what makes a good natural resource management plan?

This review argues that

more attention should be

given to the content of

management plans for

natural areas and

proposes guidelines to

facilitate effective plan

preparation

Introduction

Preparing a natural resource manage-ment plan is often seen as a panacea

for dealing with land management andecological issues.But how useful are theseplans in practice? They are expected tointegrate scientific knowledge with politi-cal realities and limited resources, oftendemonstrating an uncomfortable relation-ship between these competing elements.Plans commonly apply in situations wherelittle accurate data exist, where availableinformation is not targeted for manage-ment purposes, and where the applicationof the precautionary principle must beconsidered. It is often difficult to re-solve these issues, with the result thatplan preparation may become a reasonfor inaction or deferral of timely decision-making. This review argues that moreattention should be given to the con-tent of plans and proposes guidelinesto facilitate effective management planpreparation in practice.

The article explores the nature of man-agement plans in the state of New SouthWales, Australia and its relationship withother plan types. It highlights the largenumber of management plans and theinconsistency between them, and arguesthe need to clearly distinguish betweenthe process of plan preparation and theform and content of documentation. Keyelements of plans are discussed, as well aspotential improvements to increase theusefulness of these plans in naturalresource management are discussed.Review of the frameworks and roles formanagement plans is timely in view of thecurrent review of NSW environmentalplan-making processes (NSW Departmentof Urban Affairs & Planning 1999).

General review of naturalresource managementplanning

Planning is essentially a process of decid-ing on a desired future and making ithappen (Lipscombe 1992). A managementplan is an agreement on purposes, values,objectives and implementation processes.It combines both ‘planning’ which relatesto predictions, expectations, desires andintentions, and ‘management’ which relatesto reality, actions and tangible change.Natural resource management plans arebasically ‘on-ground’ documents outliningactions proposed by land and resourcemanagers for a clearly defined naturalresource, issue, activity, ecosystem or areaof land. They are normally in the form of awritten document and may be used in awide variety of ways depending on theirpurpose and legal status (Bates 1997).

It is important to recognize that otherprocesses and documents are sometimesconfused with the term ‘managementplan’ (NSW Department of Land and WaterConservation & Manidis Roberts Consul-tants 1996). These include organizational‘management plans’ and ‘local environ-mental plans’ which are not the subject ofthis review.

Management plans are normally anoutcome of a planning process and havethree main functions:

1. Codifying how to manage land to fulfillegal requirements or to achieve policyobjectives.

2. Communicating to persons doing on-ground works.

3. Collating or summarizing, in one docu-ment,data and information relevant to aspecific site, issue, activity etc.

ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 1 NO 3 DECEMBER 2000 185

What makes a good naturalresource management plan?By Martin Fallding

R E V I E W

Martin Fallding is principal consultant with Land

& Environment Planning (PO Box 261 Singleton,

NSW 2330, Australia. Email: [email protected]).

This article draws upon his 15 years experience

preparing and evaluating land use, conservation

and resource management plans.

The need for a close link between plan-ning and management is widely recog-nized in both planning and environmentalmanagement literature (Cooper 1990;Harty 1992; Conacher 1994; Hughes 1997;Margerum 1999). Resolving naturalresource issues has led to demands formore cooperative, coordinated and inte-grated approaches for management whichoverlap with adaptive environmental man-agement and often involve implementa-tion of planning processes (Grinlinton1992; Hartig & Law 1994; McLain & Lee1996). Recognition of these approacheshas coincided with increased promotionand use of management plans by govern-ment agencies (NSW Department of Plan-ning 1993; NSW National Parks andWildlife Service et al. 1995, 1997; NSWDepartment of Land and Water Conserva-tion & Manidis Roberts Consultants 1996).Throughout Australia, management plan-ning has been recognized as providing anessential basis for practical implementa-tion of Landcare and other programmesfor sustainable land management practice(Roberts 1992, 1995; NSW Soil Conserva-tion Service 1989). Legislative frameworkshave also recognized these links (Gow1997). For example, the NSW Environ-mental Planning & Assessment Act1979 (EP&A Act) was introduced withthe essential aim of creating ‘a system ofenvironmental planning under whichdecisions on land use and resourcemanagement are made within the physicalcapacity of the environment’ (NSW Parlia-ment 1979).

