water, energy and food interactions—challenges and opportunities

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Water, energy and food interactions-------Challenges and opportunities

Gustaf OLSSON ()

Department of Measurement Technology and Industrial Electrical Engineering, Lund University, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

Abstract Water and energy are inextricably linked, andas a consequence both have to be addressed together. Thisis called the water-energy nexus. When access to either islimited, it becomes obvious that it is necessary to considertheir interdependence. Population growth, climate change,urbanization, increasing living standards and food con-sumption will require an integrated approach where food,water and energy security are considered together. In thispaper we examine water, energy and food security andtheir couplings. The nexus also creates conicts betweenwater use, energy extraction and generation as well as foodproduction. Some of these conicts are illustrated. It isargued that there is an urgent need for integrated planningand operation. Not only will better technology be needed,but also better integration of policies, organizations andpolitical decisions.

Keywords water security, energy security, food security,water-energy nexus, water conicts

1 The water-energy-food nexus

Water and energy are inextricably linked and as aconsequence must be addressed together. This is thewater-energy nexus. Too often, energy planners haveassumed that they have the water they need and waterplanners have assumed that they have the energy theyneed. As long as there is a surplus of both water andenergy, we do not realize the close relationship betweenthem. When access to either is limited, it becomes obviousthat it is necessary to consider their interdependence.Population growth, climate change, urbanization, increas-ing living standards and food consumption will require anintegrated approach where food, water and energy securityare considered together.

Population increase will put pressure on all the threetypes of security. Economic growth will increase thedemand for energy, water and food if not managedproperly. Urbanization, in particular in low-incomecountries, will place much demand not only on sanitationbut also on drinking water, food availability and energyrequirements. Finally, climate change will inuenceenergy, water and food security. Even climate changemitigation may have negative implications. For example,carbon sequestration, the expansion of biofuels, andhydropower can generate signicant new demand forwater. Climate change adaptation can be very energyintensive: irrigation requires more energy than rain-fedagriculture, desalination much more than conventionalwater supplies, and increased groundwater use and waterstorage may require additional pumping.The design of our cities, suburbs, homes and appliances

have enormous implications for water and energyconsumption. Our attitudes and lifestyles also have acrucial impact on water and energy resources. Figure 1illustrates the close coupling between water, energy andfood security. This also indicates that there are severalpotential conicts between food, water and energysecurity. A comprehensive description of the water-energy-food nexus is found in Ref. [1].The nexus concept illustrates the natural resource

scarcity. Some natural resources that support our wellbeingare renewable, such as solar energy. However, the vastmajority of the resources needed to generate fresh water,energy and food are limited, such as freshwater itself,nutrients, soil and land areas. Many of them are degradedand polluted by centuries of human mismanagement.

2 Recent reminders about the nexus

In the last few years there have been events and disastersthat demonstrate the signicant dependencies betweenwater, energy and food. Here we list a few examples to

Received December 2, 2012; accepted April 10, 2013

E-mail: [email protected]

Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.DOI 10.1007/s11783-013-0526-z

illustrate the close couplings.France 2003 and 2007: In the summer of 2003 Europe

was hit by a heat wave, the hottest summer on record inEurope since at least 1540 [2,3]. France was hit especiallyhard. The heat wave led to health crises in several countriesand combined with drought to create a crop shortfall inparts of southern Europe. There are two nuclear reactors atthe River Garonne in southwestern France, one of whichhad to be shut down during the heat wave as river waterwas too warm (> 28C) to be used for cooling the reactor.About 75% of French nuclear reactors are located by riversor lakes. In the summer of 2003 nearly one third of themwere shut down or production was cut back due to lack ofcooling water, corresponding to a loss of 45 nuclearreactors. Again, in the summer of 2007, many reactors hadto reduce production due to the lack of cooling water [4].The European Environment Agency ([5], maps 3.5, 3.6)illustrates the development of European stream ows forthe period 19621990 as well as the projected change inaverage annual and seasonal ows. In particular during thesummer periods the ow rates are decreasing signicantlyin middle and southern Europe.There is fear that water shortages will become more

