AUGUST, 1950 453

0 WHAT DOES INDUSTRY EXPECT OF THE INORGANIC CHEMIST?

I. F. AUDRIETH Noyes Laboratory of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois

WHEN producers of a chemical commodity wish to improve the quality of a particular product, or extend its uses, or expand outlets for it, they undertake a market survey. Actual and potential consumers are consulted to determine if the particular material meets specifications with respect to quality. Samples may be offered for test and application research. The superior- ity of the commodity in question over competitive arti- cles of commerce is cited in an effort to arouse latent or dormant interest. Possible uses may be discussed with potential customers in an effort to cause those who have lacked information or who may have been prejudiced to undertake their own tests and studies. Opinions are solicited from old and new customers and from possible clients. Every effort is then made to satisfy the legiti- mate demands of the user of the commodity.

As educators we, too, have a production job on our hands! It is an even more important one because we deal with the "human" raw material in its formative years. How we shape, mold, and develop the student affects not only the prospective employer who is inter- ested in the services of our "product" but, more im- portant, it affects the human being who comes under our influence.

A preliminary survey was therefore conducted among a selected group of professional chemists outside of the academic fold. Each one was asked to express an opinion on the training of inorganic chemists. Replies were based only in part on the following questions which were submitted in order to help each one formu- late an opinion: 1. Where can inorganic chemists be used in your

organization? In the chemical and allied in- dustries?

2. What other technical fields need the services of inorganic chemists?

3. What background do you expect of prospective

employees who come to you as "Inorganic Chemists"?

4. The statement is often made, "We want our em- ployees trained in the fundamentals of chem- istry." What do you believe is implied by this statement?

5. If inorganic chemists are poorly trained does the fault lie in descriptive or theoretical knowl- edge?

6. Do you believe that some chemical engineering background is desirable for an inorganic chem- ist?

Replies were enlightening and significant. A num- ber of the respondents agreed to allow their statements to be made a matter of record. Their comments follow below. On the basis of this preliminary survey certain very definite conclusions may be presented:

1. Inorganic chemistry is not to be confused with general chemistry, nor with physical chemis- try.

2. Modification of undergraduate chemical curricula to include an advanced level course in "inor- ganic chemistry" is definitely needed.

3. Training in "fundamentals" implies a thorough background in physical chemistry.

4. Systematic descriptive inorganic chemistry to- gether with some background in chemical engineering, is desirable.

5. Inorganic chemists find employment in the re- search, development, production, sales, and management phases of chemical industry; their services are distinctive in such borderline fields as metallurgy and ceramics.

6. The academician, responsible for the training of chemists and chemical engineers with speciali- zation in the field of inorganic chemistry, needs

to do an advertising and sellmg job to better acquaint actual and potential employers of the potentialities of men and women with training in inorganic chemistry.

The following comments were contributed by various sources.

FROM I. F. YNTEMA Director of Research, Fansteel Metallurdcal Corp., North Chicago, Illinois

There is a good historical reason for the lack of inter- est in inorganic chemistry in this country. The founders of the American school of chemistry were trained in Europe during a period in which organic and physical chemistry were new and interesting fields, and in which inorganic chemistry was mainly concerned with the analysis of minerals and similar materials. It is only natural that these men were attracted by the new developments, and that they continued work in these fields upon their return to America. As a result, inorganic chemistry suffered both in emphasis and in the number of men engaged.

The courses in inorganic chemistry were very largely described as general chemistry and were given in the freshman year. These courses were and are still often taught by men mainly interested in other fields.

A very natural result was that students, upon com- pletion of their work in chemistry, which contained a limited amount of inorganic taken in the freshman year and physical and organic taken later in the course, assumed that the latter constituted more important fields of the science. If they elected to carry on gradu- ate work, it was usually in the fields of physical or organic. This maldistribution of emphasis has of course not been the rule in a number of schools such as Cornell and Illinois.

I believe it imperative that chemistry majors be re- quired to take a course in inorganic which corresponds in its requirements to the advanced level of other junior and senior courses.

I have been out of touch with the teaching of inor- ganic chemistry for a number of years, hut it appears that students are not receiving an opportunity to learn enough fundamental descriptive information.

Some chemical engineering training shonld be in- cluded in the curriculum. Modern languages, French and German, shonld also he required. The inorganic chemist should have a reasonable understanding of analytical equipment; he shonld know what contrihu- tions X-ray and spectrographic analysis can make to the solution of inorganic problems.

