what in the world is happening in sport psychology
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What in the world is happeningin sport psychologyRobert N. Singer aa University of Florida , Gainesville, FL, USAPublished online: 14 Jan 2008.
To cite this article: Robert N. Singer (1992) What in the world is happeningin sport psychology, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 4:1, 63-76, DOI:10.1080/10413209208406450
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JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY 4, 63-76 (1992)
I
Coleman Grifith Memorial Lecture
Fifth Annual Conference of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology
San Antonio, TX, September 15, 1990
What in the World is Happening in Sport Psychology
ROBERT N. SINGER
University of Florida Gainesville, FL USA
The field of sport psychology is advancing at a rapid rate in many parts of the world, considering the numbers ofjournals and scholarly articles being produced, the formation of professional societies, and the educational and interventional services being provided to participants in sport and exercise programs. One in- ternational direction in sport psychology research is the study of cognitive pro- cesses associated with excellence in performance. Cognitive and psychological loads associated with different activities are being determined in order to identify how best to optimize such loads. With a comparison of expert and novice per- formers, especially under laboratory sport-simulated conditions, researchers are learning more about how individuals possessing different levels of skill manage and respond to information present in the performance situation. Cognitive con- siderations in the learning and performing of sports skills are receiving more attention by the sport psychology researcher as well as by the consultant.
The Coleman Griffith Memorial Lecture, created by the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology for inclusion in its annual meetings, represents two things. First, a long overdue tribute is paid to a person called “America’s First Sport Psychologist” by Kroll and Lewis (1 97 1). Since that publication, agreement is fairly universal in the designation of that title to a remarkable person. His professional activities varied considerably as a professor of educational psychology at the Uni- versity of Illinois. Besides being an experimentalist and believing strongly that it is “the experimental method that makes psychology a science” (Griffith, 1926, p. 2), he was the first and only Director of the Athletic
Reprint requests should be sent to Robert Singer, Department ofExercise & Sport Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 3261 1.
63 104 1-3200/92/0063-0076S1 .OO/O Copynght I992 by Asmiation for Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology
All nghts of reproduction in any form reserved.
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Research Laboratory at the University of Illinois from 1925 to 1932, and the author of a number of books. He worked with many athletes, primarily football and baseball players. He even consulted with the Chicago Cubs baseball team in 1938 (Kroll & Lewis, 1970).
Second, the Memorial Lecture is a distinct special recognition given to the speaker asked to deliver the presentation in Griffith’s name. The lecture is one of the highest honors that can be bestowed on a sport psychology colleague. Generating a presentation that will be informative and interesting, under the stress of the audience’s high expectations, truly assesses one’s psychological abilities to cope and to perform well. What a good test for a sport psychologist, to apply to oneself the psychological skills we often teach to competitive athletes! I hope that I can meet the formidable task, and that my message would have satisfied Coleman Griffith, should he have been alive today.
SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN A PERIOD OF TRANSITION It is quite an awesome challenge to be knowledgeable of the rapid
developments in sport psychology in all parts of the world. Indeed, keeping up with what is happening in the United States may be a sufficient task for most of us. Consider merely the professional activities of the Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (founded in 1985), the North American Society for Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (established in 1967), the American Psychological Association (Division 47, Exercise and Sport Psychology, formed in 1986), and the Sport Psychology Academy of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (founded in 1979).
Likewise, consider the individual efforts of an increasing number of scholars publishing in sport psychology journals such as the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology (1 979-present), The Sport Psychologist ( 1988-present), the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology (1989-present), and the International Journal of Sport Psychology (1 970-present). Many other journals contain articles dealing with sport psychology on occasion. Books roll off the presses with apparent ease, calling our attention to the psychology of and in sport. Perspectives range from the intuitive to the scientific. A formidable continuous task is staying abreast of new profes- sional directions, the expanding body of available scientific and practical knowledge, as well as educational, intervention and other services that are being offered and could be potentially rendered by professionally- trained consultants (Singer, 1984b).
There are much greater bamers for the sport psychologist who would like to be aware of similar activities on other continents. The obvious are communication problems (language bamers), geographical distances, and the lack of available reference materials. Yet, such limitations are grad- ually being reconciled. More and more opportunities for travel to inter- national conferences and rapidly opening political doors are facilitating the direct exchange of scholarly and programmic ideas. In addition, a
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greater number of international scientists are publishing articles in En- glish. Literature from heretofore relatively “closed” countries (e.g., the former German Democratic Republic, the former Soviet Union, and Cuba) is being circulated more freely in native as well as English languages. Americans should learn more about international perspectives on sport psychology since broadening of horizons and contacts is a meaningful experience both professionally and personally.’ We can also help to make a significant impact on the advancement of sport psychology in many countries in which our wisdom and experience is of invaluable assistance.
