· web viewthere are, of course, the root word rhymes (curling, whirling, purling, twirling). note...
TRANSCRIPT
KISS Grammar
Morning, orMorning, or SpringSpring
byMaxfield Parrish
(1870-1966)
Analysis Keys and Notes for TeachersAnalysis Keys and Notes for TeachersA Level 4 WorkbookA Level 4 Workbook
Free, from the KISS Grammar Web SiteThis book assumes that the students have completed the book for Level 3.2. As the table
shows there are 45 exercises in this book, 19 of which you can skip. The 26 that remain should
be enough for most students to master the concepts. If you want to add or substitute exercises,
see “The Master Collection of KISS Exercises.”
This book also contains some
suggestions for teaching KISS Level 4
and the analysis keys for the exercises.
The keys in this book have been
numbered to match the students’
workbook.
© Ed Vavra
Book Total Skip? SuggestedLevel 1 110 37 73Level 2 48 13 35Level 3.1 62 27 35Level 3.2 60 22 38Level 4 45 19 26Total 325 118 207
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Revised March 8, 2019
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Contents
Introduction for Teachers and ParentsIntroduction for Teachers and Parents................................................................................................................................44Applying KISS to the Students’ Own Reading and Writing...........................................5
Level 4 - Mixed VerbalsLevel 4 - Mixed Verbals............................................................................................................................................................................66Notes for Teachers.............................................................................................................6
4.1.1. Identification (Mixed Verbals).................................................................................8Ex. 1a - From My Book of Favorite Fairy Tales [Skip?]...............................................8Ex. 1b - Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle by Bret Harte.....................................10Ex. 1c - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell........................................................12Ex. 1d - From the Writing of Sixth Graders.................................................................14
4.1.2 The Subjects of Verbals...........................................................................................17Ex. 2 - based on Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas.......................................17
4.1.3. Passages for Analysis..............................................................................................20Ex. 3a - A Passage for Analysis from “Bluebeard” [Skip?].........................................20Ex. 3b - “The High Dive” by a sixth grade student [Skip?].........................................22
4.1.4 Style - Free Sentence-Combining............................................................................24Ex. 4 - Aesop’s “The Fox Who Had Lost His Tail” [Skip?]........................................24
4.1.5. Just for Fun..............................................................................................................26Ex. 5 - “Home Economics”..........................................................................................26
Level 4.2 - A Focus on GerundsLevel 4.2 - A Focus on Gerunds..............................................................................................................................................2727Notes for Teachers...........................................................................................................27
4.2.1 Identification of Gerunds........................................................................................27Ex. 1a – “The boys and girls like racing”.....................................................................27Ex. 1b - Based on Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas....................................28
4.2.2. The Subjects of Gerunds........................................................................................30Ex. 2 - * Adapted from Beveridge's English for Use...................................................30
4.2.3 Gerunds as Nouns Used as Adverbs.......................................................................32Ex. 3 - From 20,000 Leagues Under the Seas, by Jules Verne....................................32Ex. 4 A Treasure Hunt [Skip?].....................................................................................34
Level 4.3 - A Focus on GerundivesLevel 4.3 - A Focus on Gerundives......................................................................................................................................3434Notes for Teachers...........................................................................................................34
4.3.1 Identification of Gerundives....................................................................................35Ex. 1a - From Edric Vredenburg’s “The White Cat” [Skip?]......................................35Ex. 1b - From The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson Burnett.................................37
4.3.2 A Passage for Analysis.............................................................................................39Ex. 2 - From “The White Cat” [Skip?].........................................................................39
4.3.3 Exploring the Punctuation of Gerundives.............................................................40Ex. 3 - From “Bluebeard” [Skip?]................................................................................40
4.3.4. Style - From Main Clause to Subordinate Clause to Gerundive........................43Ex. 4 - Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle, by Bret Harte......................................43
4.3.5 Style - Rewriting Gerundives as Finite Verbs.......................................................44Notes for Teachers...........................................................................................................44
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Ex. 5a - Adapted from English for Use [Skip?]...........................................................45Ex. 5b - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri [Skip?]............................................................47
4.3.6 Style - Free Sentence-Combining............................................................................49Ex. 6 – “The Jackdaw and the Doves” [Skip?]............................................................49
4.3.7. Just for Fun..............................................................................................................51Ex. 7 - “The Cataract of Lodore” by Robert Southey..................................................51Ex. 8. - A Treasure Hunt for Gerundives [Skip?].........................................................56
Level 4.4 - A Focus on InfinitivesLevel 4.4 - A Focus on Infinitives..........................................................................................................................................5656Notes for Teachers...........................................................................................................56
4.4.1 Identifying Mixed Infinitives...................................................................................58Ex. 1a - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar [Skip?]........................58Ex. 1b - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell........................................................59
4.4.2 Subjects of Infinitives...............................................................................................61Ex. 2 - Based on “The Snow Queen,” by H. C. Andersen...........................................61
4.4.3 Infinitives as Subjects or Complements.................................................................63Ex. 3 - From The Secret Garden..................................................................................63
4.4.4. Infinitives as Objects of Prepositions....................................................................65Ex. 4 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell..........................................................65
4.4.5 Infinitives as Adjectives or Adverbs (or Interjections).........................................66Ex. 5a – “Animals need room”.....................................................................................66Ex. 5b - From My Book of Favorite Fairy Tales..........................................................67
4.4.6 Ellipsed Infinitives....................................................................................................69Ex. 6a - From The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson Burnett.................................69Ex. 6b - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri.........................................................................71
4.4.7 Passages for Analysis...............................................................................................73Ex. 7a - “H.M.S ENDEAVOUR” (1st Paragraph of 2) [Skip?]...................................73Ex. 7b - “H.M.S ENDEAVOUR” (2nd Paragraph of 2) [Skip?].................................75Ex. 8 A Treasure Hunt for Infinitives [Skip?]..............................................................77
KISS Level 5.8 Noun AbsolutesKISS Level 5.8 Noun Absolutes..............................................................................................................................................7777Notes for Teachers...........................................................................................................77
5.8.1 Noun Absolutes That Function as Adverbs...........................................................80Ex. 1 a. Based on Lassie, Come Home [Skip?]............................................................80Ex. 1.b. From Black Beauty..........................................................................................82Ex. 1.c. From The Secret Garden, by Burnett..............................................................84
5.8.2 Style - Rewriting Sentences by Using Noun Absolutes.........................................86Ex. 2 Rewriting Sentences by Using Noun Absolutes -- based on Heidi [Skip?]........86
5.8.3 Noun Absolutes That Function as Nouns...............................................................87Ex. 3.a. Based on Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight................................................87Ex. 3.b. Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell........................................................90
5.8.4 Passages for Analysis...............................................................................................91Ex. 4.a. From Lassie, Come Home [Skip?]..................................................................91Ex. 4.b. From The Dark Frigate by Charles Boardman Hawes...................................92
AppendixAppendix......................................................................................................................................................................................................................9494The KISS Grammar Toolbox...........................................................................................94
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Using the KISS Analysis Keys..........................................................................................96Creating Directions for Your Students................................................................................97
Introduction for Teachers and ParentsIntroduction for Teachers and Parents
The study of grammar is a science.The teaching of grammar is an art.
Welcome back to KISS Grammar. This is the “Teachers” Book” for a KISS Level 4
workbook. It contains suggestions for teaching KISS Level 4, the analysis keys for the exercises,
and the relevant explanations from the KISS “Master Books.” The keys in this book have been
numbered to match the students’ workbook.
This book assumes that you and your students have already mastered KISS Levels 1, 2, 3.1,
and 3.2. It focuses on the last two types of constructions that your students will need to know.
Verbals are the focus of KISS Level 4. Having used the previous KISS books, you know that the
KISS Grade-Level series of books spreads the KISS Level 5 constructions across the earlier
levels. The only remaining Level 5 construction is the Noun Absolute, which is included in this
book.
Even if your students are already familiar with it, I strongly suggest you review the KISS
Psycholinguistic Model with them. (See the “Printable Books Page.”) The model changes the
study of grammar into the study of how the human mind processes language, and it also justifies
the rules of punctuation.
If you still feel uncomfortable with your own knowledge of grammar, you might want to
read “Teaching Grammar with the KISS Approach: ‘I Don't Know’” in the Background Essays
for KISS Grammar.
General Reminders:
1. Although the ability to identify constructions is essential, once students have the ability, such
exercises may become boring. You may therefore want to modify some of the directions.
For example, punctuation exercises often ask students to identify constructions as well as fix
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the punctuation. You may want to change these to simply fixing and discussing the
punctuation. The same is true for some of the exercises on logic.
2. The instructional material in these “complete” books is the same for every Level 3.2 book,
regardless of grade-level of the students for whom they are intended. (Format and graphics
may change, and as I receive feedback from teachers, some of the explanations may
change.) You should at least browse through the relevant “booklets” for the KISS Levels.
They include explanations for the nature and sequencing of exercises, as well as comments
unusual cases. (Repeating and updating this material in each of the eight “complete” Level
3.2 books does not make sense.)
3. Emphasize the method.
Applying KISS to the Students’ Own Reading and Writing
The primary objective of KISS is to enable students to intelligently discuss the grammar of
anything that they read and especially anything that they write. Those who understand KISS
concepts could, theoretically, use the Master Books and then use only the students’ own writing
for exercise materials. But particularly in classrooms, this would be impractical.
Imagine the dilemma of a teacher with twenty students in classroom. The students have been
given the instructional material on subjects and verbs, and then the students immediately all try
to find the subjects and verbs in a short passage that they wrote. The teacher would go nuts
trying to check all of this. In other words, it makes much more sense for the students to all do a
few of the same exercise, an exercise that can then be reviewed in class. KISS primarily provides
the latter type of exercises.
Teachers should regularly supplement these exercises by having students analyze short
passages from their own writing. The students can simply apply the directions they have been
using to the analysis of their own writing. (In other words, if they are working at KISS Level
Three, they would analyze their own writing through clauses.) The students can then work in
small groups to check and discuss each others’ work. How often teachers should do this is an
aspect of the art of teaching. But the more you do this, the more that you will probably see
interested, motivated students.
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Level 4 - Mixed VerbalsLevel 4 - Mixed Verbals
Notes for TeachersNotes for Teachers
A verbal is a verb that functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. In KISS Level Two (S/V/C
patterns) students needed to learn how to distinguish finite verbs from non-finite, i.e., from
verbals. Theoretically, a detailed study of verbals could immediately follow students’ mastery of
S/V/C patterns, but there are two reasons for postponing such instruction. First, clause structure
is much more important for an understanding of how sentences work. Second, there is a fair
amount of both research and theory that suggests that one verbal (gerundives) is, to use Kellogg
Hunt’s label, a “late-blooming” construction. KISS Level Four first appears in the sixth “grade-
level” book, but this may be too early for some students.
Teaching Verbals
Like finite verbs, verbals can have complements, are modified by adverbs, and have implied
or stated subjects. Verbals are probably best learned if the single page of instructional material
on them (“Identifying Verbals”) is simply added to the students’ analytical toolbox. Thus,
students should continue to analyze and discuss sentences and passages from real texts—
identifying prepositional phrases first, then S/V/C patterns, then clauses, and simply adding the
identification of verbals. Such an approach enables students to see how various writers use
verbals in a wide range of sentences. If there is time for such instruction, teachers can focus on
the sentence-combining and other sentence manipulation exercises.
The exercises on verbals are divided into four sections, comparable to the presentation of
subordinate clauses (KISS Level 3.1). In that section, mixed subordinate clauses were introduced
first. Thereafter, special focus was put on subordinate clauses as direct objects, then on adverbial
clauses, then adjectival, and then on other noun clauses. Some students probably did not need
most of the materials in the special focus sections. You may or may not have used the
punctuation, stylistic, and/or logic-focused exercises in those special focus sections.
Similarly, some students may easily master all three types of verbals by simply using the
section on “Mixed Verbals.” If they have problems, you can use the identification exercises in
the three specific sections—gerunds, gerundives, and infinitives. You should, however, take the
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specific sections in that sequence. Gerunds are relatively easy to identify. With gerunds basically
mastered, gerundives are more easily understood. Finally, infinitives are most easily identified
by the process of elimination—if a verbal is not a gerund and not a gerundive, it must be an
infinitive. Infinitives are the most complex of the verbals, so you may want to at least browse
that section before you decide to skip it.
4.1 Mixed Verbals
The three types of verbals can easily be taught simultaneously. Students who have been
learning through the KISS Approach will recognize gerunds by their functions, i.e., they will see
that they have already been labeling these words as subjects, direct objects, objects of
prepositions, etc. Thus gerundives are best learned through the process of elimination—any
verbs that end in “-ing,” “-ed,” or a few irregular forms (such as “written”) that are not finite and
that do not function as gerunds are almost certainly gerundives. Any verb that is not finite, not a
gerund, and not a gerundive, has to be an infinitive. There are no exceptions to this descriptive
rule.
You can, if you wish, slow the introduction of new material down by having students first
do one or two exercises that focus separately on gerunds, gerundives, and then infinitives. Any
randomly selected text will almost certainly contain a variety of clauses, main and subordinate.
Verbals, however, are used less frequently. To be sure that there are verbals in the exercise text,
you may therefore want to start with some of the exercises in this section.
The Exercises on “Mixed Verbals”
Section One (four exercises) give students sentences with a variety of verbals and ask
students to identify the type (gerund, gerundive, or infinitive) of the verbal and any
complements. Section Two (one exercise) focuses on the subjects of verbals. The subjects of
gerunds are in possessive case:
Tom’s missing the season hurt the team.
The subjects of gerundives are the word or words that the gerundive modifies:
Susan, having hit a home run, was very happy.
The subjects of infinitives are either understood or in the objective case. In Sarah wanted to wash
the car. everyone understands that Sarah will be doing the washing. In
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Sarah wanted him to wash the car.
everyone knows that someone else (in this case, a male) should be doing the washing. The point
here is that the subjects of verbals are not very hard to understand.
Section Three provides two passages for analysis. Section Four (one exercise) focuses on
style and asks students to combine sentences using verbals. The Fifth section is a “Just for
Fun” analysis exercise.
Suggested General Directions for Analytical Exercises
1. Put parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline subjects once, finite verbs twice, and label complements (“PN,” “PA,” “IO,”
“DO”).
3. Place brackets around each subordinate clause. If the clause functions as a noun, label its
function (PN, IO, DO, OP) above the opening bracket. If it functions as an adjective or
adverb, draw an arrow from the opening bracket to the word that the clause modifies.
4. Put a vertical line at the end of every main clause.
5. Put a box around every gerund and gerundive. If it is a gerund (i.e., it functions as a noun)
indicate its function over the box. If it is a gerundive, draw an arrow to the word it modifies.
6. Put an oval around every infinitive and indicate (as in three above) its function.
4.1.1. Identification (Mixed Verbals)
Ex. 1a - From My Book of Favorite Fairy Tales [Skip?]
1. Early next morning [NuA] [ [#1] when the dawn was breaking] she left her father's house
(DO), leaving a little note [#2] {behind her} begging him not to be anxious [#3] but
*stating* [#3] [DO that she had gone {to the Beast's castle}]. |
2. {For several days} he flew around hoping to catch sight [#4] {of Zélie}, | and {at last},
seated [#5] {by a hermit}, {outside a cave}, he found her (DO). |
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3. "Madame Cat [DirA]," [ [#6] replied the Prince], "it is very good (PA) {of you} to
receive me [#7] thus, | but you are not an ordinary cat (PN); | being able to speak,
and possessing this superb castle [#8] , are proof (PN) {of that}." | 4. {In vain} did his wife plead {with him} to spare her [#9] , kneeling [#10] {before him}
{with tears streaming [#11] } {from her eyes}. | 5. Four {of his wicked companions} had tried to partition the Kingdom [#12] {between
them}, | but the people would have none (DO) such to rule [#13], | and they had
offered the crown (DO) {to the good and wise Suliman}. | Chéri panted {with rage}
{on hearing this [#14] }, | and {in the Palace Square} he saw Suliman (DO) {on a
superb throne}, and all the people (DO) [Adj. to "people" who shouted {with joy},
and wished him (IO) a long life (DO) to repair the evil [#15] brought about [#16] {by
their former sovereign}]. | Notes
1. This clause can be described as adjectival to “morning” or as adverbial either to “early” or to
“left.”
2. “Note” is the direct object of the gerundive “leaving.” The gerundive phrase modifies “she.”
3. “Anxious” is a predicate adjective after the infinitive “to be.” “Him” is the subject of that
infinitive, and the infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “begging.” “Begging” is
a gerundive that modifies “note.” This gerundive phrase is connected to an implied
gerundive, “saying” or “stating.”
4. “Sight” is the direct object of the infinitive “to catch.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of the gerundive “hoping.” The gerundive phrase functions as an adjective to
“he.”
5. “Seated” is a gerundive that modifies “her.” I’m probably not the only teacher who would be
sorely tempted to mark this as a misplaced modifier, simply because readers will tend to
chunk “seated” to “he” before they get to “her.”
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6. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. For an alternative explanation, see KISS Level
3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct Object?
7. “Me” is the direct object of the infinitive “to receive.” The infinitive phrase functions as a
delayed subject -- “to receive me thus is very good of you.” See KISS Level 5.6 - Delayed
Subjects.
8. “Castle” is the direct object of the gerund “possessing.” The infinitive “to speak” functions as
an adverb to “able” which is a predicate adjective after the gerund “being.” The two gerund
phrases function as the subject of “are.”
9. “Her” is the direct object of the infinitive “to spare,” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb (of purpose) to “plead.”
10. “Kneeling” is a gerundive that modifies “wife.”
11. “Streaming” can be described as a gerundive that modifies “tears.” At KISS Level 5.8 - Noun
Absolutes, some people will prefer to see “tears streaming” as a noun absolute that functions
as the object of the preposition.
12. “Kingdom” is the direct object of the infinitive “to partition.” The infinitive phrase functions
as the direct object of “had tried.”
13. The infinitive “to rule” can be seen as an adverb to “such” or as an adjective to “none.” If we
opt for the latter, it is understood that the infinitive modifies “none” under the condition that
“none” is also modified by “such.”
14. “This” is the direct object of the gerund “hearing.” The gerund phrase functions as the object
of the preposition.
15. “Evil” is the direct object of the infinitive “to repair.” The infinitive phrase functions as both
an adjective to “life” and as and adverb (of purpose) to “wished.”
16. “Brought about” means “caused” or “done” and can thus be treated as a single word. It is a
gerundive that modifies “evil.”
Ex. 1b - Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle by Bret Harte
I could not find a gerund used as a subject or an infinitive used as an object of a preposition in the text, so sentences two and ten were modified to make these constructions.
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1. The rescued party, {from two} {o'clock} {until four}, passed six weeks [#1] {on the island}
supported [#2] only {by a piece} {of candle} , ( *by* a box} {of matches}, and {*by* two
peppermint lozenges}. | 2. Being left [#3] {in the proximity} {of Wan Lee's evil spirit} , {without Wan Lee's exorcising
power}, was anything (PN) {but reassuring [#4] }. | 3. To creep [#5] {to the edge} {of the cliff} , to sit [#5] {upon the brown branches} {of some
fallen pine}, and putting aside the dried tassels [#6] to look [#5] down {upon the backs} {of
wheeling hawks} [Adj. to "hawks" that seemed to hang [#7] {in mid-air}] was a never
failing delight (PN). |
4. They solemnly began to wade [#8] {in the pool's viscid paint-like shallows}. | 5. A fearful desire to continue their awful experiments [#9] , {instead of pursuing their
piratical avocations [#10] }, was taking possession (DO) {of them}. |
6. Wan Lee suddenly began to blink his eyes [#11] {with unwonted excitement}. |
7. There were no frowning rocks (PN) to depress the children's fancy [#12]. |
8. Hickory looking [#13] down {at Patsey's bare feet} instantly took off his own shoes (DO). | 9. She, however, made preparation (DO) {for the proposed flight} {by settling [#14] {in
her mind} [DO of "settling" which [#15] {of her two dolls} she would take ] }. | 10. To evade the direct question [#16] she had no choice (DO) {but to abandon her defiant
attitude [#17] }. | 11. Probably the principal object {of this performance} was to produce (PN) a thick
coating [#18] {of mud} {on the feet and ankles}. | Notes
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1. Those who see “six weeks” as answering the question “How long?” can explain “weeks” as a Noun Used as an Adverb. Those who see it as answering the question “Passed what?” will view “weeks” as a direct object.