frequent in coming years due to climate change. Thiscreates a great problem. During a heat wave more electricpower is almost surely needed, for example for airconditioning. At the same time there is a great risk ofhaving to reduce power production due to lack of coolingwater.USA 2012: The heat wave during the summer of 2012

was at its worst in June over the eastern United States, the

Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, andover northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June2012 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month onrecord globally, at 0.66C above the 20th century average,while the period AprilJune was the warmest everrecorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at1.25C above average [6]. The US drought damaged corncrops used to produce ethanol, disrupting energy deliveriesand threatening thermoelectric power plants [7]. In lateAugust 2012 only 23% of the nations corn crop was ratedas good to excellent. About 35% of corn production hadbeen used in 20102011 to make ethanol, which is mixedinto gasoline. This makes up some 10% of all motorgasoline in the United States. The production of ethanolfell and gasoline prices increased 23% from June toAugust.Corn is used not only for cars but also for food. Global

food prices were affected already by August. This hit poorand hungry people particularly hard. The electric powersector was also affected by the drought. As described in thecase of France, increasing electricity demand combinedwith the forced reduction in power production due to lackof cooling water presented a major challenge for electricityproducers.China--ooding--Three Gorges Dam 2010: On July 20,

2010, the Yangtze River at the Three Gorges Damexperienced its highest river discharge in 130 years, andthe highest since the dam was built. The dams wallsreleased 40,000 m3s1 of water, while 30,000 m3s1 of theriver ow was held back behind the dam after water levelsin the reservoir had risen 4 m overnight [8,9]. The

Fig. 1 Illustration of the close links between water, energy and food security (from Ref. [1])

2 Front. Environ. Sci. Eng.

reservoirs water levels peaked at almost 159 m on themorning of July 23, whereas the alarm level of thereservoir was set at 145 m. A second peak in the riverarrived at the dam on July 28, when the peak ow from thedam was a record 56,000 m3s1. These events illustrate theurgent need for early warning systems in hydropowersystems [1].China--drought 2010: By March 22, 2010, about 51

million people faced water shortages in a number ofprovinces [1012]. Economic damage to agriculture andlost electricity generation from hydroelectric dams due tothe drought was estimated to be at least 24 billion ChineseYuan (US$3.5 billion).

2.1 Water security

There is still no precise denition of water security but oneapproach denes water security as the ability to accesssufcient quantities of clean water to maintain minimalstandards of food and goods production, sanitation andhealth [13]. As Fig. 1 illustrates, water security isinuenced by both energy and food. Agriculture has amajor inuence on both water supply and on water quality.Water security depends on the availability of energy toprovide the water. In the developing world in particular,energy availability may be the real limiting factor for watersupply.Water security is a true indicator of wellbeing. It is

different in character than energy security in many ways.On a global scale, new water cannot be created, but it canbe re-used. Rainfall supplies new freshwater locally, butthe benets of the new water can easily be destroyed bypollution and other misuse. Unlike energy it is expensiveand difcult to transport water long distances. It is simplytoo heavy in relation to its cost. Nonetheless, water istransported long distances, for example from northern tosouthern California or from distant groundwater sourcesbelow the desert in Libya to cities on the Mediterraneancoast. The costs in energy are massive, in fact of the sameorder of magnitude as desalination [1, Ch. 15].The water dimension of food security, human security

and human development is well known to most waterprofessionals. However, awareness among decisionmakers of the inter-linkages between water security,development opportunities and international cooperationmust be increased.

2.2 Energy security

Energy exploration and production requires huge volumesof water. At the same time, with an increasing demand forwater there is also an increasing demand for the energyneeded to obtain the water. A more water-constrainedfuture, as population and the global economy grows andclimate change looms, will impact reliability and costs forthe energy sector.

Coal and oil exploration not only use large volumes ofwater, but the water also becomes highly polluted. Thereare many reports on the interaction of hydraulic fracturingand water resources. Most of these, however, are eitherindustry or advocacy reports that have not been peer-reviewed. A large portion of the water injected under-ground is either not recovered or is unt for further useonce it is returned to the surface. Sometimes the water istreated and reused for subsequent fracking, although this isstill fairly uncommon [14,15]. Coal mining consumes,diverts and can seriously pollute water resources. Mininghas become more mechanized and therefore able to handlemore rock and ore material. This results in much moremine waste [16].Hydropower generation obviously depends on water.

