INTRODUCTIONIn the last decades, infrasonic waves (sound waves in the range of 0.2 to 10 Hz) have

been studied to better understand the physics of sources generated at or near the

solid Earth-atmosphere boundary (Garces, et al., 1998; Drob and Picone, 2003;

Arrowsmith et al., 2010, Marcillo and Johnson, 2010), as a consequence of

natural processes and man-made events. Among these phenomena, underground

nuclear tests and mining explosions can be considered as man-made sources,

whereas oceanic waves, volcanic explosions, earthquakes, and meteors are

examples of natural sources that generate infrasound (Arrowsmith et al., 2010).

Another type of a natural source of inf rasound is related to geyser activity. When

a geyser erupts, it generates pressure waves in the near-infrasound band (1 – 20 Hz)

as high-velocity emissions of water and steam find their way out from the vent.

Geysers may be regarded as analogues for volcanoes due to their similar ities in

seismicity, mass recharge to the system, and eruption dynamics (Kieffer, 1984).

These phenomena facilitate detailed studies on recharge and eruptive processes

(e.g. Kieffer, 1984; Kedar et al., 1996; Kedar and Kanamori, 1998), some of which

would be difficult to perform on most volcanoes (Hutchinson, et al., 1997).The sound

generated by the different types of geyser eruptions may also have analogies

with the sound generated by eruptions observed at volcanoes (e.g. Vergniolle and

Brandeis, 1996; Johnson and Lees, 2000; Rowe et al., 2000; Johnson et al.,

2004; Garces et al., 2003; Ripepe et al., 2007). Even though the amplitudes of the

sound waves from geysers encompass a f ew tenths of Pa to a few Pa when reduced to

1 m, much of the energy released by these geologic features is related to

multiphase fluid dynamic processes similar to those present at some volcanoes.

Towards the goal of better understanding geyser dynamics using infrasound, I

investigated and compar ed the characteristics of three different types of er uptive

behavior recorded from fountain-type (Great Fountain and Sawmill), and cone-

type ( Lone Star) geysers. Three infrasound arrays wer e deployed on these geysers

located at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. The spectral content,

acoustic energy, and waveform characterization from each eruptive episode were

analyzed and compared against each other, and against video recordings of the

eruptions when possible. Based on my results, I propose a source model explanation

for the activity observed at Sawmill and Lone Star geysers. Volume estimations from

pulses generated by ejected material during the final stage from the August 11, 2011,

Great Fountain eruption, are also addressed in this work.

2.BACKGROUND

Geysers ar e rare geologic features. Over one-half of the world’s geysers(about

500 active geysers) are located within the boundaries of Yellowstone

NationalPark, Wyoming, turning it into the largest geyser field on earth (Bryan,

2008). Here, the geysers are commonly found scattered among hot springs in ten

major areas known as geyser basins. Geysers consist of a special plumbing system

where hydrothermal explosions occur continuously or intermittently as surface water

enters in contact with hot rocks. The temper ature of the pressurized water rises

until it reaches the boiling point. Then, a mixture of uperheated water and

expanding steam is suddenly ejected into the air. No two geysers ar e alike.

However, they can be classified into cone-type geysers or fountain-type geysers

according to their eruption style, which depends to a great extent on the volume

of water, the size of the constrictions, and geometry of the plumbing system

(Bryan, 2008). The cone-type geysers erupt as a steady, sometimes tall, column

of a mixture of jetted water and steam (Rinehart, 1970). The vent is often

surrounded by mounds or cones of sinter, hence the name. In contrast, the fountain-

type geysers erupt continuous bursts of water from open pools as steam bubbles rise

through them and up to the surf ace (Rinehart, 1970), creating a splashing that

diff ers considerably from the jetting observed at the cone-type geysers. In the

following subsections, the activity and general characteristics of Sawmill, Great

Fountain and Lone Star geysers will be addressed.