2. “Supported” is a gerundive that modifies “party.” 3. “Being left” is a gerund phrase that functions as the subject of “was.” [To break it down more,
“left” can be explained as a gerundive that functions as a predicate adjective to the gerund “Being.”
4. “Reassuring” is a gerund that functions as the object of the preposition “but.” The “but” phrase modifies (limits) “anything.”
5. The infinitives “To creep,” “to sit” and “to look” are the subjects of “was.” The singular verb suggests that all three are considered necessary to the “delight.”
6. “Tassels” is the direct object of the gerund “putting” which functions as a Noun Used as an Adverb.
7. People who do not want to consider “seemed” as a helping verb (and thus “seemed to hang” as the finite verb phrase) can explain “to hang” as an infinitive that functions as a direct object (“seemed what?”) or as an adverb (“seemed how?”).
8. The infinitive “to wade” functions as the direct object of “began.” 9. “Experiments” is the direct object of the infinitive “to continue.” The infinitive phrase
functions as an adjective to “desire.” 10. “Avocations: is the direct object of the gerund “pursing” which functions as the object of the
preposition “instead of.” The “instead of” phrase functions as an adverb to “to continue.” 11. “Eyes” is the direct object of the infinitive “to blink,” which is the direct object of “began.” 12. “Fancy” is the direct object of the infinitive “to depress.” Some people will see the infinitive
phrase as an adjective to “rocks”; others will see it as adverbial to “were” and/or “depressing.” For “There,” see KISS Level 2.1.3 - Expletives (Optional).
13. “Looking” is a gerundive that modifies “Hickory.” Many writers would feel more comfortable with this sentence if the gerundive phrase were set off by commas.
14. The gerund “settling” functions as the object of “by.” 15. “Which” functions both as subordinating conjunction and as the direct object of “would
take.” 16. “Question” is the direct object of the infinitive “To evade.” The infinitive phrase functions as
an adverb to “no.” 17. “Attitude” is the direct object of the infinitive “to abandon” which functions as the object of
the preposition “but.” The “But” phrase functions as an adverb to “no.” 18. “Coating” is the direct object of the infinitive “to produce.”
Ex. 1c - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
1. His wife was standing {at the gate}, looking very frightened [#1]. |
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2. [Subj. What (DO) [#2] he wanted] was to wear all the spirit [#3] {out of me}. |3. [Adv. to "had" When he came {in sight} {of us} ] he had no time (DO) to pull [#4] over
{to his own side}. |
4. To see [#5] [DO how fond (PA) those two were {of each other} [#6] ] was a treat (PN). |
5. His real concern was taking care [#7] {of the horses}. |
6. Harry came in {after school} to feed me and give me water [#8] . |
7. Dick denied taking the pipe [#9] {with him}, | but no one believed him (DO). | 8. Recovering itself [#10] the pony was going on, [Adv. to "was going" when the man
began to lash it [#11] furiously]. | 9. That harness might not be much harm (PA) {on parade}, {except to worry and
fatigue them [#12] }. |
10. {By giving way [#13] } {to such passion} you injure your own character (DO). | 11. Talking [#14] {against men} {in such a place} {as this} doesn't seem fair (PA) or
grateful (PA). | Notes
1. “Frightened” is a gerundive that functions as a predicate adjective to “looking” which is a
gerundive in a palimpsest pattern with “looking” written over “being.” The gerundive phrase
modifies “wife.”
2. “What” here functions simultaneously as a subordinating conjunction and the direct object of
“wanted.”
3. “Spirit” is the direct object of the infinitive “to wear.” The infinitive phrase functions as a
predicate noun.
4. The infinitive “to pull” functions as an adjective to “time.”
5. The infinitive phrase based on “To see” is the subject of “was.”
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6. “Of each other,” of course, modifies the predicate adjective “fond.”
7. “Care” is the direct object of the gerund “taking” which functions as a predicate noun.
8. “Me” is the indirect object of the infinitives “to feed” and “give.” “Water” is the direct object
of “give. The two infinitive phrases function as adverbs (of purpose) to “came.”
9. “Pipe” is the direct object of the gerund “taking.” The gerund phrase functions as the direct
object of “denied.”
10. “Itself” is the direct object of the gerundive “Recovering” which modifies “pony.”
11. “It” is the direct object of the infinitive “to lash.” The infinitive functions as the direct object
of “began.”
12. “Them” is the direct object of the infinitives “to fatigue” and “worry.” The infinitive phrases
function as objects of the preposition “except” which functions as an adverb to “much.”
13. “Way” is the direct object of the gerund “giving.” The gerund functions as the object of the
preposition “By.”
14. The gerund “Talking” is the subject of “doesn’t seem.”
Ex. 1d - From the Writing of Sixth Graders
1. *I* Thank you (IO) {for giving me the opportunity [#1] } to state my protest [#2] . |
2. The sun was hot (PA), | and a boy named Mike [#3] was camping {in the mountains}. |
3. Wrestlers use tables (DO) and chairs (DO) to win belts [#4]. | 4. I know a lot (DO) {of adults} [Adj. to "adults" who enjoy the show (DO) also],
including my parents [#5]. |
5. "Smart Guy" helps me learn [#6], | and it's so funny (PA) [Adv. (result) to "so" that I
could not stop laughing [#7] ]. |
6. The only way to get the program [#8] back on is to show a marathon [#9]. |
7. A year [NuA] ago my family and I went camping [#10] {in Canada}. |
8. I consider this show educational [#11]. |
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9. Falling [#12] {on the rocks} was dangerous (PA). |
10. We were lost (PA), | but I knew how (DO) to get back [#13]. |
11. Your taking Pokémon [#14] {off the air} is just killing me (DO). |
12. He tried everything (DO) to put the fire [#15] out. | 13. {From behind a bush} I saw my dad pick up a huge stick and throw it [#16], hoping [#17]
[DO of "hoping" the bear would go and chase it (DO) ]. | 14. I was scared (P) to come [#18] {to the middle school} [Adv. to "was scared" because I
was afraid (PA) {of getting made fun of [#19] } ]. | 15. The show teaches audiences (IO) everywhere [#20] [DO what it's {like [#21] } (PA)
going [#22] {through life} {like one} {of the actors or actresses} {on the show}]. | Notes
1. “Me” is the direct and “opportunity” is the direct object of the gerund “giving.” The gerund
phrase functions as the object of the preposition “for.”
2. “Protest” is the direct object of the infinitive “to state.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adjective to “opportunity.” [Note that the infinitive phrase is embedded in the preceding
prepositional phrase. In KISS, however, I tend not to extend to parentheses that mark
prepositional phrases to include such modifiers. If the opening and closing parens get too far
apart they lose their effectiveness.
3. “Mike” is a retained predicate noun after the passive gerundive “named.” The gerundive
phrase modifies “boy.” Note that “named _______” is found in the writing of very young
writers and is probably learned as what Roy O’Donnel called a “formula,” a set phrase that
is learned in essence as a vocabulary word.
4. “Belts” is the direct object of the infinitive “to win.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb (of purpose) to “use.”
5. “Parents” is the direct object of the gerundive “including.” I have marked the clause such that
the gerundive phrase modifies “adults,” but alternatively it can be seen as modifying the
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“who” (which, of course, means the adults). This would put the gerundive phrase within the
subordinate clause.
6. “Me” is both the indirect object of “helps” and the subject of the infinitive “learn.” The
infinitive phrase is the direct object of “helps.”
7. The gerund “laughing” functions as the direct object of “could not stop.”
8. “Program” is the direct object of the infinitive “to get.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adjective to “way.”
9. “Marathon” is the direct object of the infinitive “to show.” The infinitive phrase functions as a
predicate noun—The way is (equals) to show a marathon.
10. “Camping” is a gerund that functions as a Noun Used as an Adverb.
11. “Show” is the subject, and “educational” is a predicate adjective, to an ellipsed infinitive “to
be”—“I consider this show *to be* educational.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “consider.”
12. “Falling” is a gerund that functions as a subject.
13. The infinitive phrase “to get back” functions as an adjective to “how.”
14. “Your” is the subject and “Pokémon” is the direct object of the gerund “taking.” The gerund
phrase functions as the subject.
15. “Fire” is the direct object of the infinitive “to put” (or, if you prefer, “to put out”). The
infinitive phrase can be described as an adverb to “tried” and/or as an adjective to
“everything.”
16. “It” is the direct object of the infinitive “throw,” and “stick” is the direct object of the
infinitive “to pick (up).” “Dad” is the subject of both infinitives, and the infinitive phrases
function as the direct object of “saw.”
17. “Hoping” can be explained as a gerundive that modifies “dad,” or as a gerund that functions
as a Noun Used as an Adverb.
18. The easiest way to explain the function of the infinitive “to come” is to consider it an adverb
(Why?) to “was scared.” Alternatively, it can be considered a combination of a Delayed
Subject and a Retained Complement after a passive verb. The active voice version would be
“To come to the middle school scared me because . . . .”
18
19. “Getting made fun of” is idiomatic for “being embarrassed.” I’m fairly certain that
grammarians would have a variety of explanations here, but the easiest explanation for
students is to point out the idiom and say that “getting made fun of” functions as a gerund
that functions as the object of the preposition “of.”
20. If you want to get more technical, “everywhere” is a Noun Used as an Adverb in an ellipsed
subordinate (adjectival) clause—“audiences [*that are* everywhere].”
21. The “what” functions here as both subordinating conjunction and the object of the
preposition “like”—“it’s like what.” [Note that “is like” could also be described as a phrasal
verb equaling “resembles.” That makes the “what” a predicate noun instead of the object of
the preposition.]
22. The gerund “going” functions as a Delayed Subject—“teaches what going through life . . . is
like.”
4.1.2 The Subjects of Verbals
Ex. 2 - based on Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas
1. Your coming [#1] has disrupted my whole existence (DO). | 2. Finding it impossible to form any views [#2], I drifted {from one extreme} {to the
other}. |
3. To tempt the sea [#3] {in a frail boat} was certain destruction (PN)! |
4. Captain Nemo hadn't even suggested my fetching Ned or Conseil [#4]. | 5. Then, seeing [#5] [DO that Ned just let me talk [#6] {without saying much himself [#7] }
], I pressed him (DO) more closely. | 6. Given this [#8], no one will be astonished (P) {at the uproar} provoked [#9] {by this
accident} involving one [#10] {of its finest steamers}. |
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7. [Adv. [#11] "If master will permit my saying so [#12],"] [ [#13] Conseil replied], "I never
expected to win that prize [#14] ." | 8. Each man now wanted only to catch up [#15] {on his eating and sleeping [#16] }, to make
up [#17] {for the time} [Adj. to "time" he had so stupidly sacrificed]. | 9. I'll ask you (IO) [DO if the Nautilus's running [#18] afoul {of the Scotia}, [Adj. [#19]
which caused such a great uproar (DO) ], was the result (PN) {of an accidental
encounter}]? | 10. They saw nothing (DO) {except a strong eddy} breaking [#20] three cable lengths [NuA]
out, [Adv. to "breaking" as if those sheets {of water} had been violently churned (P) ]. | Notes
1. The possessive pronoun “Your” functions as the subject of the gerund “coming.”
2. “Views” is the direct object of the infinitive “to form.” The subject of this infinitive is vague
—an implicit anyone, or, more directly, the subject “I.” “To form” is a delayed subject to
the preceding “it.” “It impossible” is an ellipsed infinitive construction with “it” acting as
subject and “impossible” the predicate adjective of an ellipsed “to be.” This all means
“To form any views *to be* [is] impossible.” The ellipsed infinitive is the direct object of
the gerundive “Finding,” the subject of which is the “I” that “finding” modifies.
3. “Sea” is the direct object of the infinitive “To tempt,” which functions as the subject of “was.”
The subject of “To tempt” is implicitly anyone.
4. “Ned” and “Conseil” are direct objects of the gerund “fetching,” the subject of which is the
possessive pronoun “my.” The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of “hadn’t
suggested.”
5. The subject of the gerundive “seeing” is the “I” that it modifies.
6. The pronoun “me” (objective case) is the subject of the infinitive “talk.” The infinitive phrase
functions as the direct object of “let.”
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7. “Himself” is an appositive to the implied subject of the gerund “saying,”—“Ned.” “Much” is
the direct object of “saying,” and the gerund phrase is the object of the preposition
“without.”
8. “This” is the direct object of the gerundive “Given,” the subject of which is the word it
modifies—“no one.”
9. The subject of the gerundive “provoked” is “uproar.”
10. “One” is the direct object of the gerundive “involving,” the subject of which is “accident.” At
KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes, some people will prefer to see “accident involving” as
a noun absolute that functions as the object of the preposition “by.”
11. You won’t find this one explained in the grammar textbooks. This adverbial clause really
functions as an interjection, modifying everything after “replied.” It would be interesting
to see what grammarians would have to say about it, but the question is probably not
worth the time that it would take.
12. The possessive pronoun “my” is the subject, and “so” is the direct object of the gerund
“saying.” The gerund phrase is the direct object of “will permit.”
13. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
14. “Prize” is the direct object of the infinitive “to win.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “expected,” and the subject of the infinitive is understood to be the “I.”
15. The infinitive “to catch up” functions as the direct object of “wanted.” The understood
subject of the infinitive is “himself.”
16. The possessive pronoun “his” is the subject of the gerunds “eating” and “sleeping.” The
gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition.
17. The infinitive “to make up” functions as an adverb of purpose to “wanted,” but not that it can
also be viewed as an appositive to the “to catch up” infinitive phrase. The implicit subject
of “to make up” is also “himself.”
18. The possessive noun “Nautilus’s” functions as the subject of the gerund “running.” The
gerund functions as the subject of “was.”
19. This “which” refers to the gerund phrase the core of which is “running.”
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20. “Breaking” can be described as a gerundive modifying its subject, “eddy.” Some people,
however, will prefer to see “eddy breaking” as the core of a noun absolute that functions
as the object of the preposition “except.” This view extends the “except” phrase all the
way to the end of the sentence.
4.1.3. Passages for Analysis
Ex. 3a - A Passage for Analysis from “Bluebeard” [Skip?]
{At first} she could distinguish nothing (DO), [Adv. (cause) to "could distinguish"
for the room was dark (PA) and gloomy (PA)], | but then, all {of a sudden}, she knew
[DO what had become {of Bluebeard's other wives}], [Adv. (cause) to "knew" for there
they lay, {in a long, straight row}, all dead [#1] ]. She stood horrified (PA) [#2] {for a
moment or two}, gazing [#3] {at the pale faces, and long hair} spread [#4] out {around them}, | [#5] then picking up the little key [#6] [Adj. to "key" which [#7] she had taken {from the lock}
but dropped {in her fright}], she hastily quitted the room (DO), shut and locked the
door (DO), and ran {to her own chamber} to calm herself [#8] {before returning [#9] } {to
her guests}. | But she was unable (PA) to rest [#10] {for an instant}, [Adv. [#11] so dreadful
(PA) were her feelings]; | then {with terror} she noticed [DO that {on the key} there
was a stain (PN) ]. | She wiped it (DO) {with her handkerchief}, | but alas! [Inj] it was
blood (PN) [Adj. to "blood" that would not be wiped (P) away]. She washed the key
(DO) and rubbed it (DO), and scraped it (DO) and [#12] polished it (DO), but all [#13]
{to no purpose}, | [#14] [Adv. (condition) if she succeeded {in cleansing one side [#15] } ], the
mark came out {on the other}. | For the key was enchanted (P) . | Notes
1. “All dead” can be explained it at least two ways. One would be to consider “all” an appositive
to “they” and “dead” as a post-positioned adjective to “all.” Another would be to consider
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“all” as the subject, and “dead” as a predicate adjective in an ellipsed noun absolute
construction—“all *being* dead.” The noun absolute could then be described as adverbial to
“lay.”
2. I’ve considered this a palimpsest pattern with “stood” written over “was.” Alternatively,
“horrified” could be explained as a gerundive that modifies “She.”
3. Gerundive to “She.”
4. Gerundive to “hair.”
5. This is a comma-splice—the joining of two main clauses with just a comma. (It breaks the
textbook rules.)
6. “Key” is the direct object of “picking.” “Picking” is a gerundive that modifies the “she” that is
the subject of “quitted.” In other words, it does not modify the next “she,” but the one after
that.
7. Note that “which” functions simultaneously as a subordinating conjunction and as the direct
object of both “had taken” and “dropped.”
8. “Herself” is the direct object of the infinitive “to calm.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb (of purpose) to “ran.”
9. “Returning” is a gerund that functions as the object of the preposition.
10. The infinitive “to rest” functions as an adverb to “unable.”
11. You will have a hard time finding this clause explained in a grammar textbook. Because it
explains why she was unable to rest, I would consider it adverbial to “was” and/or “unable.”
Note that, in terms of focus, it is the reverse of “So dreadful were her feelings [Adv. (result)
that she was unable to rest for an instant].”
12. Note how much more emphatic the repetition of “and” plus the “it” are, compared to “She
washed, rubbed, scraped, and polished the key.”
13. There are several ways within KISS to explain “but all.” The easiest, but probably the
weakest, is to consider “but” a preposition and “all” its object. Perhaps the best explanation
is through ellipsis—“but *she did* all *this to no purpose.” That would make “but” a
coordinating conjunction.
14. This is another comma-splice.
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15. “Side” is the direct object of the gerund “cleansing.” The gerund phrase functions as the
object of the preposition.
Ex. 3b - “The High Dive” by a sixth grade student [Skip?]
1. People need to be brave (PA) {at times}. | One time [Adj. to "time" when
bravery was needed (P)] was [PN to "time was" when my sister was afraid (PA) to
jump [#1] {off our pool's high dive}.] | She was so terrified (P) to jump [#2] {off it} [Adv. to
"so" that she did not go {on it} {until the last day} [Adj. to "day" the pool was open
(PA).]] |
2. It was a cold and rather bitter afternoon (PN), | and the pool was somewhat
crowded (P) {because of it being the last day [#3]} [Adj. to "day" the pool was open (PA).] |
Finally, my sister said, [DO of "said" "I'm gonna do it (DO)."] | [Adv. to "were watching"
When she got {to the top},] we were watching, | but she got scared (PA) [#4] and went
back down {to the ground}. | About twenty minutes [NuA] later, she gained enough
confidence (DO) to go [#5] back up {to the high dive}. | [Adv. to "must have looked" When
she got there] it must have looked (P) {like a cliff edge} {to her}, | but she didn't let that
bother her [#6] any more. | Finally she stood {on the edge} and jumped. | It was her first
time (PN) ever to jump [#7] {off of the high dive} ever! | Both my mom and dad were very
happy (PA) {for her}! | {After that moment}, she wouldn't stop jumping [#8] {off of the
high dive}! |
3. That must have taken a lot (DO) {of bravery} {for her} {for three reasons}. | First,
how often do you see a six-year-old (DO) jumping [#9] {off a high dive}? | Second, the
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high dive is pretty high (PA) up | and, [ [#10] as I have told you (IO),] it must have
looked pretty high (PA) {to her}. | Finally Kelly (my sister [#11] ) had been wanting to
jump [#12] {off the high dive} {for as long} [#13] [Adv. to the preceding "as" as I can
remember.] | I will never forget that (DO). | Notes
1. The verbal (infinitive) “to jump” functions as an adverb to “afraid.”
2. The verbal (infinitive) “to jump” functions as an adverb to “was terrified.”
3. “Being” is a verbal (gerundive). At KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes, students will learn that
“it being . . . day” is a noun absolute that functions as the object of the preposition “because
of.” [”It” is the subject, and “day” is a predicate noun to the gerundive “being.” Together,
they form a noun absolute.
4. “Scared” is a verbal (gerundive) that functions as a predicate adjective.
5. The verbal (infinitive) “to go” functions as an adverb to “enough.”
6. “That” is the subject and “her” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “bother.” The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “didn’t let.”
7. The verbal (infinitive) “to jump” functions as an adjective to “time.”
8. The verbal (gerund) “jumping” functions as the direct object of “wouldn’t stop.”
9. “Jumping” is a verbal (gerundive) that modifies “six-year-old *child*.” At KISS Level 5.8,
some students will prefer to see “”six-year-old jumping” as the core of a noun absolute that
functions as the direct object of “do see.”
10. Some grammarians would consider this clause as adverbial. Personally, I see it functioning
more as an interjection. I would accept either explanation from students. See KISS Level
3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct Object?
11. “Sister” is an appositive to “Kelly.”