It is of interest to note that a number of important contributions to metallurgy have been made by inor- ganic ohemists. The classical example of this is, of course, the development of the technology of tant,alum by Dr. C. W. Balke. It appears that only a well- trained inorganic. chemist has the point of view re- quired for some of these difficult jobs.

FROM R. A. PENNEMAN Section Leader, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, New Mexico

The materials produced by the Atomic Energy Com- mission are primarily inorganic and, as such, have opened a great new field for inorganic chemists. In my opinion, inorganic chemists should have a considerable background of factual information hut arranged against a framework of theoretical principles of both inorganic and physical chemistry. The failure of training is often the result of trying to cram with detailed descrip- tive chemistry without theoretical guidance to order the facts, which are then promptly forgotten.

When students, chemists shonld have more practice thinking along lines as they must do in a later research capacity. A start along this direction could easily he made in connection with the many "research papers" the student is called on to write during his training. In addition to an orderly presentation of the literature sur- vey it would he desirable to view the project as a start- ing point for research and submit suggestions along such lines as: What points in this field are poorly covered? What new lines of research are suggested in this or re- lated fields? Is there a theory which wonld indicate possible directions of approach? What equipment could be used advantageously?

Some background in chemical engineering would be helpful. In addition, exposure to the rapidly growing field of instrumentation would be valuable, since there are a multitude of research aids with which many chemists are unfamiliar.

FROM E. 0. BRlMM Division Head, Laboratory, Linde Air Produds Company, Tona- wanda, New York

First of all, what is an inorganic chemist? I wonld define him, in a negative way, as one who is not working exclusively with reactions or properties of carbon com- pounds, and, in a positive way, as one who has particular knowledge of the reactions and properties of inorganic compounds and has a background in physical and ana- lytical chemistry. His training should be broad both in descriptive knowledge-what compounds are known, how they are prepared, and how they react under vari- ous conditions--and in theoretical knowledge-what we know about structures, energetics, rates, and mecha- nisms of reaction. Obviously if he is trained exclu- sively in the latter, he is not an inorganic chemist, but what we choose to d e h e as a physical chemist.

If recent hooks are an indication, the trend in inor- ganic chemistry is toward structural chemistry. Such books as "Anorganische Strnktnr-Chemie" by Hiickel; "Crystal Chemistry" by Evans; "Crystal Chemistry" by Stillwell; "Electronic Theory of Chemical Binding" by Rice; and "Nature of the Chemical Bond" by Paul- ing are concerned primarily with this approach, and "Modern Aspects of Inorganic Chemistry" by Emeleufi and Anderson includes this factor where feasible. Re- cent graduates have not had training in this field.

AUGUST, 1950 455

I believe, then, that training in inorganic chemistry should be broad in descriptive matter, taught from the standpoint of structure, with subsidiary courses solely on molecular and crystal structure. Advanced courses in analytical chemistry, and, especially, physical chem- istry should be taken.

The number of graduates who major in inorganic chemistry is small. This may be a result of a small de- mand for men with such training. It is more likely that this is a result of limited contact with the field. In most clases the only experience with inorganic chemistry is in the freshman year. The feeling seems to be that if taught to freshmen, the subject must be limited.

A fault in the teaching of inorganic chemistry is that undue emphasis is placed on aqueous solutions. Al- though many materials are prepared commercially in aqueous solution, there are many fields which are non- aqueous. Metallurgical processes depend for their suc- cess on the properties of the slags, which are molten inorganic solutions, and which have been developed on an empirical basis only. The viscosity of a slag is im- portant and could be considered as a property of a truly inorganic polymer. Related to this is the field of ceramics-glass, enamels, firing of clays, etc. The field of phosphors for fluorescent lights and cathode ray tubes is inorganic and in general involves reactions of and diffusion in solids. Some consideration should he given to properties and reactions a t high temperatures.

I n answer to your specific questions: 1. We are interested in commercializing new fields

in inorganic cbernistry. As a result, we need men who know descriptive chemistry and who have training in physical chemistry and the theoretical side of inorganic chemistry. We need broad knowledge since the work is exploratory in nature. We also are interested in synthetic single crystals. In allied companies we are interested in inorganic chemistry as applied to prepara- tion of metals and extraction from ores.