SOME HISTORICAL INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES Although not typically recognized in the United States, the history of
sport psychology throughout this century reveals strong traditions estab- lished in the former Soviet Union and Germany as well as in Czechoslo- vakia, Italy, and many other countries (Vanek & Cratty, 1970). The Soviet Union, primarily under the early 20th century influence of Puni, and later Roudik, established influential sport psychology programs at the Uni- versity of Leningrad and at the Moscow Institute of Physical Culture for the training of sport psychologists. Paul Kunath has been renowned for decades for direction he has provided to academic programs and research thrusts in the former German Democratic Republic. The same is true with Miroslav Vanek in Czechoslovakia and Ferruccio Antonelli in Italy.
However, in North America, programs evolved systematically in later years. Although University of Illinois psychologist Coleman Griffith’s many outstanding contributions to the understanding of the potential of sport psychology occurred primarily from the 1920’s to the early 1940’s he had no graduate students to continue his legacy. According to Kroll and Lewis (1 970), “Griffith should properly be remembered as a prophet without disciples” (p. 4). Two of his publications (Griffith, 1926, 1928) make for very interesting reading, especially considering the time in this century when they were written. Griffith headed the first sport psychology research laboratory in America, supported by the University of Illinois. It was closed in 1932 due to financial support difficulties (Kroll & Lewis, 1970). In later years, serious developments in American universities were nurtured in the 1970’s and strengthened in the 1980’s (Wiggins, 1984). But it was the earlier inspired leadership of the Italian, Antonelli, along with European colleagues, that led to the creation of the International Society of Sport Psychology in 1965. In turn, that episode stimulated the formation of the first North American society (the North American So- ciety for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity) in 1967. The official blessing for the major impetus toward the advancement of and recognition for sport psychology here was thereby established.
’ Journals, such as the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology (see the March, I989 issue), as well as various issues of The Sport Psychologist (see, for example, the March, I989 issue for an article on sport psychology in the former German Democratic Republic), are especially helpful in this regard.
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Developments are, of course, rather uneven from country to country, due to many factors. Some countries have benefitted more than others from an economic and educational structure that has provided maximal support and opportunities for expansion. Others may have been dispro- portionately more fortunate in having the presence of inspirational sport psychologists, with great vision and professional motivation. Regardless of specific advantages and disadvantages in various geographical loca- tions, one point is clear: sport psychology is emerging at a rapid rate all over the globe.
It is obvious that an increasing umber of instructional and interven- tional programs are being offered by sport psychologists to athletes and coaches. Research efforts are being expanded as well as becoming more diversified. One contemporary focus of research of increasing interest to scholars from different countries is associated with understanding cog- nitive processes associated with skilled performance. The paradigm for this study is to compare the cognitive capabilities and dispositions of experts versus novices in the same activity. The plan here is to overview research concerned with cognitive aspects of the performance of move- ment skill, especially as contributed to by international colleagues.
IMPACT OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY In the United States, the first half of the 20th century was dominated
by the behavioristic school of thought. Studied were ways for an outsider, e.g., the instructor, to modify environmental settings and orient the learner to be "shaped" to acquire desirable knowledge and behaviors. Much of this information has proven to be valuable. However, the present pop- ularity of cognitive psychology has indicated a completely different di- rection of focus: ". . . the structures and processes of human competence and the nature of the performance system . . ." (Glaser, 1990, p. 29). The nature of processes associated with attention, memory, decision-making, and information processing, especially when differentiating novice and expert systems, are of typical interest.
Experts vs. Novices The recent international thrusts in research on novices versus experts
in motor performance with regard to information processing considera- tions (to be described shortly) has evolved from the paradigms and the body of knowledge associated with contemporary developments in cog- nitive psychology. Glaser ( 1 990) describes three major areas related to these developments, with implications for imparting knowledge in the classroom. However, the themes are extremely applicable to sport settings. From one perspective, Glaser writes, novices and experts are found to differ in the process of proceeding from declarative to procedural knowl- edge: the difference between knowing versus knowing how and when to apply knowledge (Anderson, 1983). High performers, versus beginners, learn how to interpret declarative knowledge to solve problems and achieve goals. They are able to adapt their skills to the demands of the situation.