12. The verbal (infinitive) “to jump” functions as the direct object of “had been wanting.
13. Should a student question how “long” can be the object of a preposition, explain that “a
time” is assumed (ellipsed) here.
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Notes for and from the Pennsylvania 2000-2001
Writing Assessment Handbook Supplement
This is a sample based on Prompt #1 for “Conventions” with an assessment of 4 (the
highest). The handwriting is legible. A few spelling and punctuation errors have been corrected.
In the original, “have” is spelled “of” three times. Interestingly, the reasons given for the
assessment of 4 make no mention of this. The reasons given in the Supplement for the
assessment of 4 are:
While this paper is not perfect, there is evident control of grammar, mechanics,
spelling, usage and sentence formation. Finally, terrified, wouldn’t and remember are
misspelled. There is a missing period and a few missing commas. (p. 37)
4.1.4 Style - Free Sentence-Combining
Ex. 4 - Aesop’s “The Fox Who Had Lost His Tail” [Skip?]
After the students have done their combining, you might want to show them the original
text. Remember, however, that the object of the exercise is not to guess Townsend’s original
version, but rather to combine the sentences and then discuss the various ways in which students
did so.
A Fox caught in a trap escaped, but in so doing lost his tail. Thereafter, feeling
his life a burden from the shame and ridicule to which he was exposed, he schemed
to convince all the other Foxes that being tailless was much more attractive, thus
making up for his own deprivation. He assembled a good many Foxes and publicly
advised them to cut off their tails, saying that they would not only look much better
without them, but that they would get rid of the weight of the brush, which was a
very great inconvenience. One of them interrupting him said, “If you had not
yourself lost your tail, my friend, you would not thus counsel us.”If you want them to analyze this passage, the following is a key:
26
A Fox caught [#1] {in a trap} escaped, but {in so doing [#2] } lost his tail (DO). | Thereafter, feeling his life a burden [#3] {from the shame and ridicule} [Adj. to "shame" and
"ridicule" {to which} he was exposed (P) ,] he schemed to convince all the other Foxes [#4]
[DO that being tailless [#5] was much more attractive (PA),] thus making [#6] up {for his
own deprivation}. | He assembled a good [#7] many Foxes (DO) and publicly advised
them (IO) to cut off their tails [#8], saying [#9] [DO of "saying" that they would not only
look much better (PA) {without them}], but [DO of "saying" that they would get rid (P)
{of the weight} {of the brush} , [Adj. to "brush" which was a very great inconvenience
(PN).]] | One {of them} interrupting him [#10] said, [DO [Adv to "would counsel"" If you
had not yourself [#11] lost your tail (DO), my friend [DirA],] you would not thus counsel us
(DO)."] | Notes
1. The gerundive “caught” modifies “Fox.”
2. The gerund “doing” functions as the object of the preposition “in,” and “so” functions as the
direct object of “doing.”
3. “Life” is the subject and “burden” is a predicate noun to an ellipsed infinitive—“life *to be* a
burden....” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the gerundive “feeling”
which functions as an adjective to the “he” that is the subject of “schemed.”
4. “Foxes” is the indirect object, and the following clause is the direct object of the infinitive “to
convince” which functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “schemed.”
5. “Tailless” is a predicate adjective after the gerund “being” which functions as the subject.
6. The gerundive “making” modifies “he.”
7. Note how “good” here functions as an adverb modifying “many.” [It does not mean that they
were good foxes.]
8. “Tails” is the direct object of the infinitive “to cut.” “Them” is both an indirect object and the
subject of the infinitive. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “advised.”
9. The gerundive “saying” modifies “he.”
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10. “Him” is the direct object of the gerundive “interrupting” which modifies “One.”
11. “Yourself” is an appositive to “you.”
4.1.5. Just for Fun
Ex. 5 - “Home Economics”
A home-economics teacher, trying [#1] to encourage her third-graders to try new
foods [#1], had a piece (DO) {of venison}, [Adj. to "piece" or "venison" which she cut up
{into little squares}. ] | She placed the pieces (DO) {on spoons} and gave them (DO) {to
each} {of the children} . | "Now [#2], boys [DirA] and girls [DirA], the game [Adj. to "game" we're going to play ]
today is to taste this new food [#3], and to guess the name [#3] {of the animal} [Adj. to
"animal" (from which} this meat came,"] [ [#4] the teacher said.] | "I'll give you (IO) a
hint (DO) | -- it's a name (PN) [Adj. to "name" that sometimes your mommy calls your
daddy (DO) [Adv. to "calls" when he comes home [NuA] {from the office}."]] |
There [#5] was a long pause (PN). | Finally a youngster {in the back} exclaimed, [DO
of "exclaimed" "*You* Don't eat it (DO)!"] | Notes
1. “Foods” is the direct object of the infinitive “to try.” “Third-graders” is the subject of that
infinitive, and that infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the infinitive “to
encourage.” The “to encourage” phrase functions as the direct object of “trying,” which is a
gerundive to “teacher.”
2. “Now” would normally be considered an adverb, but it functions here more as an interjection.
3. “Food” is the direct object of the infinitive “to taste”; “name” is the direct object of the
infinitive “to guess.” The infinitives function as predicate nouns to “game is.”
4. See “Subordinate Clauses - Direct Object or Interjection.”
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5. See also “Expletive ‘There’.”
Level 4.2 - A Focus on GerundsLevel 4.2 - A Focus on Gerunds
Notes for TeachersNotes for Teachers
Gerunds are the simplest verbals to understand. There are only two problems that I have
seen students have with them. The first is in writing. Some students have trouble with gerunds as
subjects. Thus, instead of writing “Playing baseball taught me a lot,” you may get sentences such
as “By playing baseball taught me a lot.” KISS helps students with this problem back in Level
1.5. - Adding Simple Prepositional Phrases. There students were taught to put prepositional
phrases in parentheses, and if they did that with “By playing baseball,” they found that they did
not have a subject for “taught.” The second problem is not just analytical—it may involve
reading skills. Instead of seeing “Playing” as the subject of our sample sentence, some students
may argue that “baseball” is the subject. Usually, one or two other examples of gerunds as
subjects convince such students. For example, “Watching people is educational.” Most students
will agree that the verb here should be “is” and not “are.” In addition, students easily see that
“People is educational” is not what the sentence means. Thus the gerund “Watching” is the
subject.
The Exercises on Gerunds
Section One includes two exercises that focus on identification. Section Two (one
exercise) provides more practice with the subjects of gerunds. Section Three is an exercise on a
construction that frequently raises questions. In a sentence such as “They went hunting,” how
does one explain “hunting”? In KISS, we simply consider it to be a gerund that functions as a
Noun Used as an Adverb. (Gerunds can function in any way that a noun can.) Section Four is a
“Treasure Hunt.”
4.2.1 Identification of Gerunds
Ex. 1a – “The boys and girls like racing”
1. The boys and girls like racing (DO) {against each other}. |
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2. Playing baseball (DO of "playing") {in the park} is fun (PA). |
3. They thought {about playing baseball (DO of "playing")} {with the girls}. | 4. George has the tools (DO) and wood (DO) {for making a birdhouse (DO of
"making")}. |
5. Giving a talk (DO of "giving") {to the class} is not difficult (PA). |
6. My little brother enjoys watching (DO) T.V. (DO of "watching") {in the evening}. |
7. My friends couldn't stop laughing (DO) {at the joke}. | 8. The kids woke everyone (DO) up {by making (OP) lots (DO of "making") } {of
noise}. |
9. You'd feel {like saving (OP) the kittens (DO of "saving"). } |
10. Going {to the movies} is just wasting (PN) money (DO of "wasting"). |
11. My favorite activity is riding (PN) my bike (DO of "riding"). |
12. Sand is used (P) {for making (OP) glass (DO of "making") }. |
Ex. 1b - Based on Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas
1. I loved hearing the tales [#1] {of his adventures} {in the polar seas}. |
2. "Well [Inj], sir [DirA], closing the hatches [#2] should do the trick (DO)." | 3. {After cruising [#3] } {along the Cartier, Hibernia, Seringapatam, and Scott reefs}, the solid
element's last exertions [#4] {against the liquid element}, we were {beyond all sight} {of
shore} {by January 14}. | 4. [Subj. What amazes me (DO)] is thinking (PN) [#5] [DO we'll be there the day [NuA]
{after tomorrow}]. |
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5. I realized, moreover, [DO that Ned Land's brooding [#6] was getting him madder [#7]
{by the minute}]. |
6. {During the day} {of December 11} , I was busy (PA) reading [#8] {in the main lounge}. | 7. But {in the meantime} I would have to look {for this narwhale} {in the northern Pacific
Ocean}; [ [#9] which meant returning [#10] {to France} {by way} {of the Antipodes} ]. | 8. [Adv. to "is" Since we're deep {in the ocean}], being [#11] {inside this boat} is vastly
preferable (PA) {to being [#11] } {above it} or {below it}! | 9. It took the liberty (DO) {of thumbing its nose [#12] } {at the frigate} {by running a full
circle [#12] } {around us} ! | 10. That was a stroke (PN) {of genius}, catching one [#13] {of these live birds} {with your
bare hands}! | 11. "But to get [#14] {near it}," [ [#15] the commander went on], "I'd have to put a
whaleboat (DO) {at your disposal}?" |
"Certainly, sir [DirA]." | [#16]
"That would be gambling (PN) [#17] {with the lives} {of my men} ." | Notes
1. “Tales” is the direct object of the gerund “hearing.” The gerund phrase functions as the direct
object of “loved.”
2. “Hatches” is the direct object of the gerund “Closing.” The gerund phrase functions as the
subject of “should do.”
3. The gerund “cruising” functions as the object of the preposition “After.”
4. “Exertions” is an appositive to “reefs.” See KISS Level 5.4 - Appositives. (Be sure to praise
any students who figure this one out.)
5. “Thinking” is a gerund. The following clause is its direct object.
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6. “Brooding” is a gerund. Note that its subject is a possessive noun.
7. “Him” is the subject, and “madder” is a predicate adjective, to an ellipsed infinitive “to be.”
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “was getting.”
8. “Reading” is a gerund that functions as a Noun Used as an Adverb.
9. This “which” refers to the verb in the preceding clause—“having to look meant returning . . . .
” Grammarians don’t discuss this type of clause so students can consider it either adjectival
or adverbial. See KISS Level 3.2.4 - “Tag” and Other Questions about Clauses.
10. “Returning” is a gerund that functions either as a direct object or as a predicate noun,
depending on how one views the meaning of “meant.” (Does “having to look” equal
“returning”?)
11. The first “being” is a gerund that functions as the subject of “is”; the second “being” is a
gerund that functions as the object of the preposition “to.”
12. “Nose” is the direct object of the gerund “thumbing” which functions as the object of the
preposition “of”; “circle” is the direct object of the gerund “running” which functions as the
object of the preposition “by.”
13. “One” is the direct object of the gerund “catching.” The gerund phrase functions as a
Delayed Subject—“Catching . . . was a stroke of genius.” See KISS Level 5.6 - Delayed
Subjects and Sentences.
14. The infinitive “to get” functions as an adverb of purpose to “would have to put.”
15. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
16. This is, of course, a fragment.
17. “Gambling” is a rare example of a gerund that functions as a predicate noun. (“Putting a
whaleboat” = “gambling with the lives on my men.”)
4.2.2. The Subjects of Gerunds
Ex. 2 - * Adapted from Beveridge's English for Use
1. There is no use (PN) {of my waiting [#1] }. |
2. The idea {of your coming [#2] } {on Christmas} pleases me (DO). |
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3. They realized the importance (DO) {of the Williams' returning [#3] promptly}. |
4. Was there a chance (PN) {of his stopping the car [#4] }? |
5. Mother did not like Will's [#5] staying (DO) out so late. |
6. Suzanne's [#6] winning the race [#6] surprised everyone (DO). |
7. The blizzard prevented Bill's [#7] arriving (DO) {on time}. |
8. {In spite} {of their mistaking the way [#8] }, they arrived {in time}. |
9. John's biggest fault {as a speaker} is his [#9] mumbling (PN) . |
10. I do not like her running (DO) [#10] so fast {on the ice}. | Notes
1. “My” is the subject of the gerund “waiting.” The gerund phrase functions as the object of “of.”
2. “Your” is the subject of the gerund “coming.” The gerund phrase functions as the object of
“of.”
3. “Williams’” is the subject of the gerund “returning.” The gerund phrase functions as the object
of “of.”
4. “His” is the subject, and “car” is the direct object of the gerund “stopping.” The gerund phrase
functions as the object of “of.”
5. “Will’s” is the subject of the gerund “staying.”
6. “Suzanne’s” is the subject and “race” is the direct object of the gerund “winning.” The gerund
phrase functions as the subject of “surprised.”
7. “Bill’s” is the subject of the gerund “arriving.” The gerund phrase functions as the direct
object of “prevented.”
8. “Their” is the subject and “way” is the direct object of the gerund “mistaking.” The gerund
phrase functions as the object of “of.”
9. “His” is the subject of the gerund “mumbling.” The gerund phrase functions as a predicate
noun.
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10. “Her” can be explained as the (adjectival) subject of the gerund “running.” Because “her” is
both the possessive form of the adjective and the objective form of the pronoun, “her” can
be alternatively explained as a pronoun modified by the gerundive “running.” This would
make “her running” a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of “do like.” See
KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes.
4.2.3 Gerunds as Nouns Used as Adverbs
Ex. 3 - From 20,000 Leagues Under the Seas, by Jules Verne
Note that in several cases, the gerund used as an adverb can also be explained as a gerundive that modifies a noun in the same clause.
1. Sometimes I go hunting [#1] right {in the midst} {of this element} [Adj. to "element" that
has long seemed so far {out of man's reach}], | and I corner the game (DO) [Adj. to
"game" that dwells {in my underwater forests}]. | 2. Conseil and Ned Land, enraptured [#2] {with their meal}, were busy (PA) devouring
it [#3] {to the last crumb}. |
3. My article was hotly debated, causing a fine old uproar [#4]. |
4. Steam rushed whistling [#5] {into the gaping valves}. | 5. But this stubborn Canadian spent eight hours (DO) {out of every twelve} reading [#6]
or sleeping [#6] {in his cabin}. |
6. The frigate won't have any difficulty (DO) getting repairs [#7] {at the nearest port}. | 7. {Near the middle} {of the platform} , the skiff was half set (P) {in the ship's hull}, making a
slight bulge [#8]. |
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8. The soil was almost entirely madreporic (PA), | but certain dry stream beds were
strewn (P) {with granite rubble}, proving [#9] [DO that this island was {of primordial
origin} (PA)]. | Notes
1. The gerund “hunting” functions as an adverb to “go.”
2. “Enraptured” is a gerundive that modifies “Conseil” and “Ned Land.”
3. “It” is the direct object of the gerund “devouring.” The gerund phrase functions as an adverb
(of manner) to “busy.”
4. “Uproar” is the direct object of the gerund “causing.” The gerund phrase functions as an
adverb to “hotly,” which connects it to “was debated.” Some thoughtful students might also
note that the gerund phrase can also be seen as an appositive to “was hotly debated.” (In
essence, do they not mean the same thing?)
5. “Whistling” is a gerund that functions as an adverb to “rushed.” [Note that in “KISS Level
2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns,” students were shown how to analyze this sentence as a
palimpsest. As such, the finite verb phrase is “was whistling” with “rushed” written over
“was.”]
6. The gerunds “reading” and “sleeping” function as adverbs (of manner) to “spent.”
7. “Repairs” is the direct object of the gerund “getting.” The gerund phrase can be seen as an
adverb to “won’t have.” In this case, however, some people may prefer to see it as the object
of an ellipsed preposition—“*in* getting repairs . . .” The prepositional phrase can then be
seen either as adverbial to “won’t have” or as adjectival to “difficulty.”
8. “Bulge” is the direct object of the gerund “making.” The gerund phrase is adverbial (result) to
“was half set.”
9. The gerund “proving” functions as an adverb (result) to “were strewn.”
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Ex. 4 A Treasure Hunt [Skip?]
Level 4.3 - A Focus on GerundivesLevel 4.3 - A Focus on Gerundives
Notes for TeachersNotes for Teachers
Gerundives are the most important verbal for students to study. You will not find the term
“gerundive” in most, if any, current grammar textbooks—they use the term “participle.” But the
problem with the term “participle” is that it refers to the form, not the function, of gerundives. In
“They were playing in the park,” for example, “playing” is a participle, but it is part of the finite
verb phrase. In “Playing in the park, they had a good time,” “Playing” is also a “participle” in
form, and it is so explained in most textbooks. But in this case “Playing” functions as an
adjective to “they.” Using one term for two different functions confuses both students and some
teachers.
Gerundives also have an adverbial function, but KISS focuses on their adjectival function
for the simple reason that misplaced (sometimes called “dangling”) modifiers are almost always
the result of students not seeing the adjectival function of gerundives. For example, a student
wrote, “Thrown from the car, he saw her lying on the ground.” The student meant that she had
been thrown from the car, but most readers would see “Thrown” as chunking to “he.”
The Exercises on Gerundives
Section One (two exercises) simply helps students identify gerundives and their adjectival
function. Section Two (one exercise) is a passage for analysis that can be used for the same
purpose. The stylistic possibilities of gerundives raise the question of whether or not gerundive
phrases should be set off by commas. Some textbooks either say or imply that they should be,
especially when they come at the beginning of a sentence. You will find, however, that many
writers do not follow these rules. Section Three (one exercise) invites students to explore this
punctuation question.
Sections Four, Five, and Six focus on style. Stylistically, understanding gerundives is far
more important than understanding either gerunds or infinitives. Gerundives offer more stylistic
options. Consider the sentence:
Terri was walking in the park, and she saw a beautiful bird.
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This can be rewritten as a subordinate clause:
When she was walking in the park, Terri saw a beautiful bird.
But it can also be rewritten with a gerundive:
Walking in the park, Terri saw a beautiful bird.
Section Four (one exercise) asks students to take sentences written as main clauses, and (as in
the preceding example) rewrite them by making one clause subordinate and rewrite it again by
making that subordinate clause a gerundive. Section Five (two exercises) provides students with
practice in stylistic flexibility. They skip the clause part, and simply ask students to rewrite
sentences by making a gerundive a finite verb or by making a finite verb a gerundive.
Section Six is one “Free Sentence-Combining” exercise. In this case, however, the texts
chosen for the exercise include a fair number of gerundives. As in all such “free” exercises, the
original text has been de-combined into short sentences. Although this is a “free” exercise, the
directions do ask students to use gerundives as they combine the sentences.
Section Seven, (“Just for Fun,”) is the same in all of the “grade-level” books—Robert
Southey’s humorous poem, “The Cataract of Lodore.” Its humor derives from the
overwhelming number of gerundives that Southey used to describe the water as it flows down
the cataract. Eight is a “Treasure Hunt.”
4.3.1 Identification of Gerundives
Ex. 1a - From Edric Vredenburg’s “The White Cat” [Skip?]
1. He travelled on, keeping [#1] {to one road}. |
2. They began to laugh [#2] {at him}, and drove on followed [#3] {by the young Prince}. |
3. Turning [#4] {to the Prince} she told the story (DO) {of her life}. |
4. The little figure approached him (DO), raising the veil [#5] , | and he saw the most
beautiful White Cat (DO) [#6] [Adj. to "White Cat" he had ever beheld]. |
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5. Addressing the Prince [#7] she said: [DO "King's son [DirA] ! *you are * welcome (PA)
]! | [#8] my Feline Majesty sees you (DO) {with pleasure}!" |6. The Prince [Adj. to "Prince" [#9] who had remained {in the carriage} ], saw his
brothers (DO), approaching [#10] {with wondrously beautiful ladies}. |7. She made a deep curtsey (DO) {to the King} [Adj. to "King" who, struck [#11] {with
admiration}, could not help exclaiming [#12] , [DO "Here is one (PN) [Adj. to "one"
who is matchless (PA) ]]], | and she deserves my crown (DO)." | 8. Then there [#13] entered an immense number {of lords and ladies}, [Adj. to "lords and
ladies" who carrying their cats' skins [#14] , or {with them} thrown [#15] {across their
shoulders}, came and cast themselves (DO) {at the feet} {of the Queen} , expressing
their joy [#16] {at seeing her [#17] again } {in her rightful form} ]. | Notes
1. “Keeping” is a gerundive to “He.”
2. The infinitive “to laugh” is the direct object of “began.”
3. “Followed” is a gerundive to “They.” Note that whereas “keeping” in the first sentence, is set
off by a comma, “followed” is not. This is, in other words, an optional place for a comma
unless a comma in necessary to avoid confusion.