The dam itself often acts like a gigantic sedimentationbasin, with the silt carried by the river ow, which couldpreviously serve as fertilizer downstream, becomingtrapped in the dam. Increasing water shortages incombination with increased water use in many regions isnow resulting in a lack of water in the dams. Thermalpower plants require huge amounts of cooling water. Thedemand for cooling water is in competition withagriculture and municipal needs. As mentioned previously,many rivers are running drier in the summer as a result ofclimate change. This will place signicant constraints onpower production. Furthermore, with increasing biofuelproduction there is an increasing competition over land usebetween energy production and food production.

2.3 Food security

The commonly used denitions of food security comefrom the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organiza-tion (FAO) and the United States Department ofAgriculture (USDA). According to the FAO, food securityexists when all people, at all times, have physical andeconomic access to sufcient safe and nutritious food thatmeets their dietary needs and food preferences for an activeand healthy life ([17], Ch. 2.2). Food security depends onthe supply of water for adequate quality and quantity. Toooften, water is too polluted to be used for irrigation. Whengroundwater is heavily exploited its levels are lowered, andenergy used for pumping must be increased. Manygovernments subsidize energy heavily for pumping groundwater for irrigation. Therefore farmers have less incentivesto invest in drip systems or other water savings methods.Food production also depends on energy, through forexample the manufacture of fertilizers and pesticides, farmmachinery and for transportation.Changes in regional temperature proles as a result of

climate change have also impacted both the types of cropsthat may be grown in a particular region and crop yields.Evidence for this is found in the pattern of warming anddrying in the Mediterranean region [18], which has led to adrop in food output in Southern Europe and a subsequent

Gustaf OLSSON. Water, energy and food interactionsChallenges and opportunities 3

rise in world food prices. Some observations andconclusions are described in Ref. [5] (key message 4.1):Climate change is projected to improve the suitability forgrowing crops in northern Europe and to reduce cropproductivity in large parts of southern Europe. Projectionsbased on different climate models agree on the direction ofthe change, but with some variation in its magnitude.

2.4 Conicts between water and energy

Water security depends on energy. Around 2%3% ofglobal energy production is used for water supply andsanitation purposes. There is a signicant margin for thereduction of energy consumption. Also, there is increasingcompetition between different uses of water: for energyproduction and transformation, agriculture, industry, andfor domestic purposes. It is less noted that the largestdemand for energy in the water cycle comes from thecustomer. Energy for water heating is a signicantcomponent of residential use. Energy consumption onthe water demand side is much greater than the energy usedfor supply, distribution and treatment. For example, inCalifornia energy use in the homefor heating water, andfor washing and drying clothesrepresents 14% ofCalifornias electric energy consumption and 31% of itsnatural gas consumption. Typically around 90% of theenergy consumed in the water cycle is used at homewhile only 10% is required for water supply and treatment,distribution, and sewage collection and treatment. Somecalculations are made in Ref. [1] and statistics for domesticuse are found in Ref. [19].Global water withdrawals for energy production in 2010

were estimated at some 15% of the worlds total waterwithdrawals [20]. Some 11% of the withdrawals wereactually consumed, meaning withdrawn but not returned toits source. According to the International Energy Agencywithdrawals are predicted to increase by about 20%between 2010 and 2035, with consumption rising by amore dramatic 85%. These trends are driven by a shifttoward higher efciency power plants with more advancedcooling systems (that typically reduce withdrawals butincrease consumption per unit of electricity produced) andby expanding biofuels production. Future water needs forbiofuels will depend largely on whether feedstock cropscome from irrigated or rain-fed lands. Advanced biofuelswhose feedstock crops tend to be less water-intensivemayalso change the need for water. First generation biofuelshave important limitations, since these crops are alsorequired for food. The goal of 2nd generation technology isto use biomass consisting of the residual non-food parts ofcurrent crops, such as stems, leaves and husks as well asother crops that are not used for food purposes, includingindustry waste like woody or brous biomass, and skinsand pulp from fruit pressing.Thermal power plants require huge amounts of cooling