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They also differ in processing information, proceeding from controlled to automatic processing (Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). Processing at first is slow and conscious, and with sufficient learning experiences, it becomes rapid and effortless. Components (basics) of complex skills need to be automatized to make conscious processing available, if necessary. This is cspecially true for anticipatory behaviors to be refined in dynamic (open skill) sport settings.
Furthermore, experts and novices differ in their use of self-regulatory skills and performance control strategies (Carver & Scheier, 198 1). The highly proficient are effective at (a) monitoring performance, (b) judging task difficulty, (c) determining personal skills, (d) assessing progress, and (e) predicting the outcomes of one’s activities (Glaser, 1990). Such ex- ecutive control processes are put into use. Often termed metacognitive abilities, they underlie achievement in any endeavor. In order to attain success, the appropriate skills and tactics for a sport need to be learned, first of all. However, subsequent performance excellence in vaned com- petitive sport contexts will depend on the use of metacognitions. These relate to “. . . knowing about one’s capabilities and personal status, how to monitor, and how to implement appropriate corrective and adaptive measures” (Singer, 1988, p. 53).
The many contributions of Asiatic and East European societies have led to an understanding of how athletes can control their thoughts and emotions, thereby reducing perceived non-desirable stress and allowing them to perform in a more ideal state. The focus on inappropriate self and external thoughts prior to and during execution can be corrected with appropriate thought-blockage and self-directed thought techniques.
At present, the notion of self-regulation techniques has been expanded considerably, beyond those included in Zen, Yoga, and transcendental meditation that can provide an internal state of calmness. Many cognitive and psychological processes can be under the control of the athlete; indeed, the best athletes are probably so because they have learned to do this! In Europe, especially in the former German Democratic Republic, the study of the demands of each sport on the athlete, referred to as information and psychological loading, is quite interesting and exciting. An under- standing of potential loads in various contexts can lead to the identification of self-corrective approaches that should contribute to the probability of enhanced performance.
Information overloading occurs when there is too much information and too many sources of cues present in the learning/performance context, resulting in the individual not knowing how to allocate attentional re- sources appropriately. Psychological overloading is a function of person- ally meaningful events with uncertain outcomes, the stressors associated with the situation, and the inability to control cognitive and emotional responses. Underloading is the opposite state of affairs. There may be insufficient information present, the event may not be valued by the athlete, the outcome may be fairly certain, or the athlete may have lost interest and motivation. The load has to be clearly defined for effective
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P s y c h o l o g i c a l Load
1 ,J Movement Demands I I 1 1 1
Per fo rmance -S i tua t ion I n f o r m a t i o n Load -
Figure 1 . Information and psychological loading in sport situations.
learning conditions to exist as well as for the demonstration of a perfor- mance level more closely allied with athletic potential.
Loading Considerations Schellenberger (1988), in her presentation at the meetings of the Eu-
ropean Society of Sport Psychology, has provided an excellent perspective that describes loading considerations in sports in general. She addresses the various contributions of psychological, informational, and movement (action) demands in any competitive sport situation that contributes to the load. Schematically, the relation of loading to the human system is as follows. I have interpreted her ideas and taken the liberty to extend them in Figure 1.
Practice and training, according to Schellenberger (1 988), should be directed toward overcoming such loads. The reduction of loads to create an optimal loading state will depend on favorable practice conditions and the subsequent ability to compete while in an appropriate internal state. For example, the training of expert skills requires “real” conditions to be simulated on many occasions in practice. Appropriate motivational states for competition are developed when the type and extent of loads are varied. Excessive psychological loads associated with anxiety can be re- duced, and underloads due to boredom or a lack of motivation should be increased. Internal states can be modified with appropriate self-regu- latory procedures.
With greater psychological and information loads and the demands of complex movements, poorer performance can be predicted. The ability to cope with internally-manufactured loads and externally-imposed loads is a true challenge for the sportsperson to master, especially as such loads are apt to vary from event to event. As Glaser (1990) warns, recent developments in cognitive psychology have contributed much more to “models of competent performances rather [to] models of the acquisition of this performance” (p. 38).
Psychological loads have been of great interest to sport psychologists, as can be judged by the many and vaned techniques proposed for self- control or as external interventions, especially for handling anxieties as- sociated with competition. Likewise, elevating levels of performance through appropriate personally-set goals is also a topic frequently attended to by sport psychologists. Goals play a desirable role in determining action and the quality of that action, concluded Hacker (1988) at the Congress
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of the European Society of Sport Psychology, held in the former German Democratic Republic. He suggested that this is so because goals represent anticipations to attain results through one’s own effort, from a motiva- tional perspective. Goals direct actions, to an extent, and are under the control of the athlete. As a self-regulatory activity, appropriate achieve- ment goals help the athlete to generate the right psychological load for him/her for a particular occasion.