4. “Turning” is a gerundive to “she.”
5. “Veil” is the direct object of the gerundive “raising” which modifies “figure.” In this case, the
comma before “raising” cuts it off from “him.” Otherwise, some readers might initially
chunk “raising” to “him.”
6. Because “White” is capitalized, I have considered it part of the name, and thus not an
adjective, even though it is one.
7. “Prince” is the direct object of the gerundive “Addressing” which modifies “she.”
8. There are a number of ways of explaining “Welcome” here. One alternative would be to
consider it a verb—“*We* welcome *you.*” Another would be to consider it an
interjection. The only case in which the explanation makes a difference is in statistical
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studies. For more on the main-clause break here, see KISS Level 3.1.2 Noun Clauses as
Direct Objects.
9. Prescriptive grammarians will claim that there should be a comma after “Prince” because there
is one after “carriage.” As it stands, the clause is half set-off and half not. (Personally, I
would suggest that students include the comma.)
10. “Approaching” is a gerundive to “brothers.”
11. “Struck” is a gerundive to “who.”
12. Alternatively, “exclaiming” can be explained as a gerund that functions as the direct object of
“could help.”
13. Alternatively, “there” can be described as an expletive or as the subject in a palimpsest
pattern with “entered” written over “was.” See KISS Level 2.1.3 - Expletives (Optional).
14. “Skins” is the direct object of the gerundive “carrying” which modifies “who.” {Here again
we have the question of a comma after “who.”)
15. “Thrown” an be explained as a gerundive that modifies “them.” At KISS Level 5.8 - Noun
Absolutes, some people may prefer to explain “them thrown” as a noun absolute that
functions as the object of the preposition “with.”
16. “Joy” is the direct object of the gerundive “expressing.” The gerundive phrase modifies
“themselves.” Note the importance of the comma in separating “expressing” from “Queen.”
17. “Her” is the direct object of the gerund “seeing.” The gerund phrase functions as the object
of the preposition.
Ex. 1b - From The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson Burnett
Note that many of these gerundives could also be described as gerunds that function as
nouns used as adverbs.
1. The station-master spoke {to Mrs. Medlock} {in a rough, good-natured way},
pronouncing his words [#1] {in a queer broad fashion} [Adj. to "fashion" which [ [#2]
Mary found out afterward] was Yorkshire (PA) ]. | 2. Presently an old man {with a spade} {over his shoulder} walked {through the door}
leading [#3] {from the second garden}. |
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3. Mary, kneeling [#4] {by him} holding the seeds [#4], looked {at him} and stopped
frowning [#5]. | 4. Mary asked no more questions (DO) but waited {in the darkness} {of her corner},
keeping her eyes [#6] {on the window}. | 5. She did not even answer Mrs. Medlock (DO), but turned and walked {into her
bedroom}, followed [#7] {by Martha}. | 6. He began to dig [#8] again, driving his spade [#9] deep {into the rich black garden soil}
[Adv. to "driving" while the robin hopped about very busily employed [#10] ]. | 7. Mary was down {on her knees} [Adv. to "was" before he spoke], gazing [#11] {with all
her might}. | 8. She moved away {from the door}, stepping [#12] as softly [Adv. to "as" as if she were
[#13] afraid (PA) {of awakening some one [#14] } ]. | 9. A boy was sitting {under a tree}, {with his back} {against it} , playing [#15] {on a rough
wooden pipe}. |
10. And the roses -- the roses! [#16] | Rising [#17] {out of the grass}, tangled [#17] {round the
sun-dial}, wreathing the tree trunks [#17] and hanging [#17] {from their branches},
climbing [#17] {up the walls} and spreading [#17] {over them} {with long garlands} falling
[#18] {in cascades} -- they came alive (PA) day [NuA] {by day}, hour [NuA] {by hour}. | Notes
1. “Words” is the direct object of the gerundive “pronouncing.” The gerundive phrase modifies
“station-master.”
2. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
3. The gerundive “leading” modifies “door.”
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4. The gerundives “kneeling” and “holding” modify “Mary.” “Seeds” is the direct object of
“holding.”
5. The gerund “frowning” is the direct object of “stopped.”
6. “Eyes” is the direct object of the gerundive “keeping.” The gerundive phrase modifies
“Mary.”
7. The gerundive “followed” modifies “She.”
8. The infinitive “to dig” is the direct object of “began.”
9. “Spade” is the direct object of the gerundive “driving.” The gerundive phrase modifies “He.”
10. The gerundive “employed” modifies “robin.”
11. The gerundive “gazing” modifies “Mary.”
12. The gerundive “stepping” modifies “She.”
13. “Were” is a subjunctive. See KISS Level 2.1.7 - The KISS Perspective on the Subjunctive
Mood.
14. “(Some) one” is the direct object of the gerund “awakening.” The gerund phrase functions as
the object of the preposition.
15. The gerundive “playing” modifies “boy.”
16. This is a fragment.
17. The gerundives “Rising,” “tangled,” “wreathing,” “hanging,” “climbing,’ and “spreading”
modify “they,” which, of course, goes back to “roses.” “Trunks” is the direct object of
“wreathing.” [Note the parallel construction of the six gerundives.]
18. The gerundive “falling” modifies “garlands.” Note how “falling” ends the visual perspective
that begins with “rising.”
4.3.2 A Passage for Analysis
Ex. 2 - From “The White Cat” [Skip?]
Early the next morning [NuA] the hands awoke him (DO), and dressing him [#1] {in a
handsome hunting costume}, led him (DO) {to the courtyard}, [Adj. to "courtyard" where
he found the White Cat (DO) {upon a splendid monkey} [#2] , {with about five hundred
other cats} assembled [#3], all ready [#4] {for the chase}; | [#5] and never had the Prince
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enjoyed anything (DO) so much, [Adv. (cause) to "never" for [Adv. (condition) to rode"
although *he was* [#6] mounted only {upon a wooden horse}], he rode {at a great pace}]. | Notes
1. “Him” is the direct object of the gerundive “dressing” which modifies “hands.”
2. Alternatively, some people will see this prepositional phrase as an adjective to “White Cat.” In
terms of meaning, there is an ellipsis involved here—he found her *seated* upon a splendid
monkey.”
3. “Assembled” can be described as a gerundive to “cats.” At KISS Level 5.8 Noun Absolutes,
some people will prefer to see “cats assembled” as a noun absolute that functions as the
object of the preposition “with.”
4. There are several ways of explaining “all ready.” Perhaps the simplest is to consider “all” an
adverb to “ready” which functions as a post-positioned adjective to “cats”—cats ... *who
were* all ready.” An example of another alternative would be to consider “all” a pronoun,
the subject of an ellipsed “being”—“all *being* ready ....” This view results in a noun
absolute that can be explained as an adverb to “assembled” and/or an appositive to “cats.”
5. Note the importance of this semicolon in forming a stronger break (thereby suggesting a main-
clause break) after all the commas in the preceding main clause.
6. This is a semi-reduced clause in which we have a subordinating conjunction and the verb has
been reduced to what looks like a gerundive. See KISS Level 3.2.1 - Semi-Reduced and
Other Ellipsed Clauses.
4.3.3 Exploring the Punctuation of Gerundives
Ex. 3 - From “Bluebeard” [Skip?]
The punctuation of gerundives is related to the restrictive/non-restrictive punctuation of
subordinate clauses. (See Exercises 6 and 7 under Adjectival Clauses in KISS Level 3.1.2 - Subordinate
Clauses.) When the restrictive relationship become very strong, some people will see the gerundive plus
the noun it modifies as the core of a noun absolute that functions in the same way that traditional
grammars would explain the function of the noun being modified. For more on this, see KISS Level 5.8 -
Noun Absolutes.
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1. {In the long ago times}, {in a splendid house}, surrounded {by fine gardens and a park}, there lived a man (PN) [#1] [Adj. to "man" who had riches (DO) {in abundance}]. |
The “surrounded” phrase is non-restrictive. It could be left out without affecting the meaning or flow of the text.
2. They could not enough admire the magnificent apartments (DO), and ran {from one}
{to another} praising everything [Adj. to "everything" they beheld]. | A comma before “praising” would be optional. The lack of one suggests that the running and the “praising” are closely connected. (“Everything” is the direct object of the gerundive,)
3. Most sumptuous (PA) was the entertainment provided {for them}. | In context, the “provided for them” phrase is probably superfluous, so it really does not add additional information (as a non-restrictive construction usually does). In addition, I cannot imagine a writer who would set the “provided” phrase off with a comma. At KISS Level 5.8, some people will prefer to see “entertainment provided” as a noun absolute that functions as the subject.
4. That same evening [NuA] Bluebeard returned saying [DO he had met the man (DO) [Adj. to "man" whom [#2] he was wanting to see]]. |
Does the lack of a comma before “saying” emphasize that the two actions (“returned” and “saying”) occurred simultaneously? (A comma would surely be acceptable here.)
5. Not pausing an instant [NuA], she thrust the key (DO) {into the lock}, and the door sprang [#3] open (PA). |
A comma tends to be the norm after gerundive phrases that open a sentence, but they are not always used. (See # 8.)
6. About a month [NuA] later, Bluebeard told his wife (IO) [DO that he must leave her (DO) {for several weeks}, having to travel {on business}]. |
Here the comma separates the gerundive from both “weeks” and “her,” which some people might initially take as its subject, and thus throws the reference back to “he.”
7. Not knowing the fate {of the other wives}, they did not like to risk disappearing [#4] {from the world} [Adv. to "disappearing" as those had done]. |
As in # 5, the initial gerundive phrase is set off by a comma, but in this case, the phrase is longer. “Fate” is the direct object of the gerundive “knowing.”
8. But being very polite young women they would not refuse Bluebeard's proposals (DO) outright. |
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Here we have a case that is almost identical to # 7, but the author (and editor?) chose not to use a comma. Apparently, the comma is optional. “Women” is a predicate noun after the gerundive “being.”
9. "Sister Anne [DirA], Sister Anne [DirA], *you* look once again, | [#5] can you see no one coming?" [Inj. [#6] whispered the young wife wringing her hands]. |
“No one coming” is easily explained as a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of “can see.” The speaker does not care about Anne seeing anyone who is not coming--she is only interested (restrictive) to someone who is coming.
A comma before “wringing” would be normal and acceptable, but the writer chose not to use one. “Hands” is the direct object of “wringing.”
10. But Bluebeard would wait not a moment [NuA] longer, and nearly dead {with terror} his wife descended, still entreating him to spare her life [#7] . |
“Dead” is, in form, a gerundive, but it functions as an adjective. Some writers, however, would have set the phrase off with commas -- “and, nearly dead with terror, his wife ....”
The comma before “still” sets off the “entreating” phrase. In this case, the comma adds emphasis to “descended,” i.e., obeyed. Without the comma, some readers might easily reading “his wife descended still entreating...” as a palimpsest pattern which would make “entreating” the main finite verb. (See KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.)
Notes
1. KISS explains this pattern as a palimpsest pattern with “lived” written over “was.” See KISS
Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns. For alternative explanations within KISS, see KISS Level
2.1.3 - Expletives (Optional).
2. “Whom” is simultaneously a subordinating conjunction and the direct object of the infinitive
“to see.” The infinitive phrase functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “was waiting.”
3. This is a palimpsest pattern with “sprang” written over “became.”
4. “Disappearing” is a gerund that functions as the direct object of the infinitive “to risk” which
functions as the direct object of “did not like.”
5. This is a comma-splice -- two main clauses joined only by a comma.
6. For more on this, see KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct Object?
7. “Life” is the direct object of the infinitive “to spare.” “Him” is both the indirect object of
“entreating” and the subject of the infinitive. The infinitive phrase is the direct object of the
gerundive “entreating.”
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4.3.4. Style - From Main Clause to Subordinate Clause to Gerundive
Ex. 4 - Based on The Queen of the Pirate Isle, by Bret Harte
1. She could see the far off cloud (DO) {of dust}. | It was following the mountain stage
coach (DO). | SC: She could see the far off cloud of dust [Adj. to "cloud" and/or "dust" that was following the mountain stage coach]. | Gerundive: She could see the far off cloud of dust following the mountain stage coach. |
2. Five minutes [NuA] later the tunnel men {of the Excelsior mine}, were, a mile [NuA] below,
taking their luncheon (DO) {on the rude platform} {of débris } {before their tunnel} . | They were suddenly driven (P) to shelter [#1] {in the tunnel} {from an apparent rain} {of
stones, and rocks, and pebbles}, {from the cliffs above}. | SC: Five minutes later the tunnel men of the Excelsior mine, [Adj. to "men" who were, a mile below, taking their luncheon on the rude platform of débris before their tunnel], were suddenly driven to shelter in the tunnel from an apparent rain of stones, and rocks, and pebbles, from the cliffs above. | Gerundive: Five minutes later the tunnel men of the Excelsior mine, a mile below, taking their luncheon on the rude platform of débris before their tunnel, were suddenly driven to shelter in the tunnel from an apparent rain of stones, and rocks, and pebbles, from the cliffs above. |
3. The "slide" was simply a sharp incline (PN). | It went zigzagging [#2] {down the side}
{of the mountain}, | and it was used (P) {for sliding goods and provisions [#3] } {from
the summit} {to the tunnel men} {at the different openings below} . | SC: The "slide" was simply a sharp incline [Adj. to "incline" that went zigzagging down the side of the mountain and was used for sliding goods and provisions from the summit to the tunnel men at the different openings below]. | Gerundive: The "slide" was simply a sharp incline zigzagging down the side of the mountain and used for sliding goods and provisions from the summit to the tunnel men at the different openings below. |
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4. They seized each other's hands (DO) and swung them (DO) backwards and forwards.
| They occasionally lifted their legs (DO) {in a solemn rhythmic movement} known [#4]
only {to childhood}. |
SC: They seized each other's hands and swung them backwards and forwards, [Adv. to "swung" while they occasionally lifted their legs in a solemn rhythmic movement known only to childhood]. | Gerundive: They seized each other's hands and swung them backwards and forwards, occasionally lifting their legs in a solemn rhythmic movement known only to childhood. |
5. He had been wildly swimming {for his life} and carrying Polly (DO) {on his back}, |
but he eventually reached a Desert Island (DO) {in the closet}. |
SC: [Adv. to "reached" Although he had been wildly swimming for his life and carrying Polly on his back], he eventually reached a Desert Island in the closet. | Gerundive: Wildly swimming for his life and carrying Polly on his back, he eventually reached a Desert Island in the closet. |
Notes
1. If we consider “shelter” a verb (and not a noun), then “to shelter” is an infinitive that functions
as a retained direct object after the passive “were driven.” See KISS Level 5.7 - Passive
Voice and Retained Complements.
2. See KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns. In this case, “went” is written over “was.”
3. “Goods” and “provisions” are direct objects of the gerund “sliding.” The gerund phrase (plus
its modifiers) functions as the object of “for.”
4. “Known” is a gerundive to “movement.”
4.3.5 Style - Rewriting Gerundives as Finite Verbs
Notes for TeachersNotes for Teachers
Note that we are dealing with questions of style—not correctness. These sentences can be
de-combined into very simple (some would say “immature” sentences), or they can be rewritten
in different ways that change the focus or even the logical relationships between ideas. Finite
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verbs tend to bring ideas to the surface—and shine light on them. Gerundives turn the verbs into
modifiers—secondary information. Subordinate clauses, some would argue, not only create a
focus mid-way between finite verbs in main clauses and gerundives, but the subordinating
conjunctions also add information about the logical relationships between the ideas in the
clauses.
The following key gives only some of the numerous possibilities for changing the style and
focus.
Ex. 5a - Adapted from English for Use [Skip?]
Possible Answers:
A. Rewriting Gerundives as Finite Verbs
1. The man, shaking his fist, shouted at the boy.
Separate Main Clauses: The man was shaking his fist. He shouted at the boy. Compound Finite Verbs: The man was shaking his fist and shouted at the boy. Subordinate Clause: The man, who was shaking his fist, shouted at the boy. Subordinate Clause: As the man shook his fist, he shouted at the boy.
2. The boy, trembling with fear, hid in the bushes.
Separate Main Clauses: The boy was trembling with fear. He hid in the bushes. Compound Finite Verbs: The boy trembled with fear and hid in the bushes. Subordinate Clause: The boy, who was trembling with fear, hid in the bushes. Subordinate Clause: The boy was trembling with fear as he hid in the bushes.
3. Several times he rushed at me, evidently expecting me to flee or strike at him.
Separate Main Clauses: Several times he rushed at me. Evidently he was expecting me to flee or strike at him.
Compound Finite Verbs: Several times he rushed at me and evidently was expecting me to flee or strike at him.
Subordinate Clause: As he rush at me several times, he was evidently expecting me to flee or strike at him.
Subordinate Clause: He rush at me several times, for he was evidently expecting me to flee or strike at him.
4. At last the brute, subdued by my steady look, obeyed my command.
Separate Main Clauses: At last the brute was subdued by my steady look. He obeyed my command.
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Compound Finite Verbs: At last the brute was subdued by my steady look and obeyed my command.
Subordinate Clause: At last the brute, who was subdued by my steady look, obeyed my command.
Subordinate Clause: Because the brute was subdued by my steady look, he at last obeyed my command.
5. Driven back to his kennel, he stood and growled at me.
Separate Main Clauses: He was driven back to his kennel, and he stood and growled at me. Compound Finite Verbs: He was driven back to his kennel, and stood and growled at me. Subordinate Clause: He was driven back to his kennel, where he stood and growled at me. Subordinate Clause: After he was driven back to his kennel, he stood and growled at me.
B. Rewriting Finite Verbs as Gerundives
1. The man who was sowing the seed moved slowly across the field.
Sowing the seed, the man moved slowly across the field. [puts the focus on "moved"] The man sowed the seed, moving slowly across the field. [puts the focus on "sowed"]
2. The elm trees bordered the field and showed dark against the sky.
Bordering the field, the elm trees showed dark against the sky. [puts the focus on "showed"] The elm trees, showing dark against the sky, bordered the field. [puts the focus on "bordered"]
3. Although they were surrounded by foes, they held their ground and fought desperately.
Surrounded by foes, they held their ground and fought desperately. [puts the focus on "held" and "fought]
Holding their ground and fighting desperately, they were surrounded by foes. [puts the focus on "surrounded"]
4. The dog rushed out upon me and left me no chance for retreat.
Rushing out upon me, the dog left me no chance for retreat. [puts the focus on "left"] The dog rushed out upon me, leaving me no chance for retreat. [puts the focus on
"rushed"]5. I stood perfectly quiet and looked down into the beast's savage face.
I stood perfectly quiet, looking down into the beast's savage face. [puts the focus on "stood"]
Standing perfectly quiet, I looked down into the beast's savage face. [puts the focus on "looked"]
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Ex. 5b - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri [Skip?]
A. Rewriting Gerundives as Finite Verbs
Directions: Rewrite each sentence by changing gerundives into finite verbs.
1. Miss Rottenmeier, slowly getting up, approached the newcomers. Separate Main Clauses: Miss Rottenmeier slowly got up. She approached the
newcomers.
Compound Finite Verbs: Miss Rottenmeier slowly got up and approached the
newcomers.
Subordinate Clause: Miss Rottenmeier, [who got up slowly,] approached the
newcomers. [Puts the focus on "approached the newcomers."]
Subordinate Clause: Miss Rottenmeier got up slowly [before she approached the
newcomers]. [Puts the focus on "approached the newcomers."]
2. The grandfather, keeping his word, took Heidi down the following day with the same
instructions as before.
Compound Finite Verbs: The grandfather kept his word and took Heidi down the
following day with the same instructions as before.
Subordinate Clause: The grandfather, [who kept his word,] took Heidi down the
following day with the same instructions as before. [Puts the focus on "took Heidi."]
Subordinate Clause: The grandfather, [who took Heidi down the following day with the
same instructions as before,] kept his word. [Puts the focus on "kept his word."]
3. Heidi, grasping the grandmother's outstretched hands, sat herself on a low stool at the old
woman's feet and began to chat.
Compound Finite Verbs: Heidi grasped the grandmother's outstretched hands, sat
herself on a low stool at the old woman's feet and began to chat.
Subordinate Clause: Heidi, [who grasped the grandmother's outstretched hands and sat
herself on a low stool at the old woman's feet], began to chat. [Puts the focus on
"began to chat."]