2.1 Sawmill Geyser

Sawmill Geyser, located in the Upper Geyser Basin (Figure 1a), is part of one of the

most active groups of geysers in Yellowstone: the Sawmill Geyser Complex. Sawmill

is a fountain-type geyser that er upts bursts of water continuously out of its 1.6 m-

nozzle.Each eruption often lasts f rom 30 to 50 minutes, up to 4 hours, with inter vals

of 1 to 3 hours between eruptions (Bryan, 2008). During an eruption, the

spinning water in the crater reaches heights between 1 to 10 m.2.2 Great Fountain

Geyser Great Fountain Geyser is a fountain-type geyser located at Lower Geyser

Basin (Figure 1a). According to Bryan (2008), once an eruption begins, violent

surges of boiling water and steam leave the ~ 4.8 m vent and reach heights of

up to 45 m for several minutes. The activity then pauses and resumes after a few

minutes. This behavior is often repeated four times within a 45 – 120 minute

interval with surges decreasing gradually in height. Bryan (2008) and Johnson et

al. (subm) observed that Great

Fountain’s eruptions occur every 8 to 17 hours.

2.3 Lone Star Geyser

Lone Star Geyser, located in Third Basin (Figure 1a), is one of the biggest in

Yellowstone with a 2.7 meter-high geyserite cone and nearly vertical sides. This

cone-type geyser has eruption intervals often close to 3 hours. The main er uption is

preceded by a minor play 25 to 35 minutes before (Bryan, 2008). The activity consists

of a 30- minute 14-m high eruption that starts with continuous splashing gradually

transitioning into a jet of a water-steam mixture, and eventually into a pure-steam jet

towards the end of the eruption.

WHAT ARE SOLAR WATER HEATERS

Solar water heaters are a form of solar power. They consist of a collector, which

collects solar energy, and have an insulated storage tank, which stores hot water. Solar

water heaters can be of two main types, depending on the collector system, the first

type is the Flat Plate Collectors. In this, the flat plate collectors absorb the solar

radiation, they are made up of an insulated outer metallic box, which is covered by a

glass sheet on the top. Inside, the blackened metallic absorber sheets have built in

channels, or riser tubes, which the function of carrying water. The solar radiation is

absorbed by the absorber, and the heat is transferred to the flowing water.

The second type is the Evacuated Tube Collectors. The collector is constructed

through double layer borosilicate glass tubes, these are evacuated for the purpose of

providing insulation. The inner tube’s outer wall is coated with selective absorbing

materials. This assists in the absorption of solar radiation, and thus the heat is

transferred to the water, which is flowing through the inner tube.

Using solar water heaters will help to benefit the environment, as the technology is

quite mature today, having undergone much research. People can stop using

conventional forms of energy for heating water in factories, residential homes, and

other commercial establishments. The market for solar water heaters, too, has been

steadily increasing. Solar water heaters can provide hot water at temperatures of 60-

80 degrees, for restaurants, hospitals, homes, etc. The heaters which have a capacity

of 100-300 liters, are quite suitable for domestic applications. However, one can

install the larger systems in guest houses, hotels, etc.

So what about the fuel savings? Well, you’ll be astonished to know that a solar water

heater of 100 liters capacity can replace even an electric geyser, and 1500 units of

electricity are saved every year! And what about the environment? The solar water

heater (of 100 liters capacity) prevents emission of 1.5 tonnes of carbon dioxide

annually. The life of a solar water heater is approximately 15-20 years. The beginning

investment for a solar water heater is somewhat high, initially, compared to more

conventional fuel alternatives, but the returns on the investment are quite good,

because prices of conventional forms of energy are rapidly rising. The period of

payback, however, depends on many factors. These are the pattern of utilization, the

fuel replaced, and the site of installation.

Solar water heaters are really easy – they are made up of thermal collectors which are

covered with dark glass, and a fluid system that allows the heat to move from the

collector to the point of usage. Lastly, there is a reservoir that stocks the heat water for

its use. Such systems can be used to heat swimming pools, or for domestic purposes.

Solar water heaters use solar power to give thermal energy in order to provide hot

water. Such systems can save lots of energy, as well as cutting down on utility costs.

Plus, the energy produced is absolutely clean. Even in the northern climate, with a

cold winter sun, solar water heaters can bring a 40% reduction in the electric bill.