2. Fields which need the services of inorganic chem- ists are:

(a) Metallurgy (d) Fine Chemicals (b) Ceramics ( e ) Heavy Chemicals (c) Phosphors (f) Catalysis

3. See Item 1. 4. The fundamentals of chemistry are covered in the

subject of physical chemistry, and they are applicable no matter what descriptive chemistry is considered. The fields of chemistry, other than physical chemistry, differ primarily in the descriptive material which is con- sidered. 5. It is our experience that poor training is largely a

lack of theoretical knowledge. 6. A survey course in chemical engineering is de-

sirable but not necessary. When a research program is to be commercialized, and this is the goal of industrial research, it is desirable to have, or obtain, information which will enable one to translate the process to large-

scale operation. A knowledge of the factors which are involved in large-scale operation is helpful. In larger organizations it seldom is necessary for the research man to do the development work; he will, however, assist the development group.

A more important consideration is that the man real- izes he was hired to enable the company to increase its income. This means he must be able to suggest new problem and decide when a program should be aban- doned, as well as to solve problems. This is a matter of judgment and experience, and it cannot be taught in a course.

The technical knowledge of a man is important, but it is not the only consideration. Research in industry, as well as increasingly in other organizations, is carried on by teams. I t is important that people be able to work with others.

FROM I. W. REYNARD Personnel Division, E. I. dn Pont de Nemours and Company, Wzlmington, Delaware

In du Pont we are not so much concerned about the training of inorganic chemists as we are about the fact that so few students are doing advanced work specifi- cally in this field. Many who call themselves inorganic chemists in reality are physical chemists. We are inter- ested in individuals with this type of training but I am simply emphasizing the need for more training of the pure inorganic type. I n our Company, we use inor- ganic men in several of our departments for research and development, technical service, laboratory control, and other functions depending upon their level of train- ing. The better the students are trained to appreciate that each inorganic element is just as full of possibilities for interesting research as the elements carbon and nitro- gen have proved to be, the more useful they will he in industrial research.

I feel that more emphasis should be given to theoreti- cal material (and less to descriptive information). I am afraid that interest in inorganic chernistrv mav have been lacking in the past because so many "of t6e text books and courses consisted of discussing one element after another, describing physical properties, chemical properties, reactions, etc. If a more basic framework of information could be set up and broad generalizations established, then the student should be able to fill in the details. So far as graduate students are concerned, we fee1 that training in analytical, physical, and organic chemistry should supplement the inorganic study, and for many of our positions some courses in chemical engi- neering are quite advantageous. Industrial problems call on many phases of a man's training and it appears unwise to specialize too completely in graduate school.

PROM C. A. STlEGMAN Technical Director, Oldbury Electro-Chemical Co., Niagara Falls, New York

The granting of a degree is only the beginning in the making of an inorganic chemist, and I feel that a mis-

456 JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION

take is made by some universities in attempting to turn FROM S. S. KI.SI"I'ER out a finished product in the short time allowed. The Associate Director of Research, Norton Company, Worcester, student would have a better foundation upon which to Massachusetts continue his education after graduation if more empha-

I think that the largest single defect that I have sis were given to teaching him how to scientifically observed in inorganic chemists of my acquaintance has approach and analyze a problem and if more emphasis been their too meager knowledge of structure in crystals were given to develop a scientific method of thinking. and its physical significance, If this criticism is a valid

Less emphasis should be placed on cramming the mind one, it would indicate that a course in crystal chemistry of the student with all kinds of chemical facts and fig- would be in order, I l m O ~ u.uu.

Most young graduates are lacking, as you say, "in the fundamentals of chemistry." Specifically, we have found college graduates who were unahle to set up the simple proportions necessary for calculating reactants and others who could not compute the grams per liter of oxalic acid required to make up a normal solution when used as an acid or as a reducing agent. These same individuals could talk in a general way about the shifting of electrons from one orbit to another and had all the words necessary to discuss the inconstancies of Planck's constant. In general, a student should he taught how to reason and how to apply the fundamen- tals of chemistry. Less effort should be made to cover a smattering of all the fields of science embodiedin chemistry.

The graduate has very little idea of what-his job will consist and of what is expected of hi in industry. Courses should be includedin the curriculum to familiar- ize him with such things as the economics in industrial research, the steps necessary in developing a commercial chemical, the functions of the various divisions in a chemical company, the availability and cost of chemi- cals and their relationship to a research program, etc. The students should have some idea of how a chemical company operates.