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Subordinate Clause: Heidi grasped the grandmother's outstretched hands [as she sat
herself on a low stool at the old woman's feet and began to chat]. [Puts the focus on
"grasped the grandmother's outstretched hands."]
Subordinate Clause: Heidi [who grasped the grandmother's outstretched hands and
began to chat] sat herself on a low stool at the old woman's feet. [Puts the focus on
"sat."]
4. Following the maid, they found themselves in the study.
Compound Finite Verbs: They followed the maid and found themselves in the study.
Subordinate Clause: [As they followed the maid] they found themselves in the study.
[Puts the focus on "found themselves."]
Subordinate Clause: They followed the maid [until they found themselves in the study].
[Puts the focus on "followed the maid."]
5. She quickly picked some fragrant herbs and holding them under the animal's nose, she said
soothingly: "Come, come, Thistlefinch, and be sensible."
Compound Finite Verbs: She quickly picked some fragrant herbs, held them under the
animal's nose, and said soothingly: "Come, come, Thistlefinch, and be sensible."
Subordinate Clause: [As she quickly picked some fragrant herbs and held them under
the animal's nose], she said soothingly: "Come, come, Thistlefinch, and be sensible."
[Puts the focus on "said."]
B. Rewriting Finite Verbs as Gerundives
Directions: Rewrite each sentence by changing finite verbs into gerundives.
1. Sebastian did not dare to show his rage otherwise and noisily opened the folding doors. Sebastian, not daring to show his rage otherwise, noisily opened the folding doors. [Puts
the focus on "noisily opened."]
Noisily opening the folding doors, Sebastian did not dare to show his rage otherwise.
[Puts the focus on "did not dare."]
[Doesn't the first version suggest that "noisily opened" is Sebastian's way of showing his rage, whereas the second version obscures this connection?]
2. The housekeeper collected her wits after the great fright, and she then called for the servants.
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Having collected her wits after the great fright, the housekeeper called for the servants.
[Puts the focus on "called."]
The housekeeper collected her wits after the great fright before calling for the servants. [Puts the
focus on "collected her wits," but it goes beyond the directions by making "calling" a gerund
that functions as the object of the preposition "before."]
3. Miss Rottenmeier, who had overheard the scene, approached the sobbing child.
Miss Rottenmeier, having overheard the scene, approached the sobbing child. [Puts the
focus on "approached."]
4. Heidi quickly dried her tears and choked down her sobs.
Quickly drying her tears, Heidi choked down her sobs. [Puts the focus on "choked
down."]
Heidi, choking down her sobs, quickly dried her tears. [Puts the focus on "dried her
tears."]
5. When Peter arrived in the village late that day, he saw a large disputing crowd.
Arriving in the village late that day, Peter saw a large disputing crowd.
4.3.6 Style - Free Sentence-Combining
Aesop’s Fables
Ex. 6 – “The Jackdaw and the Doves” [Skip?]
The Original Text
Directions:1. Put parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase. 2. Underline subjects once, finite verbs twice, and label complements (“PN,” “PA,” “IO,”
“DO”). 3. Place brackets around each subordinate clause. If the clause functions as a noun, label its
function (PN, IO, DO, OP) above the opening bracket. If it functions as an adjective or adverb, draw an arrow from the opening bracket to the word that the clause modifies.
4. Put a vertical line at the end of every main clause. 5. Put a box around every gerund and gerundive. If it is a gerund (i.e., it functions as a noun)
indicate its function over the box. If it is a gerundive, draw an arrow to the word it modifies.
A Jackdaw, seeing some Doves in a cote abundantly provided with food,
painted himself white and joined them in order to share their plentiful maintenance.
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The Doves, as long as he was silent, supposed him to be one of themselves and
admitted him to their cote. But when one day he forgot himself and began to
chatter, they discovered his true character and drove him forth, pecking him with
their beaks. Failing to obtain food among the Doves, he returned to the Jackdaws.
They too, not recognizing him on account of his color, expelled him from living
with them.
So desiring two ends, he obtained neither.
The Jackdaw and the DovesA Jackdaw, seeing some Doves {in a cote} abundantly provided [#1] {with food},
painted himself white [#2] and joined them (DO) {in order} to share their plentiful
maintenance [#3]. | The Doves, as long [#4] [Adv. to previous "as" as he was silent (PA),]
supposed him to be one [#5] {of themselves} and admitted him (DO) {to their cote}. | But [Adv. to "discovered" when one day [NuA] he forgot himself (DO) and began to
chatter [#6],] they discovered his true character (DO) and drove him (DO) forth,
pecking him [#7] {with their beaks}. | Failing to obtain food [#8] {among the Doves}, he
returned {to the Jackdaws}. | They too, not recognizing him [#9] {on account} {of his
color}, expelled him (DO) {from living [#10] } {with them} . |
So desiring two ends [#11], he obtained neither (DO). | Notes
1. “Provided” is a gerundive that modifies “Doves” which is the direct object of the gerundive
“seeing,” which modifies “Jackdaw.” Some people will prefer to explain “Doves ...
provided” as a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of “seeing.”
2. “Himself white” is an ellipsed infinitive construction in which “himself” is the subject and
“white” is a predicate adjective of an ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “painted.”
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3. “Maintenance” is the direct object of the infinitive “to share.” The infinitive phrase functions
as an adjective to “order.”
4. The “as” clause modifies the first “as,” which, in turn, modifies “long.” “Long” functions as
an adverb to “supposed.”
5. “Him” is the subject and “one” is the predicate noun of the infinitive “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “supposed,”
6. The infinitive “to chatter” functions as the direct object of “began.”
7. “Him” is the direct object of the gerundive “pecking” which chunks to “they.”
8. “Food” is the direct object of the infinitive “to obtain.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of the gerundive “Failing” which modifies “he.”
9. “Him” is the direct object of the gerundive “recognizing” which modifies “They.”
10. “Living” is a gerund that functions as the object of “from.”
11. “Ends” is the direct object of the gerundive “desiring” which modifies “he.”
4.3.7. Just for Fun
Ex. 7 - “The Cataract of Lodore” by Robert Southey
I wouldn’t have the students analyze the poem. Simply have them read it, and perhaps in
class you might want to have students simply pick out the gerundives.
"How does the water Come down {at Lodore}?" [ [#1] My little boy asked me (IO) Thus, once {on a time}]; | And moreover he tasked me (IO) To tell him [#2] {in rhyme}. | Anon, {at the word}, There first came one daughter, | And then came another, To second and third The request [#3] {of their brother}, And to hear [#3] [DO of "to hear" how the water Comes down {at Lodore}, {With its rush and its roar},]
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[ [#4] As many a time [NuA]
They had seen it (DO) before.] | So I told them (IO) {in rhyme}, [ [#5] For {of rhymes} I had store [#6] (DO); | And 'twas {in my vocation} {For their recreation} [Del. Subj. That so I should sing]; [ [#7] Because I was Laureate (PN) {To them and the King}]. | {From its sources} [Adj. to "sources" which well {In the tarn} {on the fell} ]; [#8] {From its fountains} {In the mountains}, Its rills and its gills; [#9] {Through moss} and {through brake}, It runs | and it creeps {For a while}, [Adv. to "creeps" till it sleeps
{In its own little lake}]. | And thence {at departing [#10]}, Awakening [#11] and starting [#11], It runs {through the reeds}, | And away it proceeds, {Through meadow and glade}, {In sun} and {in shade}, And {through the wood-shelter}, {Among crags} {in its flurry}, Helter-skelter, Hurry-skurry. | Here it comes sparkling [#11], | And there it lies darkling [#11]; Now smoking [#11] and frothing [#11] {Its tumult and wrath in} [#12] , [ [#13] Till, {in this rapid race} [Adj. to "race" {On which} it is bent (PA)], It reaches the place (DO)
{Of its steep descent}. |
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The cataract strong [PPA] Then plunges along, Striking [#14] and raging [#14]
[Adv. to "plunges," "Striking" and "raging" As if a war *were* [#15] raging {Its caverns and rocks among}]; [#16] Rising [#14] and leaping [#14], Sinking [#14] and creeping [#14], Swelling [#14] and sweeping [#14], Showering [#14] and springing [#14], Flying [#14] and flinging [#14], Writhing [#14] and ringing [#14], Eddying [#14] and whisking [#14], Spouting [#14] and frisking [#14], Turning [#14] and twisting [#14], Around and around {With endless rebound}: Smiting [#14] and fighting [#14], A sight to delight in [#17]; Confounding [#14], astounding [#14], Dizzying [#14] and deafening [#14] the ear [#18] {with its sound}. | Collecting [#19], projecting [#19], Receding [#19] and speeding [#19], And shocking [#19] and rocking [#19], And darting [#19] and parting [#19], And threading [#19] and spreading [#19], And whizzing [#19] and hissing [#19], And dripping [#19] and skipping [#19], And hitting [#19] and splitting [#19], And shining [#19] and twining [#19], And rattling [#19] and battling [#19], And shaking [#19] and quaking [#19], And pouring [#19] and roaring [#19], And waving [#19] and raving [#19], And tossing [#19] and crossing [#19], And flowing [#19] and going [#19], And running [#19] and stunning [#19], And foaming [#19] and roaming [#19], And dinning [#19] and spinning [#19],
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And dropping [#19] and hopping [#19], And working [#19] and jerking [#19], And guggling [#19] and struggling [#19], And heaving [#19] and cleaving [#19], And moaning [#19] and groaning [#19];
And glittering [#19] and frittering [#19], And gathering [#19] and feathering [#19], And whitening [#19] and brightening [#19], And quivering [#19] and shivering [#19], And hurrying [#19] and skurrying [#19], And thundering [#19] and floundering [#19];
Dividing [#19] and gliding [#19] and sliding [#19], And falling [#19] and brawling [#19] and sprawling [#19], And driving [#19] and riving [#19] and striving [#19], And sprinkling [#19] and twinkling [#19] and wrinkling [#19], And sounding [#19] and bounding [#19] and rounding [#19], And bubbling [#19] and troubling [#19] and doubling [#19], And grumbling [#19] and rumbling [#19] and tumbling [#19], And clattering [#19] and battering [#19] and shattering [#19];
Retreating [#19] and beating [#19] and meeting [#19] and sheeting [#19], Delaying [#19] and straying [#19] and playing [#19] and spraying [#19], Advancing [#19] and prancing [#19] and glancing [#19] and dancing [#19], Recoiling [#19], turmoiling [#19] and toiling [#19] and boiling [#19], And gleaming [#19] and streaming [#19] and steaming [#19] and beaming [#19], And rushing [#19] and flushing [#19] and brushing [#19] and gushing [#19], And flapping [#19] and rapping [#19] and clapping [#19] and slapping [#19], And curling [#19] and whirling [#19] and purling [#19] and twirling [#19], And thumping [#19] and plumping [#19] and bumping [#19] and jumping [#19], And dashing [#19] and flashing [#19] and splashing [#19] and clashing [#19] ; | [#20] And so never ending [#20], but always descending [#20], Sounds and motions for ever and ever are blending
All {at once} and all o'er, {with a mighty uproar}, - | And this way [NuA] the water comes down {at Lodore}. |
Notes
1. KISS considers this a subordinate clause that functions as an interjection. Traditional
grammars would probably consider the first two lines as the direct object of “asked.”
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2. “Him” is the indirect object of the infinitive “to tell.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “tasked.”
3. “Request” is the direct object of the infinitives “To second” and “third.” The infinitives
function, as does “to hear” in the next line, as adverbs to “came.”
4. I have interpreted this clause as explaining (and thus modifying) why they want “to hear.” An
equally valid argument, however, could be made that it modifies “come” and is thus inside
the previous subordinate clause.
5. See “’So’ and ‘For’ as Conjunctions.”
6. Is there a sense of humor here in that much of the “store” of rhymes consists of the gerundive
“-ing” ending? There are, of course, the root word rhymes (curling, whirling, purling,
twirling). Note that these rhyme within the lines, and the speaker really does have a store of
them. And even here, he humorously cheats to get one of them (“guggling”) and he turns a
noun into a verb (turmoiling”) to get another.
7. Note that this semicolon separates this subordinate clause from its main S/V/C pattern. My
sense is that the semicolon cuts the connection between the “Because” clause and the
preceding “should sing.” As a result, the “Because” clause modifies the “was” in “’twas in
my vocation.” This explanation is supported by the fact that the speakers vocation is named
in the “Because” clause.
8. Note the use of a semicolon to separate the two “From” phrases and their modifiers from each
other. These phrases modify the following “runs” and “creeps.” A “tarn” is a small mountain
lake or pool. A “fell” is a moor or down.
9. Again a semicolon is used to signal the end of a “From” phrase. A “rill” is a very small brook.
I’m reading “rills” and “gills” as appositives to “fountains,” i.e., they are the source -- and
the source of life -- of the water. “Gills” also introduces the forthcoming personification of
the water.
10. “Departing” is a gerund that functions as the object of the preposition.
11. Gerundive to “It.”
12. In its tumult and wrath.
13. This clause connects to the preceding gerundives, to “lies,” and even crosses the main clause
boundary to connect to “comes,” since all of that denotes the “rapid race.”
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14. Gerundive to “cataract.”
15. The preferred ellipsed verb here would be “were” and not “was” because it would be in the
subjunctive mood.
16. I’m interpreting this semicolon as signaling the end of the subordinate clause. It thereby also
indicates that the following gerundives chunk back to “cataract” and not to the intervening
“war.”
17. “To delight in” is an infinitive that modifies “sight” which is an appositive to “cataract.”
Note that the following gerundives modify both the :sight” and the “cataract.”
18. Direct object of deafening.”
19. In spite of the period that ends the preceding stanza, these gerundives all obviously describe
the “cataract.”
20. I’m taking this semicolon as a “main clause” break which enables the reader to then process
“ending” and “descending” as gerundives to “Sounds” and “motions.”
Ex. 8. - A Treasure Hunt for Gerundives [Skip?]
Level 4.4 - A Focus on InfinitivesLevel 4.4 - A Focus on Infinitives
Notes for TeachersNotes for Teachers
Infinitives cannot be manipulated in the way that gerundives can be, and, if students use the
analytical method (sequence) for identifying the types of verbals, they will have few problems
with them. The workbooks, however, include more exercises on infinitives than they do on
gerundives because unlike gerundives, which can always be explained as adjectives, infinitives
can function as adjectives, adverbs, or in almost any way that a noun can. Because you will not
find all of these functions in any given text, the workbooks include exercises that focus on the
various functions.
The Exercises on Infinitives
Section One (two exercises) focuses on identifying all the functions (noun, adjective, or
adverb) of infinitives. Section Two (one exercise) provides practice on the subjects of
infinitives. Section Three provides an exercise on infinitives as subjects and/or complements
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—“To know her is to love her.” And, because they are relatively rare, Section Four explores
infinitives that function as objects of prepositions, as in “They could do nothing but laugh.”
Section Five (two exercises) focuses on infinitives that function as adjectives or adverbs.
In Section Six, two exercises are devoted to “ellipsed infinitives.” These are important
analytically for students’ ability to understand and discuss sentence structure. Most grammar
textbooks include explanations of “objective” and “subjective” complements, two concepts that I
have never been able to understand because different books explain them differently. For
example, in the sentence
They elected him president.
some grammar textbooks might describe “president” as an “objective” complement whereas
others might call it a “subjective” complement.
From the KISS perspective, “him president” is better explained as an ellipsed infinitive
phrase (“him *to be* president”) in which “him” is the subject of, and “president” is a predicate
noun after, an ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive phrase is then the direct object of “elected.” This
perspective enables KISS to completely eliminate the confusing explanations of “objective” and
“subjective” complements.
This KISS approach is also, I would suggest, more consistent in naming the types of
complements. In a sentence such as “They considered the trip wonderful,” the textbooks still call
“wonderful” either an objective or subjective complement. KISS, however, clearly distinguishes
the difference in function between “president” and “wonderful.” “Wonderful” is a predicate
adjective in its ellipsed infinitive construction.
Ellipsed infinitives usually drop a form of “to be.” In many cases, this is not only easily
seen, but also said:
They elected him *to be* president.
They considered the trip *to be* wonderful.
In other words, the ellipsed form is a variant of a standard form. But if students are going to
learn this, it is easily extended to cases in which the “to be” would never appear. No one, for
example, would say, “You may call me to be foolish.” But the underlying structure of “You may
call me foolish” is the same as that in “They considered the trip wonderful.” Thus, rather than
trying to introduce the confusing “objective” and/or “subjective” complements, KISS considers
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“me foolish” as an ellipsed infinitive construction that functions as the direct object of “call.”
Section Seven presents two passages for analysis; eight, a “Treasure Hunt.”
4.4.1 Identifying Mixed Infinitives
Ex. 1a - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar [Skip?]
1. The Greeks learned {from the Phoenicians} how (DO) to build ships [#1] . |
2. To do good and to distribute [#2], *you* forget not. |
3. Who saw him die [#3] ? |
4. I am sorry (PA) to hear it [#4] . |
5. The children had a long lesson to learn [#5]. |
6. The colonel ordered the soldiers to march [#6] . |
7. The ship seems to sail [#7] very fast. |
8. Perseus promised to procure the Gorgon’s head [#8] . |
9. The stranger did not appear to be a friend [#9] . |
10. To be candid [#10] , I was not just (PA) {in my dealings} {with him} . | Notes
1. “Ships” is the direct object of the infinitive “to build” which functions as an adjective to
“how.”
2. “Good” is the direct object of the infinitive “to do.” (People who do not consider “good” to be
a noun can consider it an adjective to an ellipsed “things.”) The infinitives “to do” and “to
distribute” function as adverbs (of purpose) to “forget.” This is, of course, an intriguing
sentence in that there is no direct object for “forget.”
3. “Him” is the subject of the infinitive “die.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object
of “saw.”
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4. “It” is the direct object of the infinitive “to hear” which functions as an adverb to “sorry.”
5. Although the infinitive “to learn” can be explained as an adjective to the direct object
“lesson,” we could also consider the infinitive the direct object and “lesson” to be the direct
object of “to learn.”—“He had to learn a long lesson.”
6. “Soldiers” is the indirect object of “ordered” and the subject of the infinitive “to march.” The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “ordered.”
7. “To sail” can be considered an adverb to “seems,” but I would not argue with any student who
wanted to consider “seems to sail” as the finite verb. [This is one for the grammarians to
debate.]
8. “Head” is the direct object of the infinitive “to procure.” The infinitive phrase is the direct
object of “promised.”
9. “Friend” is a predicate noun after the infinitive “to be.” The infinitive phrase is most easily
explained as an adverb to “appeared,” but see note # 7.
10. “Candid” is a predicate adjective after the infinitive “to be.” Depending on the skill of the
students, I would accept this infinitive as an adverb to “was,” but it really is not. It functions
as an interjection since it means “To be candid (now, in saying what follows), I was . . .”
Ex. 1b - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
1. I hate to be suspicious [#1], | and, [ [#2] thank heaven (DO)], I have no cause (DO) to
be [#3] . |
2. The master sent his orders (DO) {for Joe to saddle me [#4] }. | 3. [Adv. to "is" If Jack and I choose to have a quick run [#5] now and then to please
ourselves [#6] ], that's our business (PN) and not yours (PN). | 4. The best thing [Adj. to "thing" he could do] was to stick [#7] {to the saddle} and hold
me [#7] in. |
5. I could say nothing (DO) to comfort her [#8]. |
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6. To be tormented (P) {for nothing} {but their fancies} angered me (DO). | 7. He set the carriage wheels (DO) a little [NuA] {across the road}, so {as not to run [#9] back}.
| 8. To have my long tail doubled [#10] up and poked (P) {through that strap} was almost as
bad (PA) {as the bit} [#11]. |
9. Other noble creatures were trying {on three legs} to drag themselves [#12] along, | and
others were struggling to rise [#13] {on their fore feet}, [Adv. to "were struggling"
when their hind legs had been shattered (P) {by shot}]. | 10. What a torment (PN) it is to have [#14] flies settle [#15] {upon you} and sting [#15] and
sting [#15], and have nothing [#14] {in the world} to lash them [#16] off with. | [Aspirin,
please? ;) ]
Notes
1. “Suspicious” is a predicate adjective after the infinitive “to be.” The infinitive phrase functions
as the direct object of “hate.”
2. Grammarians would probably have a number of different explanations for “thank heaven.”
KISS explains it as a subordinated clause, the subject of which is “I.” The clause functions
as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct Object?
3. The infinitive “to be” functions as an adjective to “cause.”
4. “Joe” is the subject and “me” is the direct object of the infinitive “to saddle.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the object of the preposition “for.”