Although many conceptual orientations and research are available to derive other factors that contribute to our understanding of information and psychological loads in various sport contexts and situational de- mands, and how to manage them, the preceding material provides some indication of several contemporary research approaches. Let us now turn to other considerations in research in which the cognitive side of motor learning/performance is of interest. Sport simulations can provide un- derstandings about potential information loads, and a comparison of novices with experts can reveal how they differ in attending to available information.
Sport Simulations As to the examination of information loads and the ability to extract
meaningful information, studies have been designed in laboratory settings in which sports situations are used or are simulated either with film or some apparatus. Expert performers are compared with less-accomplished athletes in certain measures, such as ocular movements and decision- making in ball sports. Such was the case in the study undertaken by Goulet, Bard, and Fleury (1 989), who analyzed eye-movement recordings of ex- pert and novice Canadian tennis players during filmed presentations of various types of serves. Novices were found to use more cues, while experts focussed on more appropriate cues. The speed and accuracy of decision processes were more favorably demonstrated by the experts.
This point is supported by Starkes (1 987) with Canadian hockey players and by Bard and Fleury (1976) in sport situations in general. When a comparison was made of expert baseball players with novice players, differences in visual search patterns were noted between the groups as they viewed pitchers on videotape (Shank & Haywood, 1987). The im- portance of searches for relevant information cues in dynamic sport sit- uations has been underscored by Abernethy and Russell (1987), who studied Australian athletes. As a result of comparing expert with novice badminton players, they concluded that experts picked up earlier advance information than did novices. In summarizing literature from sports and ergonomics, Abernethy (1 988) reports that experts and novices frequently fixate on different cues in a systematic fashion. Performers need to attain desirable information scanning techniques in time-constrained contexts. As pointed out by Goulet, Bard, and Fleury (1989), “Opponents’ behavior and ball trajectory must be analyzed in order to select and execute the proper motor response” (p. 382).
In other studies, the elite in a sport are analyzed to determine how they
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cope with demanding situations requiring a keen and adaptive focus of attention, such as in visually tracking. In the study reported by Ripoll and Fleurance (1 988), French international table tennis players were an- alyzed for eye movements while reacting to balls hit to them and while executing returns. The results revealed that it was not necessary to keep one’s eye on the ball throughout the entire trajectory, a finding noted in other research. This is also contrary to popular beliefs. Scholars are be- coming more aware about the nature of expert systems as to perceptions and actions, in sport in general as well as in specific sports (Glencross, 1989). As Glencross suggested at the 7th World Congress in Sport Psy- chology, understanding human performance involves an understanding of the interaction of the control, energy, structural, and affective systems. Glencross states that “What we are really concerned with is the devel- opment ofexpert systems and how such systems solve or resolve problems within the context of the constraints of the system” (1 989, p. 84).
Top Dutch national table tennis players were required by Bootsma and van Wieringen (1 990) to return balls in a natural setting as quickly and accurately as possible to a target area. Studied was the way in which they operate to meet severe time constraints in order to execute effectively. The subjects did not fully rely on a consistent movement production strategy. They were much more consistent among themselves in timing accuracy (the movement of balVpaddle contact) than in their initiation of the movement. Bootsma and van Wieringen (1990) interpret their finding “to reflect the compensatory nature of the perception-action cou- pling of the player” (p. 27).
Besides visual search and movement timing studies, the nature of catch- ing balls under specified conditions continues to be of interest to re- searchers. Whiting has continued with his earlier work in England (Whit- ing, Gill, & Stephenson, 1970) with recent efforts in The Netherlands (Savelsbergh & Whiting, 1988) to study skill level (good and poor catchers) and catching under different illuminated conditions. Information restric- tions degraded performance as to spatial and temporal errors. From an- other perspective, the role of attention in catching was of interest to Populin, Rose, and Heath (1 990). Ten experts (college varsity baseball players) were compared with 10 non-players in their ability to (1) catch a ball, or (2) process secondary task information (a cue to immediately throw the ball to a target) while executing the primary one-handed catching task. The difficulty in processing secondary task information was shown to be reflected in hand positioning errors rather than grasping errors.