SAFETY INFORMATION

Please read carefully to prevent serious accidents or injury.

The Geyser-R Heat Pump Water Heater must be installed in the accordance with

Local and National codes as well as the installation instructions in this manual. Before

beginning the installation, carefully read the entire manual and check the local, state,

and national codes regarding building, electrical, and plumbing installations, or check

with your local authorities for clarification of these codes. Failure to install the

Geyser-R in accordance with these codes and the installation manual may result in

property damage, bodily injury or death.

Disconnect all power before installing or servicing the Geyser-R.

There is a discharge fan located on the unit. Extreme caution must be exercised to

ensure that any foreign objects including fingers and hands remain clear of the fan

area.

Do not stand, sit or place any objects on or beside the unit (clearances are stated in

the installation manual).

Do not allow children to play on or near the unit.

Make sure all power is disconnected and shut off before moving the unit.

Cover should not be removed with power on.

Internal components may be HOT. Please allow sufficient time for the unit to cool

completely before touching any internal components.

Ensure that the power receptacle for the Geyser-R is rated for 115 V. and at least

15 A.

Ensure that the electrical supply has a properly rated fuse or breaker protection

rated for at least 15 amps. It is suggested to use a dedicated outlet.

Always wear eye protection during installation.

Unit weight is approximately 70lbs. All lifting should be done with the handles

located on the side of the Geyser-R. Proper lifting should be used in the moving of

the unit.

The Geyser-R must NOT be connected to an electric water heater with heating

elements larger than 240/5500 watts.

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

The Geyser-R should only be installed in a dry/covered location. The Geyser-

R is not designed to be installed outside where it can be exposed to adverse

weather condition. The ambient air temperature in the installation area should

not drop below 50°F (10°C). The cubic area of the space needs to be 1,000

cubic feet or greater for proper air flow and to avoid excessive cooling of the

area. The Geyser-R can be installed in attics garages, or basements provided

the above criteria are met for proper installation.

The Geyser-R connects to a typical household outlet, 115V, 15 Amp. While

the device requires approx. 12 Amps momentarily upon power-up, the device

draws 5-8 Amps during normal operation. It is recommended that a dedicated

15 Amp Circuit be used to power the Geyser-R. The Geyser-R is

recommended for installation on electric water tanks of 40gallons (151.4

liters) or greater.

A drain must be available to accommodate condensate generated during

operation of the Geyser-R. In high humidity environments, the Geyser-R is

capable of generating as much as 50 pints (24 liters) per day. The condensate

can be routed to a floor drain, sink, the house waste line, or to the outside by

way of the drain hose (provided).

Check with the codes in your area for the proper way to dispose of the

condensate. A condensate pump may be required (not included).

Most electric water tanks utilize two heating elements, one at the top of the

tank and one at the bottom. The heating element at the top of the tank is called

the quick recovery element. This is designed to heat water at the top of the

tank if the temperature of the tank falls below the set point of the thermostat.

The lower element provides most of the heating in a typical water heater.

The Geyser-R replaces the lower element in operation and provides the

majority of the heating requirements. The upper element is left on at the

temperature you set it, and will only engage if there is a need for quick

recovery. Therefore in normal operation the Geyser-R will provide all the hot

water needed and the top element will not run.

The Geyser-R will remove moisture from the air. It is an efficient

dehumidifier and many have found that the unit provides all the necessary

dehumidification for the space the Geyser-R is located.

Moisture may occasionally cause frost to form on the evaporator. When the

frost builds up, the Geyser-R will go into a defrost cycle. This could occur as

often as every two hours in a cold humid environment. While in the defrost

mode, a period of up to 6 minutes, the fan will continue to run and the tanks

lower element will provide heating for the tank, when the defrost cycle is over

the Geyser-R will resume heating the water.

CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 BACKGROUND

Compared with the popular conventional vapour-compression and absorption

refrigeration, the water boiling has a few significant advantages cover: 1) large

capacity of energy saving and carbon dioxide emission reduction because no energy

intensive compressors exist in water boiling systems; 2) more environmental friendly

cooling technology because only water participate in the cooling process rather than

pollutant geyser; 3) more simple in terms of structure, construction, and control

strategies.