Literature on management planning hasfocused on general principles of integratednatural resource management, processesof plan preparation and legislative andadministrative arrangements (Grinlinton1992). There has been little review of theeffectiveness of management plans, ana-lytical frameworks, plan content andsubstance of operable planning documen-tation, even though these are essential toplan implementation (Slocombe 1993).The literature has also reviewed the needfor independent auditing, environmentalimpact assessment and monitoring, andhighlights the diversity of approaches thatexist (Grinlinton 1992; Bailey 1997). Thecross-disciplinary nature of management

planning issues has led to confusionregarding the relationship between plan-ning and ecosystem approaches for inte-grating environmental and developmentalissues and affects the clarity and effective-ness of plans (Slocombe 1993). McLainand Lee (1996) identified three elementsof environmental management that areessential to facilitate actions, namely rapidknowledge acquisition, effective informa-tion flow, and processes for creatingshared understandings. These three ele-ments could also be considered essentialelements of an effective natural resourcemanagement plan.

Although attention has been given tothe theoretical understanding of the inte-gration of planning and environmentalmanagement, little emphasis has beenplaced in the literature on the preparation,content, implementation or review of man-agement plans in practice (Slocombe1993). The lack of critical evaluation ofactual ‘on-ground’management planning isnotable in view of the emphasis that man-agement plans have been given by govern-ment agencies (as evidenced by the largenumber and types of plans having legisla-tive recognition). A review of the practi-calities of the plan preparation process isprovided by Harris (1992). Another casestudy evaluation by Hockings (1998) iden-tifies conflicting goals and lack of cleardefinition of objectives and outcomeswithin plans as important issues ofconcern. He notes that although manage-ment planning is an established core activ-ity for most conservation agencies littleattention has been given to evaluation.Theimportance of defining goals for ecosys-tem management has also been identifiedas a key issue which has received littleattention (Slocombe 1998).

Natural resourcemanagement plans in NSW

The framework for management planningis closely related to legislative and admin-istrative frameworks that apply in specificcircumstances. The following discussionreviews and describes the range of man-agement plans in NSW, their functions,structure and content.

In NSW, a wide range of documents

used for natural resources managementare described as management plans.Thesehave arisen for a range of reasons includ-ing legislative requirement, policy andadministrative direction, or simply forreasons of practicality. Legislation and reg-ulatory instruments such as the Threat-ened Species Conservation Act 1995,Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997,National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974,Forestry Act 1916, Commons Manage-ment Act 1989, Local Government Act1993, Rural Fires Act 1997, State Envi-ronmental Planning Policy No. 19 andMurray Regional Environmental PlanNo. 2 all establish a framework for man-agement plan preparation even thoughthese plans vary in their approach. Policyframeworks recognizing or promotingmanagement plans include the NSW Bio-diversity Strategy (NSW National Parksand Wildlife Service 1999), the Policy forSustainable Agriculture in NSW (NSWAgriculture 1998), the Coastline Manage-ment Manual (NSW Government 1990),the NSW Water Reform Policy (NSWDepartment of Land and Water Conserva-tion 1998) and the National Frameworkfor the Management and Monitoring ofAustralia’s Native Vegetation (ANZEC1999). Informal management plans alsoexist where individuals or agencies haveidentified a need to formalize or defineland management arrangements and areadvocated by government agencies(Roberts 1995; NSW Department of Landand Water Conservation 1998, 1999).

Management plans can be categorizedinto four broad approaches: legislation-based plans with clear legal requirementsand limited flexibility; policy-based planswith no clear legislative framework; agree-ment-based plans determined by negotia-tion; and informal plans allowing a highdegree of flexibility and adaptability. Dif-ferent approaches and their characteristicsare shown in Table 1 and more than oneapproach may be applied in any individualplan. An alternative classification has beenproposed by NSW Department of Landand Water Conservation & Manidis RobertsConsultants (1996) that reflects the plan-ning level rather than purpose. It does notcover the full range of management plantypes applied in practice.

186 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 1 NO 3 DECEMBER 2000

R E V I E W

A list of examples indicating the widerange of management plans is shown inAppendix I and these are grouped accord-ing to their category by using theapproach outlined in Table 1. It is difficultto estimate the total number of manage-ment plans currently in existence in NSWbut it is likely that legislative- and policy-based management plans number in thethousands (NSW Department of Land andWater Conservation & Manidis RobertsConsultants 1996). In addition, it is likelythat an equivalent or larger number ofinformal property management or issue-based plans are in operation.