water, about 37 m3MWh1 (or 0.82 m3MJ1) produc-

tion. For example, in the United States nearly 50% of allfreshwater withdrawals are used for thermoelectric energyproduction. Most of this is directly returned, but theconsumptive use for thermoelectric energy production,mostly through evaporation, is about 1.5% of totalfreshwater withdrawal. We have described how droughtsand climate change have caused a shortage of coolingwater and the subsequent reduction of electric powergeneration. The demand for cooling water competes withagriculture and municipal demands. This will placesignicant constraints on energy production.Exploration for fossil fuels depends heavily on the

availability of water. The so-called non-conventional oilfrom tar sands requires huge amounts of water. Evenworse, much of the water used for oil exploration becomescontaminated by tailings seepage, fracturing uids, ow-back or produced water (surface and groundwater). Table 1provides some typical values. For non-conventional oil,water consumption may be as high as 500 L of water perliter of oil.

Hydropower production can operate very dynamically,which is benecial for balancing electricity production andinstant demand from the grid. This can be an environ-mental problem due to the induced transient ow patternsdownstream. Increasing water shortages in combinationwith increased water use in many regions is now resultingin a lack of water in the dams. With lower water levels thegeneration of electricity is decreasing. Water is consumedvia evaporation from the reservoir, which generally ismuch higher than from a turbulent river ow. The amountconsumed is highly site-specic and variable and dependson climate, reservoir design and allocation for other uses.One estimate from the US [20] states that hydropowerfacilities in the United States consume around 68m3MWh1 (19 LMJ1), with a wide range depending onthe facility (compare Table 1).There are many conicts between regions and nations

caused by hydropower projects. Examples can be found allover the world. Many rivers, lakes and groundwateraquifers are shared by two or more states. Thisgeographical fact has led to disputes over shared waterslike the Nile River in Africa; the Tigris and Euphrates inthe Middle East; the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra in theSouth Asia; the Mekong in South East Asia; the Danubeand Rhine in Europe; and the Colorado and Paran in the

Table 1 Water consumption per L or kg of fuel [1], [21]

energy source liters/MJ liters of water per kg orliter of fuel

crude oil 1.1 40 L water/L oilnon-conventional oil 34 90150 L water/L oilcoal 0.16 4 Lwater/kg coalnatural gasbiomass

0.1145

6 L water/kg gas 1100 L water/L ethanol


Americas.Example--South Africa: South Africa provides an

example of the conict between water and energy [2224]. The national utility Eskom is building two new coal-red power stations, Kusile and Medupi. Both the plantswill apply dry cooling to save cooling water. Whennished the plants will be the 3rd and 4th largest coal-redpower plants in the world, respectively. Each plant willconsist of 6 units with a total capacity of around 4800MW.The Kusile units will come into operation between 2014and 2018, and the Kusile plant will be commissionedbetween 2012 and 2015.The dry cooling technology is of course a relief in a

country with water scarcity. Still, with 93% of Eskomselectricity generated from coal-red stations, this alreadyimplies a major environmental footprint. Coal has a hugeimpact on water, which is the critical issue. The coal for thepower stations will be supplied by mines operated byAnglo Coal (New Largo and Zondagfontein collieries).The new coal mines are being approved without a clearview of what the water impacts are likely to be, or wherethe water will come from. Local communities (bothresidential and agricultural areas) may well lose theirwater rights to make way for the mines. Eskom is classedas a strategic water user under the National Water Act,which means that the company is guaranteed a supply ofwater, no matter what.The water will come from the Vaal River. The closest

water source, the Olifants River, is already too polluted touse because of coal mining and associated industries.Residential customers use some 16%18% of the countryselectrical power, yet 12.3 million South Africans have noaccess to electricity. It currently looks like agriculture (andessentially food security) and local communities access towater will ultimately be the big losers, and energy-intensive industries the big winners. Interestingly, thename Medupi is a Sepedi word that means rain that soaksparched lands, giving economic relief.