5. “Run” is the direct object of the infinitive “to have” which is the direct object of “choose.”
6. “Ourselves” is the direct object of the infinitive “to please” which functions as an adverb (of
purpose) to “to have.”
7. The infinitives “to stick” and “hold” function as predicate nouns. “Me” is the direct object of
“hold.”
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8. “Her” is the direct object of the infinitive “to comfort.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adjective to “nothing” and as an adverb to “could say.”
9. The infinitive “to run” functions as the object of the preposition “as.”
10. “Tail” can be explained as the direct object of the subject “To have,” and “doubled” as a
gerundive that modifies “tail.” At KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes, an alternative
explanation is to consider “tail doubled” as the core of a noun absolute that functions as the
direct object of “To have.”
11. Alternatively, “as the bit” can be explained as an ellipsed subordinate clause -- “as the bit
*was bad*.”
12. “Themselves” is the direct object of “to drag” which is the direct object of “were trying.”
13. The infinitive “to rise” is an adverb (of purpose) to “were struggling.”
14. The infinitives “to have” and “have” function as delayed subjects to “it.” (To have flies settle
... and to have nothing .... is a torment. “Nothing” is the direct object of the second “have.”
15. “Flies” is the subject of the infinitives “settle,” “sting,” and “sting.” This infinitive phrase
functions as the direct object of the first “to have.” Note the importance of the comma before
the second “to have.” It stops the preceding string of infinitives and thereby connects the
second “have” to the first.
16. “Them” is the direct object of the infinitive “to lash” which functions as an adjective to
“nothing.” and as an adverb to the second “have.”
4.4.2 Subjects of Infinitives
Ex. 2 - Based on “The Snow Queen,” by H. C. Andersen
1. It makes the dress look whiter. | "The dress look whiter" does not pass the sentence test so "look" is not a finite verb. ["Whiter" is a predicate adjective that describes "dress." Thus it is a predicate adjective, and "dress" is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) "look." The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of "makes."]
2. [DO of "said" “*You* Just let her come,”] said the boy. |
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“Her come” does not pass the sentence test, so “come” is not a finite verb. [”Her” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “come.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “let.”]
3. There was something (PN) {in the hymn} [#1] {about roses}, | and that made her think
{of her own} [#2]. | “Her think of her own” does not pass the sentence test, so “think” is not a finite verb. [”Her” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “think.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “made.”]
4. That bit {of glass} {in his heart} made him tease little Gerda. | “Him tease little Gerda” does not pass the sentence test, so “tease” is not a finite verb. [”Him” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “tease,” and “Gerda” is its direct object. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “made.”]
5. They had seen him tie his little sledge {to a splendid big one}. | “Him tie his little sledge” does not pass the sentence test, so “tie” is not a finite verb. [”Him” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “tie,” and “sledge” is its direct object. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “had seen.”]
6. The guards {in silver} and the lackeys {in gold} would never allow you to pass. | “To pass” does not pass the “To” test, and “You to pass” does not pass the sentence test, so “pass” is not a finite verb. [”You” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “pass.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “would allow.”]
7. I don’t like you to whimper! | “To whimper” does not pass the “To” test, and “You to whimper” does not pass the sentence test, so “whimper” is not a finite verb. [”You” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “whimper.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “don’t like.”]
8. But the reindeer again implored her to give Gerda something. | “To give” does not pass the “To” test, and “Her to give Gerda something” does not pass the sentence test, so “give” is not a finite verb. [”Her” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “to give.” “Gerda” is the indirect, and “something” is the direct object of the infinitive. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “implored.”]
9. Some {of these bits} {of glass} made them see everything [Adj. to "everything" that
was amiss (PA)] [#3]. |
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“Them see everything” does not pass the sentence test, so “see” is not a finite verb. [”Them” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “see,” and “everything” is the direct object. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “made.”]
10. The Prince got up and allowed Gerda to sleep {in his bed}. | “To sleep” does not pass the “To” test, and “Gerda to sleep in his bed” does not pass the sentence test, so “sleep” is not a finite verb. [”Gerda” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “to sleep.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “allowed.”]
Notes
1. Some people will see “in the hymn” as describing (modifying) “something,” and others will
see it as indicating where that something was, and thus take “in the hymn” to “was” as an
adverb.
2. Alternatively, “think of” can be considered the verb (“remember”), and “own” as its direct
object.
3. Since they have not yet studied adjectival clauses, I would expect most third graders to be
confused by the clause, but they should be able to identify the subject and verb.. “Amiss”
will probably confuse them.
4.4.3 Infinitives as Subjects or Complements
Ex. 3 - From The Secret Garden
1. I want to see all the things [#1] [Adj. to "things" that grow {in England}]. | 2. To hear {of the library} brought back {to her mind} the hundred rooms (DO) {with
closed doors}. | 3. To let a sad thought or a bad one get [#2] {into your mind} is as dangerous (PA) [Adv.
to the previous "as" as letting a scarlet fever germ get [#3] {into your body} *is
dangerous (PA)*]. | 4. The first thing [Adj. to "thing" she did] was to run (PN) {round and round the fountain
flower garden} ten times [NuA]. |
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5. To speak robin [NuA] {to a robin} is {like speaking French [#4] } {to a Frenchman}. | 6. Mother says [DO as [#5] th' two worst things [Adj. to "things" as can happen {to a
child}] is never to have (PN) his own way [#6] -- or always to have (PN) it [#6] . | 7. "Pig! [DirA] Pig! [DirA] Daughter [DirA] {of Pigs}!" [#7] she said, [Adv. to "said" because to
call a native a pig [#8] is the worst insult (PN) {of all}. | 8. Suddenly something made her sit [#9] up {in bed} and turn her head [#9] {toward the
door} listening [#10]. | 9. To talk {about Dickon} meant to talk (DO) {about the moor} and {about the cottage and
the fourteen people} [Adj. to "people" who lived {in it} {on sixteen shillings} a week [NuA] ] -- and {*about* the children} [#11] [Adj. to "children" who got fat (PA) {on the
moor grass} [Adv. to "got" like the wild ponies *got fat (PA) {on the moor
grass}*]]. | 10. Mrs. Medlock had a comfortable, well paid place (DO) {as housekeeper} {at
Misselthwaite Manor} | and the only way [Adj. to "way" {in which} she could keep
it (DO) ] was to do (PN) {at once} [DO what Mr. Archibald Craven told her
(IO) to do [#12] ]. | Notes
1. “Things” is the direct object of the infinitive “to see.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “want.”
2. “Thought” and “one” are subjects of the infinitive “get.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “To let.”
3. “Germ” is the subject of the infinitive “get.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct
object of the gerund “letting.”
4. “French” is the direct object of the gerund “speaking.” The gerund phrase functions as the
object of the preposition.
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5. “As” here is dialect for “that.” Note too the subject/verb agreement error of “things” and “is.”
6. “Way” and “it” are direct objects of the two infinitives.
7. The words in quotation marks are, of course, the direct object of “said.”
8. “Native” is the subject and “pig” is a predicate noun to an ellipsed infinitive “to be.” The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “to call.”
9. “Her” is the subject of the infinitives “sit” and “turn.” “Head” is the direct object of “turn.”
The infinitive phrases function as the direct object of “made.”
10. “Listening” can be explained as a gerundive that modifies “her,” but in this case it may make
more sense to describe it as a gerund that functions as a Noun Used as an Adverb to “turn.”
11. If the children are included in the fourteen people, then “children” is an appositive to
“people.”
12. “Her” is both the indirect object of “told” and the subject of the infinitive “to do.” The “to
do” phrase is the direct object of “told,” and “what” is simultaneously a subordinating
conjunction and the direct object of “to do.”
4.4.4. Infinitives as Objects of Prepositions
Ex. 4 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
1. No one cared {for me}, {except to find out [DO how fast I could go] }. | 2. He did not care {for us} one bit [NuA] further { than to see [DO that we had plenty
(DO) to eat and shelter (DO) {in the winter}] }. | “One bit” modifies “further,” which is also modified by that “than” phrase. The infinitive “to eat” functions as an adjective to “plenty.”
3. Well [Inj], sir [DirA], we can't drive {over that tree}, nor yet get {round it}; | there will be
nothing (PN) {for it}, {but to go back {to the four crossways} }. | The “but” phrase functions as an adjective to “nothing.”
4. Some men think [DO they have nothing (DO) to do {but take care {of number
one} }]. |
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The infinitive “to do” functions as an adjective to “nothing,” as does the “but” phrase. “Care” is the direct object of the infinitive *to* take.
5. Then one {of the officers} rode up and gave the word (DO) {for the men to mount}. | “Men” is the subject of the infinitive “to mount.” The infinitive phrase functions as the object of the preposition “for.” The “for” phrase functions as an adjective to “word.”
6. "Your luggage is very heavy (PA) {for you to carry}, sir [DirA]." | “You” is the subject of the infinitive “to carry.” The infinitive phrase functions as the object of the preposition “for.” The prepositional phrase functions as an adverb to “heavy” and/or “is.”
7. Men are strongest (PA), | and [Adv. to the following "is" if they are cruel (PA) and
have no feeling (DO)], there is nothing (PN) [Adj. to "nothing" that we can do],
{but just bear it, bear it on and on {to the end} }. |“It” is the direct object of the infinitive “*to* bear.” The first “bear it” functions as the object of the preposition “but.” The second functions as an appositive to the first. The “but” phrase functions as an adjective to “nothing.”
4.4.5 Infinitives as Adjectives or Adverbs (or Interjections)
Ex. 5a – “Animals need room”
These sentences are adapted from the writing of third graders.
1. Animals need room (DO) to run and play {with their friends}. | We start right off with an example of alternative explanations. Some people will see "to run" and "play" as adjectives that describe "room," whereas others will see them as adverbs (answering "Why?") to "need."
2. Kevin went out to find a newspaper. | “Newspaper” is the direct object of “to find,” and the infinitive phrase functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “went.”
3. The zoo is a place (PN) to take care {of animals}. | “Care” is the direct object of “to take,” and the infinitive phrase functions as an adjective to “place.”
4. *You* Read this book (DO) to find out more. |
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"More" is the direct object of the infinitive "to find out" (= "to learn") or "to find" (with "out" as an adverb). The infinitive phrase functions as an adverb (of purpose) to "Read."
5. To be a teacher, you need to get (DO) your college degree. | Some grammarians consider “need” a helping verb, so the finite verb here can be either “need to get” or “need,” with “to get” as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as a direct object. “Degree” is the direct object of “to get.” “Teacher” is a predicate noun after the infinitive “To be.” That infinitive phrase functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “need.”
6. I'm going to see [DO if we can go {to the park}]. | This is a trick question. Most grammarians consider “going to” among the helping verbs, and “to the park” is a prepositional phrase.
7. That's the best way (PN) to learn. | The infinitive “to learn” functions as an adjective that explains what “way” is meant.
8. I found out [DO that children go {to zoos} to learn {about animals}]. | The infinitive phrase based on “to learn” functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “go.”
9. You can use granite (DO) to make curbstones and layers to cover buildings. | “Buildings” is the direct object of the infinitive “to cover.” That infinitive phrase functions as an adjective to “layers” which is one of the two direct objects of the infinitive “to make.” (The other is “curbstones.”) The “to make” phrase functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “can use.”
Ex. 5b - From My Book of Favorite Fairy Tales
1. The Prince was too much astonished (P) to move [#1] . |2. Neither {of these girls} had the least desire (DO) to have a husband [#2] {with a blue
beard}. | 3. "Alas!" [Inj.] [Inj [#3] said he {to the White Cat} again and again,] "how sad (PA) I shall
be to leave you [#4] !" |
4. There [#5] was not time (PN) even to think [#6] {of sleep}. |5. I have not come to take away the throne [#7] [Adj. to "throne" that you fill {with such
dignity}]. |
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6. Do you think [DO I should be cruel (PA) enough to kill you [#8] ]? | 7. "Don't you know [DO you have only three days (DO) to look [#9] {for the little dog}
{for your father}]?" |8. The Cat had not taken pains (DO) to remember the time [#10] [Adj. to "time" when he
must return {to the court}]. |9. There was seen (P) a little dog so tiny [#11] [Adv. (result) to "so" that it could go {through
a ring} {without touching it [#12] } ]; | he was also able (PA) to dance, and play the
castanets [#13] . |
10. {At last} the hour had arrived to destroy the fatal work [#14] {of an evil fairy}, | and to
do this [#15] he must make up his mind (DO) [#16] to cut off her head and tail [#17] ,
[Adj. to "head" and "tail" which he was {at once} to throw [#18] {into the fire}]. | Notes
1. The infinitive “to move” functions as an adverb of result to “too much.”
2. “Husband” is the direct object of the infinitive “to have.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adjective that describes “desire.”
3. For an alternative explanation, see KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct Object?
4. “You” is the direct object of the infinitive “to leave.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb (cause) to “sad.”
5. For an alternative explanation, see KISS Level 2.1.3 - Expletives (Optional).
6. The infinitive “to think” functions as an adjective to “time.”
7. “Throne” is the direct object of the infinitive “to take.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb (of purpose) to “have come.”
8. “You” is the direct object of the infinitive “to kill.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb to “enough,” which functions as an adverb to “cruel.”
9. The infinitive “to look” functions as an adjective to “days” and as an adverb (of purpose) to
“have.”
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10. “Time” is the direct object of the infinitive “to remember.” The infinitive phrase functions as
an adjective to “pains” and as an adverb (purpose) to “had taken.”
11. “Tiny” is a post-positioned adjective to “dog.”
12. “It” is the direct object of the gerund “touching.” The gerund phrase functions as the object
of the preposition.
13. “Castanets” is the direct object of the infinitive “play.” The two infinitives function as
adverbs to “able.”
14. “Work” is the direct object of the infinitive “to destroy.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adjective to “hour.”
15. “This” is the direct object of the infinitive “to do.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb (of purpose) to “must make up.”
16. “Must make up his mind” is, of course, idiomatic for “decide.”
17. “Head” and “tail” are direct objects of the infinitive “to cut.” The infinitive phrase functions
as as adverb (manner) to “make up his mind.” If one considers “make up his mind” as the
equivalent of “decide,” then the infinitive functions as a direct object.
18. For a down and dirty explanation, “to throw’ can be described as an adverb to “was.” A more
technical explanation is to see “was” here as meaning “was *told* to.” This would make the
infinitive a retained direct object after a passive verb. In context, the active voice version
would be “The White Cat told him to throw the head and tail into the fire at once.” For more
on this version, see Exercise # 6 in KISS Level 3.2.1 - Semi-Reduced and Other Ellipsed
Clauses.
4.4.6 Ellipsed Infinitives
Ex. 6a - From The Secret Garden, by Frances Hodgson Burnett
Note that some these sentences sound fine with the “to be” included, but many of them do
not. The ellipsed “to be” is normally simply assumed.
1. Once she crept {into the dining-room} and found it *to be* empty [#1] . |
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2. Mary stood up and tried to keep her eyes *to be* open [#2] [Adv. to "tried" while
Mrs. Medlock collected her parcels (DO)]. |
3. Mary had liked to look [#3] {at her mother} {from a distance} | and she had thought
her *to be* very pretty [#4]. | 4. {By the second day} they had given her (IO) a nickname (DO) [Adj. to "nickname"
which made her *to be* furious [#5] ]. |
5. "He's got a crooked back (DO)," [ [#6] she said]. | "That set him *to be* wrong [#7]." | 6. She had never seen a room (DO) {at all} {like it} and thought it *to be* curious and
gloomy [#8]. |
7. Mr. Craven had it *to be* shut [#9] [Adv. to "had" when his wife died so sudden. | 8. Martha found it *to be* dull [#10] {in the great servants' hall} down-stairs [#11]
[Adj. to "hall" where the footman and upper-housemaids made fun (DO) {of her
Yorkshire speech} and looked {upon her} {as a common little thing}, and sat and
whispered {among themselves}]. | 9. She thought Mrs. Medlock *to be* the most disagreeable person [Adj. to "person" she
had ever seen], {with her common, highly colored face and her common fine bonnet} [#13]. | 10. Dickon carried his knife (DO) {in his hand} and showed her (IO) things (DO)
[Adj. to "things" which she thought *to be* wonderful [#14]. | Notes
1. “It” is the subject and “empty” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “found.”
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2. “Eyes” is the subject and “open” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “to keep,” which is an infinitive that functions as the
direct object of “tried.”
3. The infinitive “to look” functions as the direct object of “had liked.”
4. “Her” is the subject and “pretty” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “had thought.”
5. “Her” is the subject and “furious” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “made.”
6. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
7. “Him” is the subject and “wrong” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “set.”
8. “It” is the subject and “curious” and “gloomy” are predicate adjectives to the ellipsed “to be.”
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “thought.”
9. “It” is the subject and “shut” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “had.”
10. “It” is the subject and “dull” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “found.”
11. “Down-stairs” can be explained either as an adverb or as a post-positioned adjective to
“hall.” (See KISS Level 5.5.)
12. “Mrs. Medlock” is the subject and “person” is a predicate noun to the ellipsed “to be.” The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “thought.”
13. This “with” phrase modifies the adjective “disagreeable.”
14. “Which” is the subject and “wonderful” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “thought.”
Ex. 6b - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
Note that some these sentences sound fine with the "to be" included, but many of them do not. The ellipsed "to be" is normally simply assumed.
1. She is bright (PA) {for her five years} and keeps her eyes *to be* [#1] wide open. |
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2. Overhanging rocks {on one side} made the cliff *to be* [#2] dangerous. |
3. They left the door *to be* [#3] only partly open. |
4. It always made Peter *to be* unhappy [#4] [ [#5] when Heidi did not come along]. | 5. Brigida found the old man *to be* busy [#6] {with putting a new beam [#7] } {along the
wall}. |
6. I wonder [DO how you can keep the child *to be* warm [#8] {in winter}]. |
7. "You have made him *to be* angry [#9] !" [ [#10] said Heidi {with a furious look}]. |
8. "{Of course} you shall call me *to be* Clara [#11]." | 9. Miss Rottenmeier found it *to be* wiser [#12] now to stay [#13] {in the study} to
prevent further disturbances [#14] . |
10. The white one's name is Schwänli (PN) | and the brown one I call *to be* [#15] Bärli. | Notes
1. “Eyes” is the subject and “open” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “keeps.”
2. “Cliff” is the subject and “dangerous” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “made.”
3. “Door” is the subject and “open” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “left.”
4. “Peter” is the subject and “unhappy” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “made.”
5. Although one could describe this “when” clause as adverbial to either “unhappy” or “made.” it
really functions as a delayed subject. It means “Heidi’s not coming along always made Peter
unhappy.” See KISS Level 5.6 - Delayed Subjects and Sentences.
6. “Man” is the subject and “busy” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “found.”
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7. “Beam” is the direct object of the gerund “putting” that functions as the object of “with.”
8. “Child” is the subject and “warm” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “can keep.”
9. “Him” is the subject and “angry” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “have made.”
10. Although the quotation can be explained as the direct object of “said,” KISS alternatively
explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
11. “Me” is the subject and “Clara” is a predicate noun to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “shall call.”
12. “It” is the subject and “wiser” is a predicate adjective to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “found.”
13. The infinitive “to stay” functions as a delayed subject to “it” -- “to stay in the study . . . [is]
wiser.” See KISS Level 5.6 - Delayed Subjects and Sentences.
14. “Disturbances” is the direct object of the infinitive “to prevent.” This infinitive phrase
functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “to stay.”
15. This is a varied S/V/C pattern. (I call the brown one Bärli.) “One” is the subject and “Bärli”
is a predicate noun to the ellipsed “to be.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object
of “call.”
4.4.7 Passages for Analysis
Ex. 7a - “H.M.S ENDEAVOUR” (1st Paragraph of 2) [Skip?]
This two-part passage would make an excellent in-class review. Although it is a bit long,
one way of using it would be to assign specific sentences to individuals or small groups in a
class. It should not take such groups more than five minutes to analyze the sentence assigned to
them. You can then put a printed transparency of the exercise on an overhead projector and have
a member of each group come to the front to mark the analysis of its assigned sentence, thereby
covering the entire text in a relatively short period. (See also the note below.)