Management plan functions

The purpose and context for the prepara-tion of a plan will normally determine itsscope. Most plans fulfil more than onerole, interact with other types of plans andare often applied other than for theirintended use. The nature of a plan islargely determined by its initiator, whoconducts and who owns the process.Many plans are prepared by community-

based organizations such as catchmentmanagement committees or regional vege-tation committees, while others are pre-pared by local councils or governmentagencies. As a result, there are wide varia-tions in the approaches taken, and inquality and presentation.

Based on plan functionality, manage-ment plans fit into a hierarchy of types ofplans as shown in Table 2. Many plans willoverlap and fulfil the role of more thanone of the plan types identified, and thismay be important to provide an adequatecontext for decision-making and determin-ing the scope and content of a plan. Policyand framework plans tend to be broader inscope and will generally have longer timeframes as they deal with general direction.Management plans will often focus on rel-atively short-term actions at the site-spe-cific geographical scale. They generallyfocus on ongoing management issues asdistinct from one-off development deci-sions. In practice, the most appropriate usefor management plans may primarily be toguide activities not requiring consentunder a framework plan or that are conse-quential to a consent.

The fundamental difference betweenthe types of plans is that policy plansexpress a wish, desire or expectation,framework plans primarily determinewhat can be done, and management plansdetermine how permissible uses and activ-ities should or are to be undertaken. Sometypes of plans described as ‘managementplans’ in Appendix I could be more accu-rately described as policy plans (Table 2)based on their intended role. This high-lights the confused role of many plans, andthe importance of using clear terminology.This confusion may result from lack ofcommunication of the purpose of theplan.

Management plans can be formulatedaround issues (e.g. bushfire hazard reduc-tion, threatened species), activities (e.g.clearing native vegetation, irrigation),resources (e.g. water, fauna), values (e.g.maintaining public open space), land(e.g. Mt Royal State Forest, Portion 4 Parishof Darlington) or organizations (e.g.Department of Land and Water Conserva-tion, Sandy Creek Catchment ManagementCommittee), or a combination of these.This diversity of approach and the need to


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Table 1. Natural resource management plan approaches

Plan approach General characteristics of plan

Legislative Plan prepared in accordance with legislation with specified processes for preparation, consultation and amendment.Tends to have important status but may be inflexible and take longer to prepare. Content may also be specified.

Policy Flexible document without legally specified content or preparation process. Often associated with specific programmes and government directives. Purpose and scope of plan may be unclear, with no clear relationship to implementation. Often replaced by subsequent policy plans.

Agreement Formal written agreement between parties responsible for management. Follows negotiation and usually has legal status and is often associated with financial arrangements. Often a legislative requirement.

Informal Documentation of resource management to formalize and communicate desired practices or actions, facilitate works programmes, consider property development options, clarify management approaches etc.

Table 2. Plan types and functions

Function of plan Description Examples

Policy plan Usually applies at broad scales such as the state, national or NSW Biodiversity Strategy, NSW Weeds international level. Outlines the context, rationale and agency Strategy, NSW Sustainable Agriculture or government view on issues. Policy, NSW Water Reform Farm Dams

PolicyFramework plan State, regional or local level, relating to administration, regulation Local environmental plans, regional

and requirements for consent. Generally prescriptive and provides environmental plans, State environmental process framework for policy implementation and specifies why planning policies, regional vegetation actions should be taken. management plans

Management plan Applies at site, local and regional levels. Specifies how, where, by Local government plans of management who and when actions will be taken. These plans issue directions for community land, national park plans in relation to actions and should be adaptive. of management

respond to different situations oftenexplains variations in plan content. Planscan also apply at different geographicallevels, but the site and regional levels arethe most important for natural resourcesmanagement. The site level relates to on-ground actions and the regional level isimportant for providing a context forimplementation. Management plans aregenerally not relevant at the state or inter-national level except where they apply toorganizations, and plans at this level aregenerally more appropriately referred to asstrategies.

Management plancomponents

An effective plan successfully links andintegrates two key components: the planpreparation process; and the writtenplan documentation. These two compo-nents have different outcomes and expec-tations. In practice they may be separatedor integrated to varying degrees andundertaken by different people. Theyrequire different skills and approaches.Generalized outcomes for these compo-nents are shown in Table 3.