The student should have the opportunity to familiar- ize himself with the different positions in industry utiliz- ing inorganic chemists. The chemical market research men should have courses in general business. This applies equally to those contemplating chemical sales or technical service work. Those planning to obtain a position in production should have courses in employer- employee relationship and factory management. We use inorganic chemists in all these fields, including re search and development.

The general idea of having a final examination as the crux of the student's life is, in my estimation, poor in that it continually presents a short-term criterion. If one passes, he is a success; if one fails, he is a failure. In an industrial job, there are no systematic climaxes such as these to continuallyincite the individual toeffort; hence a lot of otherwise good men go "sour" by uncon- sciously letting down in their first industrial jobs.

We think it is desirable for our chemists to have a short course of unit processes in the chemical engineer- ing background. The few poorly trained inorganic chemists I have known were lacking in descriptive rather than in theoretical knowledge.

The chemist usually goes through life with the the- oretical background that he gets in college. Ae learns many additional facts, particularly of an applied nature, subsequently but his theorizing is generally pretty primitive if he has not had a very thorough foundation in chemical and physical theory a t the university. Therefore, I would stress, in a course designed to turn out high grade inorganic chemists, a considerable amount of physical chemistry, electrochemistry, crystal chemistry, and as much theory in these fields as can be crammed in, relying upon him to learn the applications afterwards.

So much of what a chemist encounters in industry eventually leads to problems of flow of heat, flow of fluids, crushing, drying, etc., that the fundamentals of chemical engineering are a valuable background for him to have.

FROM W. I. PATNODE

Assistant to the General Manager, Nucleonics Department, Gen eral Electric Company, Richland, Washington

Referring to graduate chemists a t the B.S. level, I have never been in favor of narrowing their education to the point where a limiting descriptive term, such as ,<. inorganic chemist," "analytical chemists," etc., would

be meaningful. The longer I stay in technical work and the more graduates I see simply confirm this view. 1 believe that industry is best served by graduates who understand basic science, who are aware of the relation- ships between the various fields of study, and who eom- prehend the philosophy of the scientific method of analysis and solution of problems. Whether his per- sonal preference and primary interest are in physics, chemistry, biology, etc., is of secondary importance providing that he understands the fundamental princi- . ples that underlie all sciences, and is able to use mathe- matics and think clearly. I believe that the wide- spread criticism of technical education that one hears today is valid; namely, that too many men are earning degrees by the process of "once over lightly," not only of the unimportant subjects hut of the important ones as well. Too many of our recent graduates know what science and engineering are about but do not tenderstand them adequately to justify the time and expense of the effort. The limitation of technical education to narrow fields for the purpose of producing specialists is the province of trade schools. Colleges and universities following this practice should give special degrees.

AUGUST, 1950 457

I believe that a certain amount of specialization is necessary and desirable in graduate education leading to the Ph.D. Here the terms "inorganic chemist," "analytical chemist," etc., can have real meaning in the sense that the individual is first of all a scientist and secondly has his primary interest and knowledge in the named field. It should be understood, however, that the name denotes the field of interest of the past several years and does not necessarily predict the future. By the further expenditure of like effort the same individual could earn another descriptive name, and occasionally does.

I believe the inorganic chemist should be familiar with the properties of all of the elements and their compounds with the exception of the carbon compounds which provide a special field of their own. This is not as diffi- cult as it once was since our knowledge of atomic stmc- ture and ionic species is now much more comprehensive and generalized. In addition to this general knowledge the individual should have a specialty that he knows

intimately and to which he has probably made contribu- tions of knowledge. This field may be theoretical, descriptive, or methodological, and makes no difference so long as the knowledge is thorough and the interest to increase it keen.

I stress the importance of an understanding of basic knowledge and of an awareness of the interrelationships of the sciences in order to introduce an element of versa- tility. The most successful industrial scientists I know are able to distinguish between important and unim- portant activities in their broad fields of sciedce, and they hold their views on the basis of their own knowl- edge. This implies comprehensive knowledge of the field, the ability to assemble facts, and to recognize important leads that turn up in research. We ex- pect an industrial scientist not only to "work on" a problem but to finish it and begin a new one. There are few men more unfortunate than the highly trained specialist who has worked himself out of a job by bril- liant performance and has nowhere else to turn.