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Originally named the Earl of Pembroke [#1] and constructed [#1] {in the Fishburn
shipyard} {of Whitby} {as a "cat"-built collier}, the Endeavour came {of humble
beginnings}. | Yet the 368-ton vessel became one (PN) {of the most famous exploration
ships} {of all time} [#2] {under the command} {of Captain James Cook}, perhaps the greatest
mariner [#3] {of them all}. | Cook favored these Whitby cats (DO) {of shallow draught*}
[Adv. to "favored" because they could "safely sail {near enough to land} {with time} to
turn [#4] away {from warning sights, smells, and sounds} ]; | [Adv. to "could sit" if {at the
worst} they took ground (DO) ], they could sit {on it} a while [NuA] {without much fear}
{of a fatal capsize}." | [Adv. to "was borne out" When the ship foundered {on the Great
Barrier Reef} {in June 1769},] Cook's wisdom was borne out (P); [#5] | {after extensive
repairs}, she was practically as good (PA) as new [#6] to continue the voyage [#7], and
eventually returned {to England} {in 1771} relatively intact [#8] . | Notes
1. “Named” and “constructed” are gerundives (See KISS Level 4.) that modify “Endeavour.”
“Earl of Pembroke” is a retained predicate adjective after the passive “named.” (See KISS
Level 5.7 - Passive Voice and Retained Complements.)
2. “Of all time” functions as an adverb to the adverb “most” in the preceding phrase.
3. “Mariner” is an appositive to “Captain James Cook.” See KISS Level 5.4 - Appositives. The
adverb “perhaps” and the adverbial “of them all” modify the adjective “greatest.”
4. The infinitive “to turn” functions as an adjective to “time.”
5. You might want to have students discuss the logic of the semicolons in this and in the
preceding sentence. (See KISS Level 3.1.1.)
6. The easiest way to explain “as new” is to consider it an ellipsed adverbial clause to the
previous “as”—“as if *she were* new.” This makes “new” a predicate adjective in the
ellipsed clause.
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7. “Voyage” is the direct object of the infinitive “to continue.” The infinitive phrase functions as
an adverb to “good.”
8. KISS considers “intact” to be a predicate adjective in a palimpsest pattern with “returned”
written over “returned.” (See KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.) [Because grammar
textbooks don’t even try to enable students to analyze real sentences, you will probably not
be able to find an explanation of “intact” in them.]
Using transparencies (for overhead projectors) and washable ink pens can be very effective.
Putting the printed transparency in a smooth, clear page-protector will make it easily washable
without ruining the transparency, thereby saving it for future use. Alternatively, if you have a
computer projection screen in the classroom, you can project the page from a word-processing
program and have the students make the analysis using the word-processing program.
Ex. 7b - “H.M.S ENDEAVOUR” (2nd Paragraph of 2) [Skip?]
{With a crew} {of ninety-four} , the Endeavour set sail (DO) {in August} {*of* 1768}
{from Plymouth,} {*in* England} . The expedition was {under the joint auspices} {of the
Royal Society} (the oldest scientific organization [#1] {in England} [#2], founded [#3] {in 1660} )
and {*of* the British Admiralty}. | The primary purpose {of the voyage} was to observe
(PN) the transit [#4] {of Venus} {in order} to help scientists calculate the distance [#5] {of
the earth} {from the sun}. | This task (DO) Cook easily accomplished ahead {of time}. | He was also instructed (P) to locate the great, fabled southern landmass [#6] {of Terra
Australis Incognito}, and possibly gain a colony or two [#6] {for England}. | [Adv. to "had
neglected" While Abel Tasman was the first (PN) to explore New Zealand and
Australia [#7] (then called New Holland [#8] ),] the Dutch had neglected their
development (DO). | An expert hydrographer [#9] , Cook accurately charted a map
(DO) {of New Zealand's coastline}, and reached the southeastern corner (DO) {of the
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island-continent} {of Australia}, naming the area New South Wales [#10] . | Cook's
achievement was to bring (PN) these regions [#11] fully {into the world picture}, and pave
(PN) the way [#11] {for European expansion} there. | Today, he is as great an historical figure
(PN) {in Australasia} [Adv. to "as" as he is *a great historical figure* (PN) {in England}] .
| Notes
1. “Organization” is an appositive to “Royal Society.” (See KISS Level 5.4 - Appositives.)
2. “In England” functions as an adverb to the adjective “oldest.”
3. “Founded” is a gerundive that modifies “organization.” (See KISS Level 4.)
4. “Transit” is the direct object of the infinitive “to observe.” The infinitive phrase functions as a
predicate noun.
5. “Distance” is the direct object of the infinitive “calculate.” “Scientists” is simultaneously the
indirect object of the infinitive “to help” and the subject of the infinitive “calculate.” The
“calculate” phrase is the direct object of “to help.” The “to help” infinitive phrase functions
as an adjective to “order.”
6. “Landmass” is the direct object of the infinitive “to locate.” This infinitive phrase functions as
a retained direct object after the passive “was instructed.” The same holds for “gain,” the
direct objects of which are “colony” and “two.” (See KISS Level 5.7 - Passive Voice and
Retained Complements.)
7. “New Zealand” and “Australia” are direct objects of the infinitive “to explore.” The infinitive
phrase functions as an adjective to “the first.”
8. “New Holland” is a retained predicate noun after the passive gerundive “called.” (See note #
6.) The gerundive phrase modifies “Australia.”
9. “Hydrographer” is an appositive that precedes the word (“Cook”) to which it stands in
apposition. (You probably will not find this in most grammar textbooks. See KISS Level 5.4
- Appositives.)
10. KISS explains “New South Wales” as a predicate noun in an ellipsed infinitive construction,
the subject of which is “area”—“area *to be* New South Wales.” This infinitive phrase is
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the direct object of the gerundive “naming,” and the gerundive goes all the way back to
“Cook.”
11. “Regions” is the direct object of the infinitive “to bring,” and “way” is the direct object of the
infinitive “pave.” The infinitive phrases function as predicate nouns.
Ex. 8 A Treasure Hunt for Infinitives [Skip?]
KISS Level 5.8 Noun AbsolutesKISS Level 5.8 Noun Absolutes
Notes for TeachersNotes for Teachers
Noun Absolutes are the last construction that students need to learn. They are rarely
discussed in grammar textbooks, simply because one needs to be able to identify clauses and
verbals before absolutes make much sense. A noun absolute consists of a noun plus a gerundive.
The adverbial function of absolutes, as in the following sentence from Black Beauty, is
universally accepted by grammarians.
So we went on, John chuckling all the way home.
Frequently, the gerundive “being” is ellipsed, as in the following from Theodore Dreiser’s “The
Lost Phoebe”:
He fell asleep after a time, his head *being* on his knees.
That noun absolutes also function as nouns is generally ignored or denied by many
grammarians, probably because they don’t read enough or think. One of the reasons for their
failures is that academics, generally, are too much influenced by scientific fields in which “new
information” is crucial. Thus, even though he is acknowledged as one of the two greatest early
twentieth century grammarians, graduate students in English or Linguistics rarely study the work
of George O. Curme.
In Volume II of his A Grammar of the English Language (Essex, Conn. Verbatin, 1931,
1986), Curme discusses the Nominative Absolute in Subject Clauses, and gives, among his
examples,
She and her sister both being sick makes hard work
for the rest of the family. (157)
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Despite the differences in grammatical terminology, “She and her sister both being sick” is a
noun absolute that functions as the subject of “makes.”
Curme also gives an example of what we can call a noun absolute used as a predicate noun:
Cities are man justifying himself to God. (158)
The key question here is meaning. In other words, if we tried to consider “man” as a predicate
noun, the explanation would suggest that “Cities” = “man” modified by the gerundive
“justifying.” But the “justifying” is just as important as is “man.” And the equal importance of
“man” and “justifying” is better explained grammatically by considering “man justifying
himself” as a noun absolute construction.
Curme also gives examples of what we can consider noun absolutes that function as 1.) an
object of a preposition, and 2.) an appositive:
1.) She is lonesome with her husband so much away. (155)
2.) Well, that is just our way, exactly—one half of the administration always busy getting
the family into trouble, the other half busy getting it out again. (158) [From Mark
Twain]
He does not give examples of the noun absolute functioning as a direct object, but if we accept
his logic and other examples, it is easy to see many such cases. A simple example is the
following sentence from Black Beauty:
I don’t like to see them held up.
To say that “them” is the direct object of “don’t like” is surely contrary to the meaning of the
sentence. What isn’t liked is “them *being* held up.” If we want a descriptive grammar that
aligns the grammar with meaning, the noun absolute that functions as a noun is a very sensible
construction.
A Question of Interpretation?
In some cases, the difference between explaining a construction as a noun absolute or as a
noun modified by a gerundive may be a question of interpretation. Consider the following part of
a sentence from The Dark Frigate by Charles Boardman Hawes:
Phil Marsham . . . watched men stripped to the waist
and moving deftly among the guns . . . .
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“Men” can be described as the direct object of “watched,” and “stripped” as a gerundive that
modifies “men.” But “men stripped” might also be explained as a noun absolute that functions as
the direct object of “watched.” Viewing it as a noun absolute, however, suggests that one is
watching the men being stripped (the action), whereas viewing “stripped” as a gerundive
suggests that the action has finished and one is watching men who have been stripped. “Men . . .
moving,” however, does make sense, perhaps more sense when viewed as a noun absolute. As
part of an absolute “moving” becomes part of the direct object. In other words, what was
watched was not just the men, but also their movement.
A Preview of the Exercises
The first exercises (1. a, b, and c) focus on identifying noun absolutes that function as
adverbs. The second exercise is stylistic. It asks students to rewrite noun absolutes as clauses
and then clauses as noun absolutes. For example:
Subordinate Clause: While his feet were sinking into the mud, Jim sloshed along the
creekbed.
Noun Absolute: His feet sinking into the mud, Jim sloshed along the creekbed.
Exercises three (a & b) explore noun absolutes that function as nouns, and the last exercises
(four a & b) are passages for analysis.
Note that you can fruitfully extend these exercises by asking students to find (and/or write)
sentences that include noun absolutes.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises The following directions should enable students to explain almost every word in any text.
Students who have been working within the KISS Approach will have been using almost all of
these “Directions,” ideally for a few years. Thus, most of this should be automatic for them. You
can, of course, reduce the directions in several ways, one being skipping the functions of clauses
and verbals, and another being to limit # 5 just to noun absolutes.
(Work sentence-by-sentence.)
1. Put parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline subjects once, finite verbs twice, and label complements (PN, PA, IO, DO).
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3. Place brackets around each subordinate clause. If the clause functions as a noun, label its
function (PN, IO, DO, OP) above the opening bracket. If it functions as an adjective or
adverb, draw an arrow from the opening bracket to the word that the clause modifies. Put a
vertical line at the end of every main clause.
4. Put a box around every gerund and gerundive. If it is a gerund (i.e., it functions as a noun)
indicate its function over the box. If it is a gerundive, draw an arrow to the word it modifies.
Put an oval around every infinitive and indicate (as in three above) its function.
5. Use the following labels for the additional constructions:
NuA -- Noun used as an Adverb
App -- Appositive
Inj -- Interjection
DirA -- Direct Address
DS -- Delayed Subject
PPA -- Post-Positioned Adjective
Put an “R” before complements that are retained (RDO, RPN, RPA)
NAbs -- Noun Absolute (Put a wavy line under each noun absolute and label its function.
Probable Time Required
This is the last construction that students need to learn in order to explain the function of
“every” word in any sentence. Thus you can take as much time as you want or need. Students
who have learned to identify the other construction in real texts should have few, if any,
problems with noun absolutes.
5.8.1 Noun Absolutes That Function as Adverbs
Ex. 1 a. Based on Lassie, Come Home [Skip?]
1. Joe spoke on, the words racing [#1] {from him}. | 2. She lay there, her eyes not turning [#2] {toward the people} [Adj. to "people" who stood
[#3] looking {at her}]. |
3. Joe began speaking [#4], his voice bright [#5] {with hope}. |
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4. She put her plump arm (DO) {around him} and spoke, her head turned [#6] {to the fire}.
| 5. He swallowed and started to speak [#7], his words coming [#8] slowly, {in a low tone},
but getting [#8] faster (PA) and faster (PA) [Adv. to "getting" as he spoke]. | 6. The next day [NuA] Lassie lay {in her pen}, the early summer sunlight streaming [#9] {over
her coat}. | 7. She trotted calmly, her head erect [#10], her full tail flowing [#10] behind {in a graceful
continuation} {of the curving lines} {of her body} . |
8. He stared {at his dog}, his broad, boyish face full [#11] {of amazement}. | 9. Instead, he stood, his hand resting [#12] {on the neck} {of his dog} , his forehead
wrinkling [#12] [Adv. to "resting" and "wrinkling" as he tried to puzzle out this
problem [#13] {of his life}]. | 10. Then, {at last}, his father was back again, standing [#14] {in the cottage}, his stern face
glistening [#15] {with the dampness} {of rain} , and the light {of the lamp} cutting sharp
reflections {over his nose and cheekbones and chin}. | Notes
1. “Words racing” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to “spoke.”
2. “Eyes ... turning” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to “lay.”
3. “Stood” looking” can be explained as a palimpsest pattern with “stood” written over “were,”
or “looking” can be explained as a gerundive that functions as an adjective to “who,” or
“looking” can be explained as a gerund that functions as a noun used as an adverb. See KISS
Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.
4. “Speaking” can be explained as part of the finite verb phrase, or it can be explained as a
gerund that functions as the direct object of “began.”
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5. “Voice bright” is a noun absolute with “voice” being the subject and “bright” being a
predicate adjective of an ellipsed “being” -- “his voice being bright.” The noun absolute
functions as an adverb to “speaking.”
6. “Turned” may look like a finite verb here, which would make this sentence have a comma-
splice. But “turned” is also a past passive participle so “head turned” is a noun absolute that
functions as an adverb to “spoke.”
7. See note # 4, except that here “to speak” is an infinitive.
8. “Words coming ... but getting” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to “to
speak.”
9. “Sunlight streaming” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to “lay.”
10. “Head *being* erect” and “sunlight streaming” are noun absolutes that function as adverbs to
“trotted.”
11. “Face *being* full” is a noun absolute that function as adverbs to “stared.”
12. “Hand resting” and “forehead wrinkling” are noun absolutes that function as adverbs to
“stood.”
13. “Problem” is the direct object of the infinitive “puzzle out” (“solve”). The infinitive phrase
functions as the direct object of “tried.”
14. “Standing” is a gerundive that modifies “father.”
15. “Face glistening” and “light ... cuting ... reflections” are noun absolutes that function as
adverbs to “was” and/or “standing.”
Ex. 1.b. From Black Beauty
1. {In this place} we were reined (P) far tighter, the coachman and his master thinking [#1]
[DO we looked more stylish (PA) so]. |
2. I trotted quietly along, the wheels hardly making a sound [#2] {on the soft road}. |
3. So we went on, John chuckling [#3] all the way [NuA] home [NuA]. | 4. An old road-mender was standing {near a heap} {of stones} , his shovel dropped and
his hands raised [#4]. |
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5. There was much confusion (PN) {in the yard} ; the horses being got [#5] {out of other
stables}, and the carriages and gigs being pulled [#5] {out of houses and sheds}, [Adv.
(purpose) lest the flames should spread further]. | 6. Our master being one [#6] {of the county magistrates}, cases were often brought (P) {to
him} to settle, or say [#7] [DO what should be done (P) ]. | 7. I was forced (P) to gallop [#8] {at my utmost speed}, my rider meanwhile cutting {into
me} {with his whip}, and {with wild curses} urging [#9] me to go [#10] still faster. | Notes
1. “Coachman and ... master thinking” is a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to “were
reined.”
2. “Wheels making a sound” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to
“trotted.”
3. “John chuckling” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to “went on.”
4. “Shovel dropped” and “hands raised” are noun absolutes that functions as adverbs to “was
standing.”
5. “The horses being got (out)” and “carriages and gigs being pulled” are noun absolutes that
functions as adverbs to “was.” Note the semicolon that sets off the noun absolutes. Also note
that the noun absolutes could easily be seen as appositives to “confusion.”
6. “Master being one” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to “were
brought.”
7. The infinitives “to settle, or say” function as adverbs (of purpose) to “were brought.”
8. The infinitive “to gallop” functions as a retained direct object after the passive “was forced.”
See KISS Level 5.7 - Passive Voice and Retained Complements.
9. “Rider ... cutting ... and ... urging” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to
“was forced to gallop.”
10. “Me” is the subject of the infinitive “to go.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct
object of “urging.”
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Ex. 1.c. From The Secret Garden, by Burnett
1. "I should -- like -- that (DO)," [ [#1] he said very slowly, his eyes looking dreamy [#2]
]. | 2. He got up himself [#3], laughing [#4] and glowing [#4], and tousled [#4]; his eyes *being*
{like a bit} [#5] {of the sky}. |
3. He stopped and turned his head (DO) quickly, his poppy-cheeked face lighting [#6] up. |
4. Mary answered, her own whisper sounding half [NuA] frightened [#7]. | 5. "Does Dickon know all {about them} [#8] ?" [ [#1] asked Mary, a new idea taking
possession [#9] {of her}]. | 6. So she went on {with her dim light}, almost feeling her way [#10], her heart beating [#11] so
loud [Adv. (result) to "so" that she fancied [DO she could hear it (DO)]]. | 7. "I should be excited (P) [Adv. (condition) to "should be excited" if she kept away,]" [ [#1]
answered Colin, his eyes beginning to look dangerously sparkling [#12] ]. | 8. Dickon had stood listening [#13] {to the lecture}, his round eyes shining [#14] {with
curious delight}. |
9. Colin put out his hand (DO) a little [NuA] {toward Mary}, | and I am glad (PA) to say [#15] [DO that, her own tantrum having passed [#16], she was softened (P) too and met
him (DO) half-way [NuA] {with her hand}, [Adv. (result) to "was softened" and "met" so
that it was a sort (PN) {of making up [#17] } ]]. |
10. Ben Weatherstaff walked behind, | and the "creatures" trailed {after them}, the
lamb and the fox cub keeping [#18] close {to Dickon}, the white rabbit hopping along or
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stopping to nibble [#18] and Soot following [#18] {with the solemnity} {of a person} [Adj.
to "person" who felt himself [#19] {in charge}]. | Notes
1. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
2. “Dreamy” is a predicate adjective in the noun absolute “his eyes looking dreamy.” The
absolute functions as an adverb (manner) to “slowly.”
3. “Himself” is an appositive to “he.” See KISS Level 5.4 - Appositives.
4. “Laughing,” “glowing,” and “tousled” are verbals (gerundives) that modify “He.”
5. The prepositional phrase “like a bit” functions as a predicate adjective in the noun absolute
“eyes *being* like a bit . . .” The absolute functions as an adverb to the three gerundives,
especially the first two. [Note that the absolute is set off by a semicolon—real writers break
the rules.]
6. “Face lighting” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to “turned.”
7. “Frightened” is a predicate adjective in the noun absolute that functions as an adverb to
“answered.”
8. “All” can be described as an adverb (“completely”) that modifies the following adverbial
prepositional phrase (about them). Alternatively, “all” can be seen as a pronoun that
functions as the direct object of “Does know.” That would make the prepositional phrase an
adjective to “all.”
9. “Possession” is the direct object of “taking” in the noun absolute. The absolute functions as an
adverb (cause or condition) to “asked.”
10. “Way” is the direct object of the verbal (gerundive) “feeling.” The gerundive phrase modifies
“she.”
11. “Heart beating” is the core of a noun absolute that modifies “went.”
12. “Sparkling” is a predicate adjective after the verbal (infinitive) “to look.” “To look” functions
as the direct object of “beginning” in the noun absolute based on “eyes beginning.” The
absolute is adverbial to “answered.”
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13. “Listening” can be explained in three different ways. First, it could be considered part of the
finite verb in a palimpsest pattern—with “had stood” written over “was.” See KISS Level
2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns. Second, it can be seen as a gerundive that modifies “Dickon.”
Finally, it can be considered a gerundive that functions as a Noun Used as an Adverb to
“had stood.”
14. “Eyes shining” is the core of a noun absolute that modifies “had stood listening.”
15. The verbal (infinitive) “to say” functions as an adverb to “glad.”
16. “Tantrum having passed” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to “was
softened” and “met.”
17. “Making up” is a verbal (gerund) that functions as the object of the preposition.
18. “Lamb and . . . cub keeping,” “rabbit hopping . . . or stopping,” and “Soot following” are the
cores of three noun absolutes that modify “trailed.” The verbal (infinitive) “to nibble”
functions as an adverb (of purpose) to “stopping.”
