COVER SHEET

This is the author-version of article published as: Lim, Ros and Patton, Wendy (2006) What Do Career Counsellors think their clients expect from their services? Are they right?. Australian Journal of Career Development 15(2):pp. 32-41. Accessed from http://eprints.qut.edu.au © 2006 Australian Council for Educational Research

WHAT DO CAREER COUNSELLORS THINK THEIR CLIENTS

EXPECT FROM THEIR SERVICES? ARE THEY RIGHT?

Dr Ros Lim and Prof. Wendy Patton

School of Learning and Professional Studies

Queensland University of Technology

Contact: Dr Ros Lim

School of Learning and Professional Studies

Queensland University of Technology

roslim@iinet.net.au

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Authors’ Note

Ros Lim, PhD, is a part-time career counsellor at a secondary school in Queensland and

a sessional lecturer and curriculum writer at the Queensland University of Technology.

She has had experience as a career counsellor in schools, universities, and private

practice. Career counselling and career education are her current professional interests.

E-mail: roslim@iinet.net.au.

Professor Wendy Patton is Head of the School of Learning and Professional Studies at

Queensland University of Technology. She has worked in career development for many

years and has particular interests in career change and career development over the

lifespan, and support for individuals engaging in these processes.

E-mail: w.patton@qut.edu.au.

2

Abstract

Consistent with calls for a greater marketing emphasis to be included in career

counselling practice, this study uses marketing concepts to explore the relationship

between the expectations people in career transition have of a career counselling service

and the perceptions career counselling service providers have of these expectations. The

study used the Expectations About Career Counselling survey to gather data from 481

transitioners and practitioners. The results of the study showed a gap between

practitioner perceptions and transitioner expectations. Implications for career

counsellors based on the results are discussed.

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WHAT DO CAREER COUNSELLORS THINK THEIR CLIENTS

EXPECT FROM THEIR SERVICES? ARE THEY RIGHT?

New trends, perspectives and initiatives that have important implications for the future

of career counselling services have emerged in recent years in response to the changes

that are occurring in the world of work. They include new theoretical approaches (Chen,

2003; Patton & McMahon, 1999), a call for career counsellors to be more accountable

(Foskett, 2001; Patton & McMahon, 1999; Scott, 1999; Watts & Van Esbroeck, 1998),

a repositioning of career counselling within the marketplace (Herr, 2003; OECD, 2004;

Watts, 2000), government initiatives in the area of career guidance services

(MCEETYA, 2004; Miles Morgan Australia, 2002), and an increased reliance on user-

pays career services (Miles Morgan Australia, 2002). Given these challenging

conditions, Watts (2000) suggested that if the traditional providers of career counselling

services, whether private or government funded, are to continue to provide effective

services to clients and not be marginalised within the career industry, they need to shift

from a “provider-driven to a consumer-driven culture” (p. 309).

In effect, career counselling providers may benefit from adopting a marketing

orientation. Marketing has been defined as “human activity directed at satisfying needs

and wants through exchange processes” (Kotler, Chandler, Gibbs, & McColl, 1989, p.

4). The goal of a marketing approach is to maintain a client base by delivering quality

services. In their development of a service quality model, Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and

Berry (1985) identified five gaps in an organisation’s service provision that can

influence client quality perceptions. Gap 1 in this model refers to differences between

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client expectations and provider perceptions of these expectations. The assumption is

that “the smaller the gap, the higher the quality of the service” (Bordley, 2001, p. 300).

The current study takes up the marketing challenge by undertaking a Gap 1 analysis of

career counselling through an exploration of the relationship between the expectations

people in career transition have of a career counselling service and the perceptions

career counselling service providers have of client expectations.

A MARKETING PERSPECTIVE OF CAREER COUNSELLING SERVICES

In the marketing literature a career counselling service is identified as a professional

service product. Professional services are said to have unique characteristics. These

include intangibility (the service can not be handled and examined before consumption),

variability (quality may differ among service providers), credence quality (the client

frequently lacks the skills or knowledge to assess the quality of the service), high

involvement (the client has a personal stake in the outcomes of the service), the use of

professional judgment, professional autonomy, and customisation of the service

(Bateson, 2002; Hausman, 2003; Ziethaml & Bitner, 2000).

