtoadapt:organisationaladaptationtoclimatechangeimpacts’,Climatic Change78(1):135–156.

Brown,M.&Schulz,C.(2009).‘Learningtobedrier:acasestudyofadultandcommunitylearningintheAustralianRiverland’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,49(3):497–519.


Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 49, Number 3, November 2009

Investigating students’ beliefs about Arabic language programs at Kuwait University

Shaye S. Al-ShayeCollege of Education, Kuwait University

The current study attempted to identify students’ of Arabic programs beliefs about their chosen programs. To achieve this purpose, a survey was developed to collect the data from randomly selected students in liberal-arts and education-based programs at Kuwait University. The results showed that students were statistically differentiated as a function of different beliefs insofar as the Arabic language programs are concerned. Yet beliefs were not just confined to materialistic benefits; students tended to value other types of benefits as well. Implications for educational policies and recommendations for future research were also included. The most important implication is that students along with their beliefs should be included in evaluating or revising the educational programs.

Nicholls,N.,Drosdowsky,W.&Lavery,B.(1997).‘Australianrainfallvariabilityandchange’, Weather52(3)March,66–71.

NRC—NationalResearchCouncil(2009).PanelonStrategiesandMethodsforClimate-RelatedDecisionSupport,Informing decisions in a changing climate, http://www7.nationalacademies.org/ocga/briefings/Informing_Decisions_in_a_Changing_Climate.asp Washington,Accessed19October2009.

ProductivityCommission(2008).Inquiry into government drought support,Canberra:AustralianGovernmentProductivityCommission.

Rittel,H.&WebberM.(1973).‘Dilemmasinageneraltheoryofplanning’,Policy Sciences4:155–169.

Senge,P.(1990).The fifth discipline: the art and practice of the learning organization,MilsonsPoint:RandomHouse.

Smith,E.&Campbell,C.(2009).‘Learningtobedrierindrylandcountry’,Australian Journal of Adult Learning,49(3):520–543.

Wenger,E.(1998).‘Communities of practice: learning, meaning and identity’,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Young,M.&McColl,J.(2008).A future-proofed Basin: a new water management regime for the Murray-Darling Basin,Adelaide:UniversityofAdelaide.

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