19. “Himself” is the subject of an ellipsed infinitive—“himself *to be* in charge.” The infinitive
phrase is the direct object of “felt.”
5.8.2 Style - Rewriting Sentences by Using Noun Absolutes
Ex. 2 Rewriting Sentences by Using Noun Absolutes -- based on Heidi [Skip?]
Obviously, the revisions given below are not the only possibilities.
Rewrite each of the following sentences by changing the noun absolute into a clause (main
or subordinate):
1. The guest holding the little girl by the hand, they wandered down the mountain-side.
The guest was holding the little girl by the hand, as they wandered down the mountain-side.
2. Two strong porters came up the Alp, each carrying on his back a fresh, white bed.
Two strong porters came up the Alp. Each was carrying on his back a fresh, white bed.
3. He being sixty years old, and I only twenty-six, you can't expect me to give you an account of
his early youth.
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He was sixty years old, and I was only twenty-six. You can't expect me to give you an
account of his early youth.
4. The children were ascending slowly in a zigzag way, Peter always knowing where to find all
sorts of good grazing places for his goats.
The children were ascending slowly in a zigzag way, as Peter always knew where to find all
sorts of good grazing places for his goats.
5. "Because -- because it is broken and can never be mended again," Peter said, his knees
tottering under him.
"Because -- because it is broken and can never be mended again," Peter said. His knees were
tottering under him.
Rewrite each of the following sentences by changing a main (or subordinate) clause into a
noun absolute :
1. Heidi waved her hand. Her eyes followed Clara till she had disappeared.
Heidi waved her hand, her eyes following Clara till she had disappeared.
2. Heidi was soon in the mist of the goats, and she was pushed about among them.
Heidi being soon in the mist of the goats, she was pushed about among them.
3. In the evening she would cry quietly, because her heart was bursting with longing to go home.
In the evening she would cry quietly, her heart bursting with longing to go home.
4. The boy readily took the things and followed Deta. His left arm was holding the bundle, and
his right was swinging the stick.
The boy readily took the things and followed Deta, his left arm holding the bundle and his
right swinging the stick.
5. Soon Peter arrived with the whole herd. The jolly Thistlefinch was ahead of all the others.
Soon Peter arrived with the whole herd, the jolly Thistlefinch ahead of all the others.
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5.8.3 Noun Absolutes That Function as Nouns
Ex. 3.a. Based on Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
1. {At that moment}, {with his face red [#1] } and {*with* his sh
ock {of white hair} disordered [#2] }, the Duke looked {like [#3] [OP what he was
reputed (P) to be [#4] ] }: the worst-tempered old man [#5] {in all the three Ridings} {of
Yorkshire}. | 2. The moonlight coming [#6] {through the gap} {in the wall} {above them} revealed them
(DO) faintly. |
3. {With his brow furrowed [#7] } {in thought} , he stood {outside the door}. |
4. His problem was his mother staring [#8] {at him}. | 5. Her voice ran on, {with the words coming cold and sharp [#9] }, to cover up her own
feelings [#10]. |
6. {For a second} he did not reason out the cause (DO) {of her being [#11] there}. |
7. Joe felt the hopelessness (DO) {of everything flooding [#12] } {over him}. | 8. The imperious figure wearing the enormous white wig [#13] allowed himself to smile [#14]
, too, [Adv. (cause) to "allowed" for [#15] he was famed (P) far and wide {for his piercing
wit}]. |
9. Then Joe found himself stumbling [#16] {down the path} {from the rocky crags}, | and
they were going {over the moor}. | Notes
1. “Red” is a predicate adjective in an ellipsed noun absolute construction, the subject of which is
“face”—“his face *being* red.” The noun absolute functions as the object of the preposition
“with.”
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2. “Shock ... disordered” is a noun absolute that functions as the object of the preposition “with.”
3. Alternatively, “look liked” can be explained as the finite verb phrase (“resembled”). That
would make the following clause a predicate noun (because “resembled” means in some
way “equaled”).
4. The infinitive “to be” functions as a retained direct object after the passive verb “was reputed.”
The active voice version would be—“They reputed him to be what?” Thus the “what”
functions simultaneously as the subordinating conjunction and the predicate noun in the
infinitive construction (the subject of which would be “him”). For more, see KISS Level 5.7
- Passive Voice and Retained Complements.
5. “Man” is an appositive to the clause “what he was reputed to be.”
6. “Moonlight coming” can be explained as a noun absolute that functions as the subject.
Alternatively, “moonlight” can be considered the subject, and “coming” can be explained as
a gerundive that modifies “moonlight.”
7. “Brow furrowed” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as the object of the preposition
“with.”
8. Note that this sentence does not appear in the book. (I could not find an example of a noun
absolute that functions as a predicate noun in the book.) “Mother staring” is a noun absolute
that functions as a predicate noun. If it were “mother’s staring,” the KISS explanation would
be that “staring” is a gerund that functions as the predicate noun, and “mother’s is a
possessive noun that functions as the subject of the gerund.
9. “Words coming cold and sharp” is a noun absolute that functions as the object of the
preposition “with.” [It is also a palimpsest pattern with “coming” written over “being.” See
KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.]
10. “Feelings” is the direct object of the infinitive “to cover.” The infinitive phrase functions as
an adverb to “coming” and “ran on.” (The comma before “to cover” tends to cut the
infinitive off from the “coming” phrase and to send it back to “ran on,” but this is not an
either/or that deserves extended discussion.
11. Because “her” can be either a possessive or an objective pronoun, “her being” can be
explained in two ways. If we consider “her” to be possessive, then it modifies the gerund
“being,” and the gerund is the object of the preposition “of.” If we look at “her” as in
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objective case, then her being” is a noun absolute that functions as the core of the object of
the preposition.
12. “Everything flooding” is a noun absolute that functions as the object of the preposition “of.”
13. “Wig” is the direct object of “wearing.” “Wearing” can be explained as a gerundive that
modifies “figure,” or “figure wearing” can be considered a noun absolute that functions as
the subject of “allowed.”
14. “Himself” is the subject of the infinitive “to smile.” The infinitive phrase is the direct object
of “allowed.”
15. See also KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
16. “Himself stumbling” is a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of “found.”
Ex. 3.b. Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
1. I don't like to see them held up [#1]. |
2. I heard a crash (DO) {of something falling [#2] } {in the stable} . |
3. There was a woman sitting [#3] {on the ground} {with the lady's head} {in her lap} . |
4. James coming [#4] {through the smoke} was a big relief (PN). | 5. [Adv. to "saw" As I looked upward {through the bars} {of my empty rack} ] I saw a red
light flickering [#5] {on the wall}. |
6. {With the rein dangling [#6] } {from his head} he set off home [NuA] {at a full gallop}. |
7. There's no bones broken [#7] , sir [DirA] ; | he'll only get a few scratches (DO). | 8. We had hardly turned {on the common}, [Adv. to "had turned" when we caught sight
(DO) again {of the green habit flying [#8] on } {before us}]. |
9. I heard the door {of John's house} open [#9], and his feet running [#10] up {to the hall}. | 10. "Well [Inj], sir [DirA], I saw your son [#11] whipping, and kicking, and knocking that good
little pony [#11] about shamefully [Adv. to "whipping," "kicking," and "knocking" because
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he would not leap a gate (DO) [Adj. to "gate" that was too high (PA) {for him}]]."
| Notes
1. “Them held up” is a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of the infinitive “to see.”
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “don’t like.”
2. “Something falling” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as the object of the
preposition “of.”
3. If we consider “There” as the subject, then “woman sitting” is the core of a noun absolute that
functions as a predicate noun. If, on the other hand, we consider “There” as an expletive,
then the noun absolute functions as the subject. [See KISS Level 2.1.3 - Expletives
(Optional).]
4. “James coming” is a noun absolute that functions as the subject of “was.” [If it were the
possessive “James’s,” then “James’s” would be the subject of the gerund “coming,” and
“coming” would be the subject.
5. “Light flickering” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of “saw.”
6. “Rein dangling” is the core of a noun absolute that functions as the object of the preposition
“with.”
7. See Note # 3. Note also the questionable subject/verb agreement.
8. “Habit flying” can be explained as the core of a noun absolute that functions as the object of
the preposition “of.”
9. “Door” is the subject of the infinitive “open.” The infinitive phrase functions as one of the two
direct objects of “heard.”
10. “Feet running” is a noun absolute that functions as the second direct object of “heard.”
11. “Pony” is the direct object of “whipping,” “kicking,” and “knocking.” which are part of a
noun absolute with “son.” The noun absolute functions as the direct object of “saw.”
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5.8.4 Passages for Analysis
Ex. 4.a. From Lassie, Come Home [Skip?]
We had a frightful experience (DO) the other day [NuA]. | We had a mad dog (DO)
{in the village}. | Constable Macgregor saw it (DO) first and suspected it (DO), [Adv.
(cause) to "suspected" for [#1] it had saliva flecked [#2] {on its mouth}]. | He tried to catch
it [#3], | but it eluded him (DO). | I saw it coming [#4] {down the street} | -- I had been
visiting Mrs. Tamson (DO) -- [#5] | and a terrible creature (PN) it was, {with its mouth
gaping open [#6] }, and galloping [#7] wildly. | The constable and many {of the town boys}
were {after it}. | I ran {into Jamison's drapery} and didn't come out {for nearly an hour}, | [#8] it gave my heart (DO) such a turn (DO). |
Notes
1. See KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
2. “Flecked” can be considered a gerundive that modifies the direct object “saliva,” or “saliva
flecked” can be explained as a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of “had.”
3. “It” is the direct object of the infinitive “to catch.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct
object of “tried.”
4. “It coming” is a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of “saw.”
5. Alternatively, this clause could be explained as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 -
Interjection? Or Direct Object?
6. “Mouth gaping” is a noun absolute that functions as the object of “with.”
7. The gerundive “galloping” modifies “it.”
8. This is a comma-splice (two main clauses joined by just a comma). Many teachers would
consider it an error. Note that there is an ellipsed “because” here.
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Ex. 4.b. From The Dark Frigate by Charles Boardman Hawes
The alternatives [Adj. to "alternatives" that Phil Marsham faced, [Adv. to
"faced" as he sat {in shackles} {with no spirit} to reply [#1] {to the jibes} {of the sailors} and
watched men stripped [#2] {to the waist} and moving [#2] deftly {among the guns},]] were
not those (PN) [Adj. to "those" a man would choose .] | [Adv. to "was" If his old
shipmates took this tall and handsome ship (DO),] a blow {on the head} and a burial
{over the side} was the kindest treatment (PN) [Adj. to "treatment" he could expect {of
them}.] | And [Adv. to "loomed" if not [#3] ] -- the gallows loomed {beyond a Court} {of
Admiralty}. | {For hours} the hum {of voices} went {up and down the main deck} | and {for
hours} Boatswain Marsham sat {with the bolts} {upon his legs and wrists} and saw the
life {of the ship} go on [#4] {around him}. | The men leaped here and there {at a word}, or
lolled {by their guns} waiting [#5] {for orders}. | The night wore on, | and nodding [#6],
Phil thought {of the two ships} lying one [#7] {on each side} {of the point} {of land} and
{by all appearances}, two quiet merchantmen [#7]. | Yet one, [ Inj. he knew {to his sorrow},]
smelled devilishly {of brimstone}, | and the other, [Adj. to "other" {in which} he now sat a
prisoner (PN) [#8] ,] [Adv. to "was" though her ports were closed (P) ] and [Adv. to "was"
her claws *were* sheathed,] was {like some great tiger} watching {through half-shut
eyes} a bold adventurous goat [#9]. | Notes
1. The infinitive “to reply” functions as an adjective to “spirit.”
2. “Men” can be described as the direct object, and “stripped” as a gerundive that modifies
“men.” But this sentence raises an interesting question because “men stripped” can also be
explained as a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of “watched.” Viewing it as a
noun absolute, however, suggests that one is watching the men being stripped (the action),
whereas viewing “stripped” as a gerundive suggests that the action has finished and one is
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watching men who have been stripped.” “Moving” can likewise be viewed either as a
gerundive or as part of a noun absolute construction that functions as a direct object.
3. This clause is almost entirely ellipsed, but if we analyze it closely, it turns out to be
structurally confusing. Initially, the “if not” seems to go back to the preceding “If the
shipmates took the ship.” Thus “if not” would mean “if they did not take the ship.” But if
they did not take the ship, there would be no reason for the gallows to loom. Thus the clause
ultimately means that if he did not receive the kindest treatment.
4. “Life” is the subject of the infinitive “go on.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct
object of “saw.”
5. The gerundive “waiting” functions as an adjective to “men” and as an adverb to “lolled.”
6. The gerundive “nodding” modifies “Phil.”
7. This is a challenging one! The easy (and somewhat incomplete) analysis would be to explain
“lying” as a gerundive that modifies “ships,” and to explain “one” and “merchantmen” as
appositives to “ships.” At a minimum, however, that leaves the adverbial “by all
appearances” hanging with nothing to connect to. Therefore, “ships lying” can be considered
a noun absolute that functions as the object of the preposition “of.” “One” can be considered
the noun in an ellipsed noun absolute -- (“one *being* on each side ... and by all
appearances *being* ... merchantmen.” The would make the noun absolute phrase an adverb
that modifies “lying.” The “being merchantmen, however, chunks back to “ships,” making it
a second noun absolute that functions as the preposition “of.” From this view, the “by all
appearances” modifies the second ellipsed “being.” (Need some aspirin?)
8. This is a palimpsest pattern with “sat” written over “was.”
9. “Goat” is the direct object of the gerundive “watching” which can be explained as modifying
“tiger.” Alternatively, however, “tiger watching” can be explained as a noun absolute that
functions as the object of the preposition “like.” (Note that, also alternatively, the “like”
phrase can be considered a predicate adjective.)
AppendixAppendix
In addition to explaining the codes and colors used in the analysis keys, this key is also
called “The KISS Grammar Toolbox.” It presents, in very brief form, all the essential concepts
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that students will need to learn in order to explain, and thus intelligently discuss, how any word,
in any English sentence, functions within that sentence.
The KISS Grammar Toolbox
With the exception of passive voice (which is required to understand retained complements),
this list includes all the concepts and constructions that students need in order to explain the
function of any word in any sentence. In effect, it is the KISS Toolbox. The following colors and
codes are used throughout the analysis keys in the KISS Workbooks.
Two KISS Concepts
Compounding – Coordinating Conjunctions
Whereas most grammar texts explain compounding in multiple places (compound subjects;
compound verbs, compound clauses, etc.) KISS treats compounding as a concept. Any identical
parts of speech (such as adjective and adjective) or any construction can be compounded, usually
by using "and," "or," or "but"). Once students can be expected to identify the constructions that
are being joined, the conjunctions are coded orange.
Ellipsis – The Omission of Understood Words
The analysis keys indicate words that are ellipsed by placing them between asterisks –
*You* close the door.
KISS Levels One and Two
Subjects and finite verbs are underlined, with subjects colored green and finite verbs blue.
(Html does not allow for double underlining of finite verbs.) Complements are in brown and
labeled: PN (Predicate Noun); PA (Predicate Adjective); IO (Indirect Object); and DO (Direct
Object). A (P) after a finite verb indicates that it is in passive voice.
Adjectives and Adverbs are not always identified, but when they are, adjectives are in green
and adverbs in blue. In some of the upper level keys, adjectives and adverbs are identified simply
by being in smaller type to show how much of the text students can already be expected to
analyze. Sometimes they are not colored because the result is a confusion of colors. Likewise,
once students have some experience identifying prepositional phrases, I do not usually ask them
to draw arrows from simply adjectives and adverbs to the words they modify. Doing so often
results in a confusion of lines on the students' papers.
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Prepositional Phrases are identified {by braces}. The words in adjectival phrases are in
green; adverbial; phrases are in blue because we are more interested in the functions of phrases
than in the functions of individual words. Embedded phrases and the phrases they are embedded
in are underlined when the directions specifically call for identifying the embeddings.
KISS Level Three
Subordinate clauses are identified (P) {by red brackets}. The function {of the clause}
follows the opening bracket (DO). Subordinate conjunctions [Adj. to "conjunctions" that have
no other function (DO)] are {in bold red}. A vertical line "|" identifies the end (DO) {of each
main clause}. | KISS Level Four
The functions of verbals (gerunds, gerundives, and infinitives) are explained in notes.
KISS Level Five
All these constructions are identified by bracketed, superscript links that lead to the basic
instructional material about them.
Expletives (It and There) [Exp] Noun Used as an Adverb [NuA] Interjection [Inj] Direct Address [DirA] Appositive [App] Delayed Subject [DS] Post-Positioned Adjective [PPA] Retained Complements [RDO], [RPN], [RPA] Noun Absolute [NAbs]
If additional explanation is needed, links are included in notes at the bottom of the page.
Using the KISS Analysis Keys
Originally, there were analysis keys for each KISS level for each KISS exercise. They used
a lot of paper so they have been replaced by one key, a key in which every word in every
sentence is explained. My assumption is that parents and teachers will usually know which
words students should be expected to explain. In many cases, the keys include notes about this.
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But this can be confusing for teachers who are not themselves comfortable with KISS
terminology. Consider a couple of examples.
An exercise in KISS Level 1.5 (Adding Prepositional Phrases) includes the sentence:
The corn which had been sowed in the field over the field-mouse's home grew up high
into the air, and made a thick forest for the poor little girl, who was only an inch high.
The first thing we should note is that this is a very sophisticated sentence for a grammar
textbook. The directions for this exercise are:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,”
or “DO”).
In the analysis key, you will find it analyzed as:
The corn [Adj. to "corn" which had been sowed (P) {in the field} {over the field-
mouse's home}] grew up high {into the air}, and made a thick forest (DO) {for the
poor little girl}, [Adj. to "girl" who was only an inch [NuA] high (PA).] |Based on the directions, you should expect the students to analyze the following:
The corn which had been sowed {in the field} {over the field-mouse's home}
grew up high {into the air}, and made a thick forest (DO) {for the poor little
girl}, who was only an inch high (PA).
In other words, you can ignore the rest of the analysis. It is there as information for parents and
teachers who want to know how to analyze every word. You are, of course, always welcome to
ask questions on the KISS Grammar List or the Yahoo Grammar Group about sentences in
exercises (or any other sentences).
Creating Directions for Your Students
The directions for KISS analytical exercises are in the Master Books for each level and also
in the exercises in the workbooks. Don’t forget, however, that you can adapt these directions to
suit the needs of your own students. The only things I would suggest is that once students get to
prepositional phrases, the following basic sequence should usually be used. (Numbers 3 and 4, of
course, would be added in KISS Level 3.)
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1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,” or
“DO”).
3. Place brackets [ ] around each subordinate clause. If the clause functions as a noun, label
its function.
4. Place a vertical line after each main clause.
Because students will already have the sentences to be analyzed one paper in front of them, they
will not have to copy sentences, etc. It therefore should take them very little time to do these four
things, and these four mark out the major parts of most sentences.
Directions for KISS Punctuation Exercises
Punctuation exercises are very easy for anyone to create. Simply select a short text, remove
all the punctuation marks, change capital letters to lower case, and give the students the text with
the following directions:
Directions: The punctuation and capitalization in the following text was lost. Please fix it (right on this page).
These exercises will be most effective if they are followed by a class discussion of various
changes that students made, particularly if the students are also shown the punctuation in the
original passage.
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Directions for Sentence-Combining Exercises
The following directions are standard for KISS sentence-combining exercises. I give them
here so that you can use them to create your own exercises without confusing students by
changing directions that they may be accustomed to. These are, I should note, the directions that
were used for the "Aluminum" passage created by Roy O'Donnell.
Read the passage all the way through. You will notice that the sentences are
short and choppy. Study the passage, and then rewrite it in a better way. You may
combine sentences, change the order of words, and omit words that are repeated
too many times. But try not to leave out any of the information.
Directions for De-Combining Exercises
Many of the sentences in the following selection are long and complex.
Rewrite the passage, breaking each sentence into as many shorter sentences as
you can. Then consider the stylistic differences between the original and your
rewritten version.
Although textbooks tend to focus on combining exercises, de-combining may be as or more
important than combining exercises. Developmental psychologists such as Piaget and Vygotsky
claimed that reversibility -- the ability to undo a mental operation -- is a sign of cognitive
mastery. More specifically in terms of syntactic maturity, de-combining exercises can help
students see the relationships between ellipsed and reduced forms (such as verbals) and the
simpler "underlying" sentences. Finally, decombining exercises give students a somewhat
different perspective on style since they will find some sentences very difficult to decombine.