Although management plan documenta-tion and the process of plan preparationare closely related, their requirements arequite distinct. Both must be consideredseparately although each will influencethe other. Generally, planning involves apublic participation or consultation pro-cess with selected stakeholders of somesort. This means that the process of plan-ning may often be as important as thecontent of a final plan as it can determine

outcomes, influence the way decisions aremade or cause participants to review pastpractices. Nevertheless, many practitionersconfuse the process with the plan. Forexample, the process may lead to achieve-ment of stakeholder consensus in relationto a course of action, but the plan may notexpress this desire in a form that is capableof being interpreted or implementedbecause of inconsistent wording, conflict-ing provisions, poor definition, lack ofappropriate mechanisms or the like.Guide-lines for management planning such asARMCANZ & ANZECC (1998), NSWNational Parks and Wildlife Service et al.(1997) and NSW Department of Land andWater Conservation and Manidis Roberts(1996), frequently outline the methodolog-ical steps for the planning process butrarely describe in detail the desired planproduct and the criteria that should becomplied with.

Plan preparat ion

The planning process should lead to ashared vision for the future and a commit-ment to implementing this vision. Thisprocess consists of a number of stages andmany different approaches have been iden-tified (Lipscombe 1992; Slocombe 1993;NSW Department of Land and Water Con-servation & Manidis Roberts Consultants1996; NSW Department of Land and WaterConservation 1998, 1999). Followingreview of the common elements of man-agement planning processes, I propose thefollowing essential steps:

1. Identifying the problem.

2. Defining goals and objectives.

3. Reviewing existing policies and infor-mation.

4. Generating alternative options to satisfygoals.

5. Selecting preferred option.

6. Implementing according to plan.

7. Reviewing the plan.

Most methodologies are variations orextensions of this. Increasingly, the plan-ning process is integrated with administra-tive procedures or legislative requirementssuch as consultation. For example, publicconsultation is a fundamental element ofplanning processes established under theNative Vegetation Conservation Act (NVCAct) 1997 and the Environmental Plan-ning and Assessment Act (EP&A Act)1979.

As already mentioned, the planningprocess is important because it affects thenature of plan products and may by itselfbe useful in influencing future directions.Plan products could include written state-ments, budgets, reviews of scientific data,action proposals, maps, or a range of tangi-ble outcomes designed to achieve desiredactions. It should also be recognized,however, that the expectations of the formand nature of a plan product may alsodetermine the process that is followed.The difficulty of defining the nature of theplan and the process in the early stages ofplanning often leads to unrealistic expec-tations and failure to achieve the potentialbenefits that can be derived from system-atically addressing natural resource man-agement problems. In other words, it isimportant to be clear as to the scope of


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Table 3. Management planning components and their possible outcomes

Component Possible outcome

Plan preparation process Understanding of issues by stakeholdersA shared vision for the futureShared commitment to bringing about vision and objectivesCommunication of information and decisionsConsultation, consensus and public participationInitiation of actions and bringing ideas into plan

Written plan documentation Setting legal restrictions and obligationsand presentation Codification of community views and objectives

Establishment of consistent management criteriaPriority settingCommunication of information and decisionsBasis for review, initiation of amendment and adaptive management

Note that some outcomes may be common to both components or overlap

what is desired and what can be achievedin practice.

NSW Department of Land and WaterConservation & Manidis Roberts Consul-tants (1996) identify the following goodpoints of successful management plansin the context of planning for publicreserves:

1. Clarity of direction.

2. Clear process.

3. Interactive and interdisciplinary pro-cess.

4. Involvement of on-site staff.

5. Community involvement.

6. Role and function defined as part ofsystem.

7. Linked to larger strategy.

8. Multi-product format.

9. Brief and easy to read.

More than half of the above pointsrelate primarily to plan process rather thancontent, illustrating an imbalanced empha-sis and reflecting a lack of distinctionbetween plan product, process andoutcome.

Writ ten p lan documentat ion

A management plan should be an agree-ment of purposes, values, objectives andimplementation processes. Plans may beneeded to ensure consistent managementover time, identify compatible or incom-patible activities, or to provide a frame-work for adaptive management.

Examples of different ways in whichmanagement plans are used are as follows:

1. To specifically identify how broad aimsof legislation should be implemented inpractice.

2. To facilitate priority setting by man-agers.

3. Communication to the public ofreasons for decisions.

4. To ensure that planning and manage-ment decisions are made public.

5. To provide material for educational pur-poses.

6. To promote scientific research into keymanagement questions.

Questions such as what should be in aplan, for whom it should be written, and

how it should be presented are importantto the improved management of a site orresource (i.e. ‘on-ground’ outcomes). Ele-ments of a management plan are suggestedin Table 4. In practice, some plans omitessential elements and other plans willextend the scope of a management plan toinclude additional elements. For example,regional vegetation management plansare expected to include elements suchas development consent requirements,requirements for assessing applications,targets and indicators for monitoring (NSWDepartment of Land and Water Conserva-tion 1999). In the planning process muchinformation may be collected and,althoughreflected in plan content, it may not neces-sarily be referred to or included in finalplan documents. Data should be kept dis-tinct and separate from a management plan(e.g. as a related accessory) and in practicemay be included to disguise an absence ofplan content.