As we can see, cognitive factors involved in excellence in sport per- formance are becoming more delineated and are being studied under more refined laboratory conditions in recent years. Interestingly, similar re- search thrusts can be found in Australia, Europe, and in North America. However, the realization of the importance of cognitive processes in learn- ing and performing skills is by no means a new phenomenon. Perhaps some perspectives to understand current happenings might be helpful here.
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MOTOR LEARNING WITH A COGNITIVE FLAVOR Whereas North Americans conveniently delineate the boundaries of
the substance associated with sport psychology, motor learning, motor control, and motor development, such is not the case in most other coun- tries. There, the terms are used interchangeably. In fact, if we were to review the Proceedings of the European Society of Sport Psychology in 1988, American perceptions would be that a high proportion of the papers might be considered motor learning in nature. Indeed, many of them dealt with cognitive and perceptual considerations. I have always found it un- fortunate when artificial lines of demarcation are drawn. From my own personal-professional perspective, much motor learning research can con- tribute to our understanding of processes, mechanisms, and conditions that are associated with the acquiring of and excelling at athletic skills. Such literature could easily form one of the many bases of sport psy- chology.
The Study of Movements Tracing some historical developments in the United States, we might
note that Franklin Henry, a scholar recognized for decades for his scholarly contributions, exerted a tremendous influence on what motor behaviorists should study. His words constituted “The Doctrine.” He claimed that our (“our” referring to then physical education departments, now termed more and more as kinesiology, exercise and sport science, or movement science departments) preoccupation should be with the study and under- study of movements. This science orientation would be relatively unique to “our” field. Most of his investigations were generated to analyze the nature of and influences on simple motor tasks, typically involving re- action time and movement time in the laboratory. His many doctoral students at the University of California, Berkeley, among the most notable being Schmidt and Selmach, camed the torch. Excellent conceptual and research ideas evolved in this direction, as more was learned about the control processes and mechanisms involved in executing simple motor tasks.
However, at that time in the 1960’s and 1 970’s, some of us were looking for different perspectives. It was apparent that real-life skills, e.g., sport skills, were remarkably complex. High levels of proficiency require the harmony in operation of various cognitive and psychological processes along with coordinated movement to attain defined criteria of excellence. Thus, from that time to the present, I have been challenged with at- tempting to understand cognitive processes that can be shaped with ap- propriate externally-imposed or self-initiated strategies in order to en- hance achievement in motor skills. Various publications have evolved on the nature of strategies in general (Singer, 1977, 1978, 1980, 1984a, 1988; Singer & Cauraugh, 1985; Singer & Gerson, 1979, 198 l), to experimental work on the generality of strategy effectiveness across related motor tasks (e.g., Singer & Cauraugh, 1984; Singer, DeFrancesco, & Randall, 1989; Singer, Flora, & Abourezk, 1989a, I989b; Singer & Suwanthada, 1986).
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Conditions and Strategies Developments in cognitive psychology, as indicated earlier in this pa-
per, have influenced our thinking about cognitive processes and strategies involved in achieving motor skills. For example, the work of Schneider and Shiffren (1977) and Shiffren and Schneider (1977) called to our at- tention the difference between controlled versus automatic processing of information. Automaticity (excellence) implies that the processing of in- formation is rapid and effortless. Attention demands are minimum. Ca- pacity is free from demands: executions can occur without conscious thought, more information can be attended to, and parallel processing is possible. Controlled processing is slow and deliberate. It is under con- scious control. Relating these ideas to sport, beginning athletes undergo the controlled stage, and as skill is developed, are able to switch into the automatic stage. Indeed, skill will not be advanced without the ability to put certain routines in automatic at the right time.
We need to determine the best strategies learners might use to progress through the controlled processing stage in order to advance to the auto- matic processing stage. Indeed, the challenge may be greater to assist better performers to consistently be able to thrive in the automatic pro- cessing stage, as dictated by task demands. A reminder is in order here however. Highly dynamic sport situations oftentimes require the athlete to use a theoretical on-off switch. The best ones seem to know when to be in automatic or when to be under deliberate conscious direction. The latter is especially true in unpredictable, changing conditions where adap- tive behaviors have to be enacted quickly to accommodate the situation.
For many years, Adams has been a traditional behaviorist of great influence on the thinking of motor behaviorists. It is of interest to note his final remarks in an historical paper about motor skills research through the years (Adams, 1987). He writes that “The temptation may arise, if cognitive factors turn out to be important determinants of motor behavior, to view movement as a slave to cognition and to decide that cognitive learning is about all there is to motor learning.” He adds, “That viewpoint would be a simplification, complex though it may be” (p. 66).