EXPECTATIONS

The definition of expectations has been a topic of some debate both in the counselling

and the marketing literature. In the counselling literature, expectations are defined as

anticipations (what people think they will get) or as preferences (what people want or

desire) (Galassi, Crace, Martin, James, & Wallace,1992; Galassi, Martin, Crace, &

James, 1992; Tinsley, 1992; Tracey, 1992). In the marketing literature three service

expectations have been identified – desired service, adequate service, and predicted

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service (Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1993). Further, Ojasalo (2001) found that

clients of professional services may have fuzzy (the client expects a change but is

unsure of what this might be), implicit (elements of the service are self-evident and may

not consciously be thought of by the client), or unrealistic (impossible or highly

unlikely) expectations because of the nature of a professional service.

The current research project defines expectations as client desires (i.e., what the client

would prefer or want from a career counselling service). This definition was chosen

because previous research has shown that clients (including potential clients) may not

know what an adequate service is or what to anticipate (Blanton & Larrabee, 1999;

Watts, 2000). In addition, there is some evidence to suggest that individuals may have a

clearer idea of what they want from a service than of what they think will happen during

its delivery (Galassi, Crace, et al., 1992). Finally, expectations of desired service have

been found to be more enduring (Walker & Baker, 2000; Zeithaml et al., 1993). In the

services marketing literature, client expectations are said to be derived from enduring

service intensifiers (e.g., personal philosophy about what services should provide),

personal needs, explicit and implicit service promises (e.g., a high cost means a better

service), word of mouth communications, and past experiences (Zeithmal et al., 1993).

PREVIOUS RESEARCH

Research studies in the career development literature that have compared client

expectations of counselling with counsellor expectations and/or perceptions have been

limited (Howieson & Semple, 2000; Galassi, Crace, et al., 1992; Rochlen, Mohr, &

Hargrove, 1999) and their findings inconsistent. For example, Anderson and Niles

(2000) found a high level of agreement between counsellors and clients about important

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and helpful events in career counselling. Other studies, however, have found differences

between clients and counsellors. Millar and Brotherton (2001) found significant

differences between students and advisers. The career advisers thought they would

display more facilitative behaviours and characteristics than did the students. Also,

students thought the career advisers would be more directive than their career advisers

preferred. Howieson and Semple (2000) also found differences between students and

guidance personnel. These differences concerned issues of confidentiality and how well

the students felt their guidance teachers knew them. In her study based on counsellor

perceptions, Tatar (2000) found that counsellors attributed higher expectations to their

students as compared to their own expectations concerning informational, instrumental

and emotional support. In the marketing literature, research into industries similar to

career counselling (e.g., education and health services) has found a gap between client

expectations and provider perceptions of client expectations (e.g., Janda, Wang, & Rao,

1996; Shank, Walker, & Hayes, 1995). Further, research that has compared client and

counsellor expectations in the general counselling literature has tended to show a lack of

agreement between the two groups (e.g., Tinsley, Bowman, & Barich, 1993; June &

Smith, 1983; Tryon, 1999).

In summary, it appears that most previous research has found a gap between client

expectations and provider perceptions. The current study extends the research of this

relationship by exploring the career counselling expectations (desired) of a sample of

people in three career transition groups and the perceptions of practitioners who provide

career counselling services to these groups. As the present study is exploratory, it aims

only to investigate a number of research questions, as follows:

What are the expectations people in career transition have of a career

counselling service?

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What perceptions do career counselling service providers have of client

expectations?

What is the relationship between the expectations people in career transition

have of a career counselling service and the perceptions career counselling

service providers have of client expectations?

In reporting the results of this study no distinction is made between people in career

transition who have experienced a career counselling service and those who have not.

Research findings in the counselling literature relating to differential expectations based

on previous experience with counselling are inconclusive. Several researchers have

suggested that nonclient expectations of counselling are likely to be different from those

of clients (e.g., Hardin & Subich, 1985; Subich & Coursol, 1985; Tinsley, Hinson, Holt,

& Tinsley, 1990). However, these researchers have found no significant difference

between clients and nonclients in terms of their expectations of counselling. Conversely,

a small number of studies have found some differences based on previous experience

(e.g., AEgisdottir & Gerstein, 2000; Kunkel, 1990). Nevertheless, most of the previous

expectation research has not differentiated between clients and nonclients (e.g., Hardin

& Yanico, 1983; Rochlen & O’Brien, 2002; Subich, 1983; Tinsley, Brown, de St Aubin,

& Lucek, 1984).