Common problems orpitfalls

Some specific issues faced by those whoprepare management plans and affectingtheir use and effectiveness are outlined inTable 5, together with suggested princi-ples that should be applied. These can beused as a checklist for plan evaluation.

Management plan inadequacies thatcan be identified readily include lack ofpolitical support; community opposition;poor documentation (often too long andscientific, or too short and general); lowlevel of acceptance of plan; unrealisticexpectations or actions; lack of effectivemeans of communication with key users;and objectives without correspondingimplementation mechanisms. Often theseinadequacies are closely related to con-tent, documentation and plan presenta-tion. Another common deficiency is thelack of an adaptive framework allowingupdating of plans over time followingchanges in circumstances or monitoring.

Inconsistent use of terminology is aparticularly important issue (Lipscombe1992), particularly where varied interpre-tations are presented in different plans forthe same concepts, or where scientificterms are used within a legal context. For

example,a range of definitions of ‘wetland’and ‘native vegetation clearing’ are used inboth framework and management planspotentially leading to inconsistency, ambi-guity, lack of clarity and uncertainty.

Suggested improvements inmanagement planning

Although the use of natural resource man-agement plans in NSW is widespread, therole of these plans and their interrelation-ship is often ambiguous, confusing andinconsistent. Plans often vary widely inscope and quality, and potentially mayinclude contradictory provisions. Manyof these concerns derive from the widerange of legislative and administrativeframeworks under which they have beenestablished. It could be argued that ifmanagement plans are to play a role in inte-grated natural resource management this isunlikely to be successful without a betterintegrated planning framework. The tablespresented in this article propose frame-works for conceptualizing and bringingsome consistency to management planpractice and may provoke re-evaluation ofexpectations of these plans.

It is observed that there has been littleevaluation of management plan practicein NSW and its effectiveness. As a resultthere appears to be little or no documen-tary evidence that management planninghas delivered improved ecological or landmanagement outcomes despite good inten-tions and a significant financial investmentin plan preparation. A range of measurescould be undertaken to improve manage-ment planning, although these requirecareful consideration and would requiresupport or direction from governmentagencies such as the NSW Department ofLand and Water Conservation. Indepen-dent organizations such as Standards Aus-tralia or professional organizations couldalso contribute to developing appropriateguidelines for management plans. Somemeasures that could be considered, andwhich might improve land managementoutcomes, include:

1. Developing a set of standards or defini-tions for natural resource managementplans. For example, the distinction


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between ‘development’and land manage-ment ‘activities’confuses the relationshipbetween requirements under the EP&AAct and requirements under othernatural resources legislation in NSW.

2. Accrediting management plans (or cate-gories of plans) where these meetacceptable standards, processes orformats,or alternatively accrediting planmakers.

3. Defining clear legal responsibilities forimplementation of management planprovisions (e.g. who does what).

4. Supporting the preparation of compre-hensive site-based plans which are oftenthe most relevant for implementing

management actions. Site-specific plansmay need to be given funding,accredita-tion and legal status, especially in casesof inconsistency with framework orregional scale plans. This may be neces-sary to facilitate adaptive managementand community support for manage-ment planning.

5. Providing clarification of the distinctionbetween ‘development’ requiring con-sent under a framework plan andongoing land management in legislationand administrative practice. Manage-ment plans can fulfil a role to guideland management activities that do notrequire consent under a framework

plan, or which are consequential to adevelopment consent. The develop-ment consent process could also beused to legally formalize the status ofmanagement plans at the site level.

6. Review of the administrative frame-work for collection and storage ofnatural resource data and its relation-ship to management planning. Itmay be appropriate to consider theestablishment of an independentenvironmental data agency to collect,manage and interpret natural resourcedata on a regional basis for the purposeof directly linking to managementplans.