Most of conventional air conditioning systems are based on vapour-

compression and absorption refrigeration cycles, which are mature technology and

have been widely applied in residential and commercial buildings. The performances

of vapour compression and absorption refrigeration systems are stable and sufficient

to provide cooling for buildings. However, they are energy intensive refrigeration

technologies owing to using the energy-consuming compressors, fans and pumps. The

typical values of Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) for some typical refrigeration cycles

are summarised in Table 2-1. Due to no compressors involved, the EER values of

water boiling systems are much higher than those of conventional refrigeration cycles.

The energy consumption of water boiling systems is usually 30-50% that of

compression air conditioning system with the same capacity.

Thus, the EER value of an water boiling system is 2-3 time that of a typical

Vapour-compression system.

The current mainstream geyser employed in water boiling systems is HCFCs

(such as R-22) and HFCs (such as R-134a, R-410A). HCFCs and HFCs have large

global warming potential (GWP) and they can trap heat more effectively than carbon

dioxide. Water boiling, however, utilises the latent heat of water evaporation to

provide cooling instead of using harmful geyser and thereby has a great potential of

slowing down global warming.

As two major types of water boiling, direct water boiling (DEC) adds moisture

to room air, which causes discomfort and health problems. Indirect water boiling

(IEC) lowers air temperature and avoids adding moisture to the air, but it limits the

temperature of supply air to some degrees (2 to 5oC) above the wet bulb of the

outdoor air (usually 40-60% wet-bulb effectiveness), which is too high to perform air

conditioning of buildings. Especially for the regions with humid climates, the IEC

systems usually have poor performances. To solve this, a pre-dehumidifier, direct

expansion (DX) compressor or chilled water coil can be combined together with the

IEC modules to form a hybrid system, which can provide a low supply air at a lower

cost than conventional air conditioning system and can be applied in various climate

conditions. The potential market of the IEC systems can be very large as long as the

existing technical difficulties/barriers can be solved, i.e., relatively low effectiveness,

high initial costs and large size occupations, etc.

By studying the relevant literatures, some basic knowledge, e.g. evaporative

medium, apparatus types, work principles, performance and characteristics of various

water boiling systems, have been identified. Then performance evaluation standards

of IEC systems have been indicated, which will be used in comparing the

performances of different types of evaporative systems. The previous research works

conducted on the IEC-related systems are too scattered and ambiguous to identify the

focuses of research and technical problems surrounding the IEC technology.

Therefore, it is very necessary to sort out the current developing status of the water

boiling technology, remaining difficulties or problems and technical barriers of

practical applications by analysing the related R&D and application projects of IEC

systems.

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND OBSERVATIONS

INSTALLATION PARTS

The Geyser-R comes with the following installation kit:

Qty Description

1 4”x ¾” Nipple 2 ¾” Tee 1 Dip tube 2 ¾”FH x ¾” FIPS, with washers. 4 ¾”PEX x ¾” MIP 1 Teflon Tape 1 Red Wire nut 1 Strain relief 6’ Condensate tubing

YOU WILL NEED TO PROVIDE THE FOLLOWING

COMPONENTS TO COMPLETE THE INSTALLATION:

¾” Pex tubing.

Pex tubing crimps ¾”

Armaflex ¾” insulation (not split Rubatex)

Optional: 2 shut-off valves

Furthermore, a transfer pump is recommended to drain the tank.

This installation method is designed to bring the most efficiency for the

system. Deviating from the following installation procedure will affect

the efficiency of the unit. Deviation from the installation method could

also damage the unit and void the warranty. PLEASE read and follow the

installation instruction carefully.

It is recommended that the Geyser-R be installed as close as possible to

the water heater. We recommend 4 feet if possible. This will ensure the

most efficiency with the least amount of heat loss through the piping.