METHOD

Participants

The career transition participants included Year 12 students, final year university

students, and adults in career transition. The career practitioners were from three groups

(those working primarily in schools, in tertiary institutions, and with clients not in

education or training). A total of 481 volunteer participants submitted useable

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questionnaires. Table 1 provides demographic information, number of questionnaires,

and recruitment source for the participant groups.

Insert Table 1 here

Procedure

During the recruitment stage, a questionnaire was distributed through the chief

researcher’s professional contacts. A total of 536 participants completed questionnaires.

Following collection, the questionnaires were screened and 55 were removed from the

data pool due to incomplete (i.e., one or more questions were not answered) or

unsatisfactory (e.g., obvious patterned responses, especially from some of the Year 12

students) data, leaving a total of 481 useable questionnaires.

Instruments

The questionnaire distributed to people in career transition consisted of a number of

measures including the Expectations About Career Counselling (EACC) survey and

demographic items. Career practitioners were asked to complete a questionnaire

containing the EACC and demographic items. Data from the Expectations About Career

Counselling (EACC) survey only will be reported here.

Expectations About Career Counselling survey (EACC)

Despite an extensive search, no instrument which specifically measured the

expectations of career counselling was found. Therefore, an instrument used extensively

in general counselling expectation research, the Expectations About Counselling-Brief

Form (EAB-B; Tinsley, 1982), was modified for the current study via an extensive

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process which incorporated focus group and single subject interviews with people in

career transition and career counsellors respectively. Details of this process and the

development of the EACC along with its psychometric properties can be found in Lim,

Patton and Spooner-Lane (paper submitted, 2006).

The EACC measures an individual’s expectations (desired) of career counselling via

four reliable factors – Career Counsellor Responsibility, Quality Outcome, Client

Responsibility, and Realism (see Table 2 for a description). Alphas for the factors range

from .79 to .92, with an overall alpha of .91. The EACC is a 62 item measure, with item

stems of ‘I expect’ or ‘I expect the career counsellor’. A seven point Likert scale

(adapted from the EAC-B; Tinsley, 1982) is used, with response alternatives of ‘Not

true’, ‘Slightly true”, ‘Somewhat true’, ‘Fairly true’, ‘Quite true’, ‘Very true’, and

‘Definitely true’. The instructions for the EACC distributed to people in career transition

asked participants to respond to the items based on what they would want from a career

counselling service. The guidelines for career practitioners asked them to respond to the

items as if they were one of their clients about to attend their first career counselling

interview.

Insert Table 2 here

RESULTS

Expectations and perceptions of a career counselling service

The mean scores for people in career transition and for career counsellors on the four

subscales of the EACC were computed in the first instance (see Table 3). These scores

were based on the 1 – 7 response scale (the higher the score, the higher the expectation).

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To compare the results for the four subscales, response frequencies and percentages

were calculated for each subscale. For descriptive purposes, an expectation level was

allocated to each point on the 1 – 7 response scale of the EACC, from 1 (Not true) = No

expectations to 7 (Definitely true) = Very high expectations.

Insert Table 3

The findings indicated that the people in career transition participants had high to very

high expectations for Career Counsellor Responsibility (88.8%) and Quality Outcome

(86.9%), moderate to high expectations for Client Responsibility (79.1%), and low

moderate to moderate expectations for Realism (62.8%). Findings for the career

counsellor participant group showed that they perceived their clients to have high to

very high expectations for Career Counsellor Responsibility (87.9%), high expectations

for Quality Outcome (93.4%), and moderate expectations for Client Responsibility

(87.8%), and Realism (78.6%).

The relationship between transitioner expectations and counsellor perceptions

A between-subjects MANOVA was performed to test for differences in counsellor

perceptions and transitioner expectations on the four subscales of the EACC. Box’s M

test for homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices revealed that homogeneity of

variance was contravened at the recommended significance level of 0.001 and therefore

a more robust criterion, Pillai’s Trace, was used to evaluate multivariate tests of

significance. A Bonferroni type adjustment was performed to reduce the possibility of

inflated Type 1 error (0.5 divided by 2 = .0125). With a 95% confidence interval level,

significant differences in counsellor perceptions and transitioner expectations were

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found for Realism, Client Responsibility, and Quality Outcome. Table 3 demonstrates

that career counsellors scored significantly higher on Realism than career transitioners.

Also, career counsellors scored significantly lower on Client Responsibility and Quality

Outcome than career transitioners.