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Table 4. Management plan elements

Element Purpose

Essential management plan elements(should be common to all management plans)Summary Provides overview of the plan, why it has been prepared, issues addressed and what it seeks to achievePurpose States what the plan does and whyAims Outlines statements of what is sought to be achievedObjectives States desired achievements in specific terms, and their relative priorityContextual information Provides essential background to the plan and what it means, such as relationships to catchments or

bioregionsDefinitions Clearly explains the meaning of the concepts and terms usedRelationship to other plans States how the plan interacts with other plans and frameworksStatus and enforceability Identifies legal basis of the plan and responsibility for carrying out actionsMap Identifies land to which plan applies and also where practices and actions are to be carried outStrategies Identifies mechanisms for carrying aims and objectives into effectPrinciples for implementation Statements of guiding rules to be applied in implementationProgramme of actions Specifies which actions will be taken when, how, and by whom, and assesses the likely achievability of

each actionReferences and acknowledgements Identifies sources of data

Additional management plan elements(relevance and desirability depends on context of plan and objectives)Targets and indicators Identifies desired achievements in a measurable way thereby providing a means to measure plan

implementationManagement areas or zones Identifies areas where different management approaches are required or where issues occurPriorities Ranks plan actions according to their relative importance in order of precedenceGuidelines Specifies guidelines for carrying out actionsMonitoring Identifies monitoring programmes, enables documentation of ecological change and testing of plan

assumptionsRecord keeping Defines minimum recording and documentation standards. May be necessary where financial benefits

are linked to a planReview and amendment provisions Ensures that the plan is updated as necessary, identifies specific review criteria and allows for adaptive

management. May also facilitate review of planning processData and information presentation Provides data in a form that is accessible and useful to land managers. Should be kept separate from

primary management and other supporting and technical plan provisions and include a review of dataquality and uncertainty. Could include contact details, survey guidelines, information incentives, speciesprofiles, vegetation guidelines, details of planning and consultation processes, maps, species lists,evaluation of data limitations etc.

Qualifications of authors Outlines details of the qualifications of the persons preparing the plan and enables assessment of planquality and scope

Peer review Indicates evidence of independent review. Plans may benefit from independent review, especially where expert scientific interpretation is required

Note that in practice plans may combine or confuse these separate elements (ACT Government 1998; NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation1999).

7. Avoiding a mismatch between the plandocumentation and the process. Manycriticisms of the plan-making processare more properly criticisms of theplans and instruments prepared ratherthan the system or underlyingapproach. The reverse also may be thecase. The need for appropriate skills,legal drafting and a tradition of planpreparation is essential for a system towork and this is often not recognized.

8. Reviewing the planning system to rec-ognize the appropriate scale or level atwhich specific issues are best resolved.Some are more appropriate at a locallevel, whereas others are at national,state or international level. Some localnatural resource management issuescan be dealt with more effectively inregional groupings but there is no

established administrative structure forthis in NSW.

19. Facilitating multi-agency managementplans through legislative review pro-cess. These could outline the respon-sibilities of a number of agencies inseparate sections of one instrumentand would allow scope to integrate cur-rently separate plans such as catchmentmanagement plans, regional vegetationmanagement plans, river managementplans and local environmental plans.Theoretically at least, this could pro-mote integrated approaches to landmanagement.

10. Improving procedures in letting oftenders and preparation of briefs formanagement plans to ensure higherand more consistent standards.

11. Clarification of the ambiguous relation-ship between some types of naturalresource management plans and prop-erty rights and responsibilities.

It is proposed that there could be ben-efits in legislative change that aims toachieve the following purposes:

1. Clear identification of the role andstatus of management plans and defi-nition of the relationship of these toenvironmental planning instrumentsprepared under the EP&A Act.

2. Recognition of the distinction betweenframework plans and managementplans, having regard to their purpose.

3. Establishment of uniform processes inNSW legislation for the procedures andprocesses to be followed in preparingall natural resources management plans


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Table 5. Issues and principles

Issue Principle

Consistent management objectives Plans should have a limited number of clear, specific objectives (desirably no more than 10) which do not conflict with one another, or are stated in order of priority

Consistent use of terminology Terms used in plans should be unambiguous, consistent with accepted scientific use and be legally correct. General statements should be avoided

Evidence of understanding of context The context for the plan, land or issue must be clearly identified including an explanation of the within which management actions occur reasons why certain actions are to be taken, and how management actions may interact in a

cumulative wayCorrect issues addressed Objectives and prescriptions must address the causative processes not simply the physical

manifestation of the processCriteria for decision-making Management plans should direct management decisions and actions. The provision of scientific

natural resource information is by itself insufficientLinks with other plans The relationship between the plan and other documents should be clearly identified. Any overlap or

inconsistency should be avoidedLegal status The role of a management plan must be clearly stated, especially who is responsible for its

implementation.The plan must identify how long it applies for and make provision for review andamendment