2.5 Conicts between water and food

It should be noted that half of the cases of malnutritionworldwide result from illness and infection from dirtywater or unhygienic sanitation. Water supply, sanitationand hygiene issues are integral components of strategiesfor food security. The critical coupling between water andfood can be illustrated by a few statistics [25]: Globally, 70% of all fresh water use is by irrigation; About 20% of the worlds cropland is irrigated, yet

irrigated agriculture supports 40% of all food production; Drought is the number one threat to food supply in

high-population developing countries; By 2050 the planet could have 23 billion additional

people to feed with virtually no new cropland and no newsources of water. Better irrigation methods to reducespecic demand have to be implemented.

As pointed out in Ref. [25] the continued expansion ofwater research is, considering population increase, morecritical than ever. It is crucial to produce more food withless water. However, while the technical advancement ofwater and food research is most needed in developingcountries, much of the expertise and research is located indeveloped nations.Throughout history water has tended to be underpriced.

This encourages wasteful consumption, which in turnincreases the consumption of energy in the food chain. Atthe same time, the agriculture sector is often the recipientof subsidized electricity [1]. For example, irrigation waterin the Central Valley of California has been remarkablycheap, far below the cost of collecting and transporting thewater. This makes it affordable not only to irrigatefarmlands but also to maintain the fairways and greens ofgolf courses. The price of water is often not set at a levelthat would encourage sustainable practices. If governmentsstopped subsidizing water for plants and water-thirstycrops alien to deserts, or to irrigate pasture to raise cattlefor beef (at a ratio of 15000 kg of water for 1 kg of beef),there would be water to spare.Too-cheap energy and/or water subsidies do not

encourage efciency. There are many examples of themisuse of either energy or water. Adequate pricing ought tobe an efcient way to bring supply and consumption intobalance.It is important to distinguish between water scarcity and

water shortage. Certainly, water shortage (decit) is one ofthe essential components of scarcity. Water scarcity alsoincludes many other important components, such asdeterioration in the quality of natural water bodies. As aconsequence of industrialized development, groundwaterpollution is serious in many countries, notably China andin India, as well as in many regions of America andEurope. Soil is inltrated by not only industrial wastes andcity sewage but also fertilizers and pesticides [26]. Asurvey of 641 wells in northeastern and eastern Chinamade in 2011 [27] showed that only 26% of the wells metdrinking water suitability standards. North China is moreaffected by deteriorating groundwater quality becausethere are fewer rivers and lakes in the North.Innovative technologies can help avoid drought or

ooding catastrophes. For example, sensor networks thatmake it possible to monitor and predict water ow and dikemovements have been developed. Early warning systemsto respond to droughts and oods before a disaster occursare of major importance. Such systems are needed toidentify looming shortages of both food and water. This isnot only a technical challenge. In many places theinstitutional linkages need to be strengthened as well.

2.6 Conicts between energy and food

The 2012 drought in the United States, described above,clearly illustrated the conict between food and energy.


The increased use of biofuels as a renewable energy sourceis already causing competition for land on which to eithergrow biofuels or produce food. The impact on food pricesand water availability is also a subject of constant scrutiny.There is an apparent coupling between the cost of energy

and food prices. The rising input costs for food are mostoften related to the cost of energy. Energy is an importantinput in petroleum-based fertilizers, growing crops, raisinglivestock and accessing marine food resources, as well asthroughout the value chain in processing, packaging,distributing, storing, preparing, serving, and disposing offood. Therefore, the stability, affordability and assuranceof energy supplies have a direct bearing on food prices.Globally, discussions indicate that rising energy pricescould be one of the main emerging factors behind risingfood prices [2830].

3 Conclusions the need for integratedsolutions

Water, energy and food security are closely related. Thereis therefore an urgent need for integrated planning andoperation. To obtain sustainable solutions we have toconsider not only technical solutions but also think interms of reductions in all kinds of consumption, i.e.demand management. Efcient incentives to save must befound. There is no doubt that water is becomingincreasingly important for energy projects as well as forfood production. In an increasingly water-constrainedworld, the vulnerability of both the energy and the foodsectors to constraints in water availability are expected toincrease. Furthermore, the water quality is affected byenergy operations and food production. Not only willbetter technology be needed, but also the better integrationof policies, organizations and political decisions.

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water, energy and food interactions—challenges and opportunities

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