These results indicate that the career practitioners underestimated the preparedness of

clients to be committed, realistic and open to new learning during a career counselling

interview. They also underestimated the desire of clients for a practical, concrete

outcome through a quality interview process. In addition, they overestimated the

unrealistic expectations of clients concerning the career decision-making process and

the role of the career counsellor in this process.

DISCUSSION

The finding that the perceptions of client expectations held by practitioner participants

differed from the expectations reported by the participants in career transition is

consistent with the outcomes of a number of studies in the career counselling, general

counselling, and professional services marketing literature mentioned previously (e.g.,

Howieson & Semple, 2000; Janda et al., 1996; Millar & Brotherton, 2001; Shank et al.,

1995; Tatar, 2000). Findings from the current study and from previous research are

relevant to an understanding of the expectation/perception gap between transitioners

and practitioners. The current study found that people in career transition have firm

expectations concerning the facilitative behaviours and characteristics of the career

counsellor about obtaining a concrete outcome from a career counselling interview and

playing an active role in the career counselling process. However, their expectations

about the career decision-making process and the role of the career counsellor are less

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certain. As Ojasalo (2001) found, these expectations may be fuzzy or unrealistic and,

perhaps, unformulated.

It is suggested that these firm and unformulated expectations are derived from a

combination of factors including the characteristics of a professional service, such as

career counselling, and the needs and beliefs of clients. The characteristics of a

professional service, described earlier, create difficulty for the client in knowing what to

expect from the service. In addition, clients present at a career counselling interview

with needs (i.e., an issue they want resolved which may be causing discomfort and

anxiety) and beliefs (about what professional services should deliver based on past

experiences, advertising, and information obtained from their social network). All of

these factors contribute to the expectations clients present at a career counselling

interview.

Career counsellors, on the other hand, may perceive the client’s presenting expectations

as firm expectations that reflect the client’s desire for the counsellor to solve his or her

concern by providing information and advice through a quick and simple process. While

generalisations can not be made concerning the theoretical foundations of the practices

of all career counsellors, it is likely that career counsellors in general do not see

themselves as experts who solve the client’s concern by providing information alone or

by telling the client what to do with his or her life. Consequently, a career counsellor

may interpret the client’s presenting expectations as unrealistic – thus producing a gap

between client expectations and practitioner perceptions of these expectations (see

Figure 1).

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Insert Figure 1

The limitations of the present study relate to the generalisability of the findings,

sampling issues, and reliability factors. In terms of generalisabilty, a sample only was

used from the career transitioner and career practitioner groups. Also, not all career

transition groups were sampled. Subjects were primarily from one geographical location

and numbers in some groups were small. Further, the project did not explore for cultural

and individual differences. Sampling issues relate to the fact that all participants were

volunteers and were recruited through the chief researcher’s professional network. In

addition, at this stage in the development of the EACC, internal reliability data only can

be reported as no test retest data is available.

Nevertheless, because the findings relating to the differences in expectations and

perceptions found in this study are supported by similar previous research, several

implications based on the findings of the current study can be suggested. First, career

counsellors need to clarify the presenting expectations of their clients as an essential

step in establishing goals for the interview and review achievement of these goals at the

completion of an interview. Second, career counsellors need to educate their clients

about the career decision-making process and the role of the counsellor in this process.

This education process could begin before the interview with information on brochures

and websites. Also, career counsellors need to allocate dedicated time to career

counselling interviews (this can sometimes be a problem in schools where the career

counsellor is also responsible for personal counselling). In addition, career counsellors

need to ensure their clients leave an interview with a concrete, tangible outcome (e.g., a

written plan of action, strategies and skills for seeking further information, handouts,

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brochures, and a list of contacts). Finally, career counsellors need to have formal

training in counselling to provide the level of facilitative support expected by clients.

As there is a dearth of research in the area of client expectations of career counselling

services, the findings of the current study need to be tested through future research.

Further research is also needed to test the validity and reliability of the EACC and its

usefulness as a research instrument.

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Table 1 Number of useable questionnaires, gender, age range, and recruitment source for the

participant groups

Gender Participant groups Number of useable question-

naires M F

Age range (in years)

Recruitment source

Year 12 students

132

21

111

15 - 19

A state high school and a private girl’s school

Final year university students

115

24

91

20 - 29

4 public universities

Adults in career transition

127

40

87

30 - 59

A centre for continuing secondary education, a Career Information Centre, a TAFE institute, the Qld Tertiary Admissions Centre

Career counsellors: 107 41 66 30 - 59 -in schools

64

-in tertiary institutions

10

-with clients not in education or training

31

-unidentified

2

Members of the Qld Guidance and Counselling Association and the Australian Association of Career Counsellors

Total

481

126

355

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Table 2 Description and number of items for the EACC factors

EACC factors Number of items

Description

Career Counsellor Responsibility

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High expectations for this subscale indicate a high desire for a career counsellor who is trained, displays positive attitudes towards the client, is supportive, and can assist the client to progress his or her career decision-making.