We are not at that point to know what to conclude. But apparently, the nature of cognitions and strategies, as well as the ability to suppress conscious activity at the appropriate time of execution, constitute a re- markably viable area for study. The challenge for us is to determine the cognitive demands imposed by each sport on the athlete (considering such individual factors as aptitudes, level of skill, and cognitive style). The more formidable task is to help athletes to help themselves to use cognitive processes wisely and efficiently. This is true throughout the learning pro- cess and in competitive event situations.
A number of sport learning and competitive situations demand the appropriate use of processes associated with informatiQn detection and selection, focused or distributed attention, rapid memory access, problem solving, decision-making, movement preparation and execution, and the use of movement-produced feedback as available. The best athletes per-
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form these operations with apparent ease. They have learned to control internal operations and to direct their behaviors appropriate for the sit- uation they confront. They stabilize and fixate for self-paced activities. They adapt and accommodate to changing and even relatively unpre- dictable circumstances, as in externally-paced events. We still have a long way to go to understand how such complex processes can be mastered, as well as demonstrated in slulled performance with reasonable regularity from event to event.
SOME OBSERVATIONS In the old days, athletes were simply told, “Do it!” Times have changed
dramatically in the sports world. Athletes now are searching everywhere and anywhere to get a performance edge over competitors. More and more of them are even turning to science and technology, although there is still resistance to and fear of the unknown.
Well-nurtured athletic programs today incorporate the latest ideas about movement mechanics in skill execution, conditioning, nutrition, and in- jury prevention and rehabilitation. Sports medicine is the buzz word. In more and more countries, from the more advanced to the developing, sport scientists are being asked by Olympic Committees and other sport organizations to provide guidance for and direct services to athletes. And, as athletes and coaches inquire more seriously about the nature of per- formance excellence, sport psychology is being increasingly turned to as a rich and invaluable source.
Nonetheless, we still need a much better system in the United States to educate coaches. There are no formal programs here associated with universities. Such is not the case elsewhere. Abroad, it is possible to be enrolled in coaching programs for a period of typically one or two years, leading to certification. Would-be national level coaches as well as lower- level coaches receive rich experiences in learning about coaching their specific sports, as well as solid sport science background. Coaching is recognized as a legitimate profession, with special learning experience and requirements. In the United States one goes into coaching by accident or as a result of being a former athlete or a physical education major. Hope- fully, this situation will change in the future.
Returning to sport psychology, to appreciate where we are today think back to the 1960’s. For the most part, sport psychologists didn’t provide many scientific solutions for the concerns of athletes. We were too busy collecting “interesting data.” Now, instead of only offering vague descrip- tions, we are capable of providing useful programs. Newer considerations include analyzing sport-specific cognitive and psychological demands on the competitor. Cognitive and psychological loads present in situations are being identified in order to determine appropriate coping strategies. Designed are educational, interventional, and self-management strategies for athletes to take advantage of, to help them to get that edge they seek.
“For a good many years, ways of doing things on the athletic field and methods of athletic instruction have been passed on from college gener-
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ation to generation without examination and oftentimes without any real factual bases,” Griffith (1 926, p. 3) wrote. He stated further, “The physical sciences are well matured; but the rapid development of the science of psychology is making it clear that the applications of scientific fact to practical affairs will soon cover the mental as well as the physical aspects of life” (p. 3).
Sport psychology research is increasing in number and quality in various directions, with valuable contributions being made from many countries. Because of the diversity of research thrusts, a unique publication and ambitious project entitled Handbook on Research in Sport Psychology (Singer, Murphey, & Tennant, in press) is now underway. Written for the Macmillan Company and sponsored by the International Society of Sport Psychology, the Handbook will attempt to cover a multitude of topics and offer a comprehensive contemporary analysis of the state of our research knowledge.
In spite of the enormous lag between his efforts and renewed activities in the United States in the name of sport psychology, Griffith would no doubt be proud of more recent developments.
It is exciting to be part of a growing and dynamic field such as sport psychology. The challenge is to fulfill the need to develop a substantial base of research from which intelligent applications can be made. We have only begun to appreciate the complex phenomena that are associated with striving and achieving in sport and exercise settings, and the out- comes of such experiences. Hopefully, major understandings through in- ternational interactions will be forthcoming during this decade, through the dedication and intellectual work generated by sport psychologists everywhere.
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Manuscript received October, 1990, revision accepted May, 199 1.
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