Clear presentation Plans should be presented in such a way as to ensure they are able to communicate actions to the persons undertaking those actions

Appropriate level and scale The appropriate scale for each issue must be considered individually. In many cases management plans may not be the appropriate mechanism to deal with issues that require actions at a broaderscale

Sufficient ‘how to do it’ guidance Management plans must include principles and as far as possible should specify unambiguous for users directions. A limited number of priority actions should be specified (desirably no more than 10)

Reliability of scientific data Plans should evaluate and document data accuracy and uncertaintyInterpretation of scientific data Scientific data should not be presented in a management plan unless it is directly relevant to

management and there is an explanation of what the data meanPlan actions related to land tenure Management plans should apply to sites of uniform land tenure, or specifically distinguish between

different management approaches required for varying tenuresTarget audience A target audience for the plan should be identified before it is prepared. The form, structure and

presentation of the plan will be determined by its target audienceSkills and qualifications of plan preparers The persons preparing the plan and supporting information must be identifiedMonitoring Effective monitoring requires measurable and specific indicators and targets which are linked to

objectives

required by legislation (e.g. require-ments for public exhibition, review andgeneral matters to be considered).

4. Establishment of a legislative frameworkto allow voluntary accreditation of man-agement plans to be linked to potentialland management incentives such asstewardship payments, taxation bene-fits, rate rebates, where plans candemonstrate achievement of direct linksto improved land management practiceetc.

5. Identification of legal responsibility forthe implementation of managementplan provisions.

Conclusions

Preparation and implementation of a rangeof types of plans is becoming increasinglyimportant in facilitating improved, consis-tent and scientifically based ecologicalmanagement. A wide range of manage-ment plans are used for many differentsituations and legislative frameworks.Limited review and evaluation of the prac-tice of management planning has beenundertaken to date and has focused onprocesses and legislative frameworksrather than plan content and practical out-comes.

A framework for clarifying the role andcontent of management plans in NSW hasbeen proposed, including a description ofessential plan elements and principles.Management plans should be able to beapplied at the site-specific scale and mustrecognize broader planning and landmanagement frameworks. Changes tolegislation and administration could beconsidered to implement measures toremove current inconsistency, overlap andconfusion in management planning.

Acknowledgements

Comments from Pip Brock, Ian Donovan,Sally Frazer, Andrew Kelly and Jo Wyethare gratefully acknowledged.

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R E V I E W


R E V I E W

Legislative plansMarine park operational plans

Regional vegetation managementplans

Species recovery plans

Threat abatement plans

National park plans of management

State Forest flora reserve workingplans

Bush fire management plan

Fisheries Management Plans

Habitat Protection Plans

Management statement relating toland under community title

Plans of management for councilcommunity land

Plans of management for Crown land

Plans of management for Crown land

Plans of management for specialareas

Bushland management plans

Koala plans of management

River plans of management

Policy plansFloodplain management plans

Estuary management plans

Coastline management plans

River management plans

Groundwater management plans

Marine Parks Act 1997

Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997

Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995and Fisheries Management Act 1994

Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995and Fisheries Management Act 1994

National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974

Forestry Act 1916

Rural Fires Act 1997

Fisheries Management Act 1994

Fisheries Management Act 1994

Community Land (Management) Act 1989

Local Government Act 1993

Crown Lands Act 1989

Rural Lands Protection Board Act 1998

Sydney Water Catchment Management Act1998

State Environmental Planning Policy 19 —Bushland in Urban Areas

State Environmental Planning Policy 44 —Koala Habitat Protection

Environmental Planning and AssessmentRegulation 1994

None. Councils are able to gain legal indemnityfor actions in accord with plan as providedfor by the Local Government Act 1993

None

None. Councils are able to gain legal indemnityfor actions in accord with plan as providedfor by the Local Government Act 1993

None. However, such plans are referred to inMurray Regional Environmental Plan no. 2

None

Management plan for a marine park (Marine ParksAuthority)

Specify consent requirements for clearing nativevegetation and management guidelines (DeptLand and Water Conservation and RegionalVegetation Committees)

Required for listed threatened species,populations and ecological communities(National Parks and Wildlife Service and NSWFisheries)

Required to manage identified key threateningprocesses (National Parks and Wildlife Serviceand NSW Fisheries)