Quality Outcome

14 High expectations on this subscale indicate a strong desire to have a concrete, practical outcome from career counselling through a quality interview process. A practical, concrete outcome includes specific information (on occupations, education and training pathways, employment opportunities), tangibles (brochures, handouts to take away, etc.), and an outcome that progresses the client’s career decision-making. A quality interview process is one that is understood by the client and is conducted by an experienced career counsellor who can devote exclusive time to the client so that the interview is not rushed or interrupted – a process that gives the client a sense of satisfaction.

Client Responsibility

16 High scores on this subscale suggest a commitment to persist with career counselling, to gain self-knowledge, to follow through with homework activities, and to be responsible for decision-making. It also includes openness to confrontation by the counsellor concerning unrealistic occupational ideas and plans, and to learning the skills required to make effective career decisions and to gain employment.

Realism 9 High scores on this subscale can indicate unrealistic expectations about career decision-making as they suggest a desire for a simple, brief process during which the career counsellor provides information only, tells the client what to do, and intuitively knows what the client wants.

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Table 3 Summary data for the four EACC subscales based on career transitioner expectations and career counsellor perceptions Career Transitioners Career Counsellors (n =374) (n = 107) M SD Lower

CI Level

UpperCI

Level

M SD Lower CI

Level

Upper CI

Level

F p

CCR

142.02

18.42

140.22

143.83

142.47

15.31

139.09

145.84

.052

.82

R

29.51

10.04

28.48

30.54

34.93

10.42

33.01

36.86

23.90

.00

CR

83.28

13.93

81.80

84.76

61.10

16.69

58.33

63.87

192.31

.00

QO

63.43

7.78

62.62

64.23

62.17

8.25

56.30

59.31

41.90

.00

Note. CCR = Career Counsellor Responsibility; R = Realism; CR = Client Responsibility; QO = Quality Outcome

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Expectations/perceptions gap

Needs and beliefs of clients • Career issue to be resolved • Discomfort • Make own decisions • Past experience and

communications about professional services

Features of career counselling services

• Intangible • Variable • High credence qualities • Highly customised

Client expectations Firm: • Facilitative role of the career counsellor • Concrete counselling outcomes • Participation in the process Unformulated: • Career decision-making process • Role of the career counsellor in the process

Role of the career counsellor • Facilitator • Coconstructor • Not the expert who solves the problem • Not a provider of information and

advice alone

Practitioner perceptions • Want to be told what to do • Want a quick and simple process

Figure 1 Influences on client expectations and career counsellor perceptions

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Theory and practice

Why is a marketing perspective important to consider in the provision of career

counselling services?

Watts (2000) has suggested providers of career counselling services, whether private or

government funded, need to shift from a “provider-driven to a consumer-driven culture”

(p. 309) in order to continue to provide effective services to clients and not be

marginalised within the career industry. Marketing has been defined as “human activity

directed at satisfying needs and wants through exchange processes” (Kotler, Chandler,

Gibbs, & McColl, 1989, p. 4). The goal of a marketing approach is to maintain a client

base by delivering quality services.

What are key findings in existing research about expectations of career clients and

perceptions of service providers?

Most previous research has found a gap between client expectations and provider

perceptions, although there is a lack of consistency in finding, with some studies

reporting a high level of agreement between counsellors and clients about important and

helpful events in career counselling and others reporting differences. In addition,

marketing literature research into industries similar to career counselling (e.g.,

education and health services) has found a gap between client expectations and provider

perceptions of client expectations, as has research in the general counselling literature.

What can career counsellors do to increase congruence between their perceptions

and client expectations?

Career counsellors need to clarify the presenting expectations of their clients as an

essential step in establishing goals for the interview and review achievement of these

goals at the completion of an interview. It is also important to educate clients about the

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career decision-making process and the role of the counsellor in this process. Also,

career counsellors need to allocate dedicated time to the interview and ensure clients

leave with a tangible outcome (e.g., a written plan of action, strategies and skills for

seeking further information, handouts, brochures, and a list of contacts).

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