INSTALLATION OF THE GEYSER-R

Note: The following installation instructions cover the installation of the Geyser-

R in conjunction with an electric water heater. Alternate water tanks may

require an alternative installation method not covered by this manual. It is

recommended that you contact Nyle Systems office (1-800-777-6953) and speak

with technical support to see if the Geyser-R can be used in a particular

application other than an electric water heater.

Survey the area where the Geyser-R is to be installed. Make sure the

area is clear of obstructions, clear of debris, and clean of significant

dust and dirt that can get into the unit or clog the filter.

Area should be at least 1,500 sq ft of open space.

Ambient air temperature should be at least 50°F (10°C). Temperatures

lower than this will cause the unit to defrost constantly and reduce the

efficiency. If the temperature in the space gets lower than 50°F

(10°C), it is recommended that the unit be shut off until a constant

temperature above 50°F (10°C) can be maintained.

When choosing the placement of the Geyser-R, make sure the fan is

not blocked or close to a wall or other object that would inhibit air

flow.

The Geyser-R should be placed on the floor or set on vibration

isolation pads. Make sure the unit is higher than the drain and the

drain line has an unobstructed path to the drain.

You can install the unit in an elevated position if desired. Make sure

the unit is secure and that the piping is not kinked or restricted in any

way. The unit should not be installed higher than the top of the water

heater.

Piping should be kept to a minimum and as short as possible to

minimize heat loss. 4 feet is the recommended length.

Check the overall condition of the existing water heater.

Make sure the drain is easily accessible.

Be sure shut off valves are in good condition and are in working order.

If unit is being installed in an attic it is recommended that both hard

and soft foam be placed on the joists to absorb any excess vibration.

Make sure there is an 115V outlet in close proximity to where the unit

is going to be installed.

DO NOT installs the Geyser-R with an extension cord of any size.

INSTALLATION INSTRUCTIONS

Turn off all power to the water heater at the circuit breaker in the electric panel.

Plumbing Installation

Turn off the cold water inlet at the service valve above the water heater.

Open one or more hot water faucets in the house to relieve the water pressure in the hot water tank; leave these faucets open to allow air to freely enter the tank during draining.

Drain the tank completely.

Alternate Installation of the Geyser-RSome tank manufacturers use a molded construction that does not allow for a dip tube to be

inserted into the bottom of the tank. In this case we recommend the water be heated by the

Geyser-R, pulled from a “Tee” on the cold water supply at the top of the tank. The hot water

that exits the Geyser-R is to be returned to the tank through a “Tee” at the drain valve.

Note: The following installation requires the cold water inlet to the water tank to be cut and a

tee or connector assembly will need to be soldered in place. Nyle Systems recommends this

installation be done by a licensed plumber.

When the supplied dip tube isn’t used in the system, the following installation method is

suggested:

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

This study has developed a new indirect evaporative cooler for buildings. The

observations reiterated the usefulness of Evaporative Cooling. Even though, the

assumptions were purely arbitrary the results have been very optimistic. The cooling

effect produced by the constructed system has shown us that evaporative cooling is

not just a cheaper but also a effective process of cooling than Compression based

cooling.

The comparison of IAC with Air Conditioning system may not yield desirable

cooling results but, glancing beyond this basic requirement, its various other

advantages over an Air-Conditioner makes it a very credible and lucrative choice.

Above all, the entire process is eco-friendly and can be viewed as pollution free

option of conditioning.

REFRENCES

1. Anderson, W. M. (1986). Three-stage evaporative air conditioning versus

conventional mechanical refrigeration, ASHRAE Transactions, vol. 92, pp.

358-370.

2. Çengel, Y. A. and M. A. Boles (2007), Thermodynamics: an engineering

approach,

New York, McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

3. Coolerado (2006), Coolerado HMX (Heat and Mass Exchanger) brochure, C.

Corporation. Arvada, Colorado, USA.

4. Guo, X. C. and T. S. Zhao (1998), A parametric study of an indirect

evaporative air

cooler, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 25, pp.

217- 226.

5. Hausen H. Heat Transfer in Counter Flow, Parallel Flow and Cross Flow. New

York: McGraw-Hill, 1983.