Plans for individual national parks (National Parksand Wildlife Service)

Plans for individual Flora Reserves (State Forestsof NSW)

Comprises bush fire risk management plans andoperational plans (Rural Fire Service, Bush FireManagement Committees and Councils)

Plans for sustainable management of fish species(NSW Fisheries)

Plan for specific fish habitat issues or locations(NSW Fisheries)

Agreement registered on property title (Owner’sAssociation)

Plan approved under legislation (Councils)

Plan of management relating to Crown Reserve(Dept Land and Water Conservation and Trusts)

Scheme of management practices to accompanya function management plan and to take intoaccount specified objectives (Rural LandsProtection Boards)

Plan of management relating to identified parts ofcatchment areas (joint sponsors identified inlegislation)

Plan prepared and approved under anenvironmental planning instrument (Councils andDept Urban Affairs and Planning)

Plan prepared and approved under anenvironmental planning instrument (Councils andDept Urban Affairs and Planning)

Facilitates sand and gravel extraction from rivers(Dept Urban Affairs and Planning, Dept Landand Water Conservation and Councils)

Prepared to manage floodplains (Dept Land andWater Conservation and Councils)

Prepared to manage estuaries (Dept Land andWater Conservation)

Prepared to manage coastal areas (Dept Landand Water Conservation and Councils)

Actions and timetables to meet river flow andwater quality objectives (Dept Land and WaterConservation and River ManagementCommittees)

Specify extraction rules for aquifers (Dept Landand Water Conservation and GroundwaterManagement Committees)

Appendix I. Examples of natural resource management plans applying in NSW

Plan name Legislative basis Function (and responsible authority)


R E V I E W

Water management plans

Irrigation land and water managementplans

Land and water management plans

Irrigation and drainage managementplans

Catchment management plans andstrategies

Rivercare plans

Archaeological management plans

Mining Operations Plans

Stormwater management plans

AgreementsProperty management plans

Plan of management relating to aconservation agreement

Soil and water management plan

Plan of management relating to awildlife refuge

Plan of management for land subjectto wilderness protection agreement

Plan of management prepared as acondition of development consent

Informal plansProperty plan of management

prepared by or on behalf of alandowner

Dam foreshore management plans

None

None

None

None

None. Catchment Management Committeesconstituted under Catchment ManagementAct 1989

None

None

None, but may be imposed as a conditionunder the terms of a mining lease underthe Mining Act 1992

Protection of the Environment OperationsAct 1997

Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995and Native Vegetation Conservation Act1997


None. May be imposed as condition ofconsent under the Environmental Planningand Assessment Act 1979


Wilderness Act 1987

None. May be imposed as a condition ofconsent under the Environmental Planningand Assessment Act 1979

None

None

Combined river and groundwater plan in onedocument (Dept Land and Water Conservationand water management committees)

Address environmental management of irrigationareas on farm scale (Dept Land and WaterConservation)

Address dryland land and water management oncatchment scale (Dept Land and WaterConservation)

Associated with WaterWise programme and maybe required as a condition of transfer of waterentitlements (NSW Agriculture and Dept Landand Water Conservation)

Identify total catchment management strategies(Catchment Management Trusts andCommittees)

Rehabilitation of riverine corridors (Dept Land andWater Conservation and Rivercare Groups)

Indicate archaeological potential and managementprovisions (NSW Heritage Office and Councils)

Specify management to be undertaken inaccordance with mining operations, and links toannual environmental management reporting(Dept Mineral Resources)

Prepared to manage stormwater (EnvironmentProtection Authority and councils)

Prepared to accompany property agreements(Dept Land and Water Conservation andNational Parks and Wildlife Service)

Prepared to form part of conservation agreement(National Parks and Wildlife Service)

Requirement of development approval (Councils)

Prepared to manage a gazetted wildlife refuge(National Parks and Wildlife Service)

Prepared to form part of conservation agreement(National Parks and Wildlife Service)

Consideration of development approval process.Site management plans may be prepared byapplicants to accompany application for consent(Councils)

To specify management actions to be undertaken,including expenditures for which tax deductionsapply under the Income Tax Assessment Act1936 (landowners or managers, Dept Land andWater Conservation and NSW Agriculture mayhave advisory functions)

Plans specifying management of dam catchmentareas (Dept Land and Water Conservation)

Appendix I. continued

Plan name Legislative basis Function (and responsible authority)

what makes a good natural resource management plan?

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