virtuosity, improvisation, and the gharana system in north india

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1 Virtuosity, Improvisation, and the Gharana System in North India Since the 13th Century Muslim invasion of North India, Indian classical music has existed in a bifurcated state despite centuries-old treatises between North and South Indian musicians. In North India, the form of classical music is primarily Hindustani, whereas Carnatic music is recognized as the classical music of South India. Hindustani music is a byproduct of the social and political climate that existed in North India following the Muslim takeover. To validate their music in the eyes of their Muslim leaders, Hindustani musicians reframed Indian classical music as an art form and made subsequent changes in their performance of the genre. One of the most obvious changes made was the increased emphasis placed on virtuosity, especially that associated with improvisation which soon became an important facet in Hindustani music. As a result of the virtuosity required by improvisation in Hindustani classical music and the increased emphasis on professional musicianship, a new method of teaching music emerged known as the gharana system. These characteristics, unique to Hindustani music, have served to keep the genre from dying out and with great success. Prior to the invasion of North India in the thirteenth century, the classical music system of Indian was united by various treatises. Capwell describes the effects of the Natyasastra on early Indian classical music. This fifth century treatise establishes music’s role as a supplement for natya, or drama. Natya is used to incite the experience of an elevated state of artistic gratification, known as rasa. To induce rasa, the Natyasastra prescribes a collection of twenty- two note scales and associated patterns for each scale. These scales and their characteristics served as the basis for the various ragas, each of which has a specific rasa associated with it. In

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Virtuosity, Improvisation, and the Gharana System in North India

Since the 13th Century Muslim invasion of North India, Indian classical music has

existed in a bifurcated state despite centuries-old treatises between North and South Indian

musicians. In North India, the form of classical music is primarily Hindustani, whereas Carnatic

music is recognized as the classical music of South India. Hindustani music is a byproduct of the

social and political climate that existed in North India following the Muslim takeover. To

validate their music in the eyes of their Muslim leaders, Hindustani musicians reframed Indian

classical music as an art form and made subsequent changes in their performance of the genre.

One of the most obvious changes made was the increased emphasis placed on virtuosity,

especially that associated with improvisation which soon became an important facet in

Hindustani music. As a result of the virtuosity required by improvisation in Hindustani classical

music and the increased emphasis on professional musicianship, a new method of teaching music

emerged known as the gharana system. These characteristics, unique to Hindustani music, have

served to keep the genre from dying out and with great success.

Prior to the invasion of North India in the thirteenth century, the classical music system of

Indian was united by various treatises. Capwell describes the effects of the Natyasastra on early

Indian classical music. This fifth century treatise establishes music’s role as a supplement for

natya, or drama. Natya is used to incite the experience of an elevated state of artistic

gratification, known as rasa. To induce rasa, the Natyasastra prescribes a collection of twenty-

two note scales and associated patterns for each scale. These scales and their characteristics

served as the basis for the various ragas, each of which has a specific rasa associated with it. In

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addition to the Natyasastra treatise, another important treatise for early Indian classical music is

the Sangitaratmakra, a thirteenth century treatise on music. The significance of the

Sangitaratmakra is that it marks the subsequent bifurcation of Indian classical music (Capwell

35-39). In that same century, North India, and parts of South India, would see the installation of

of Turko-Afghan dynasties beginning in 1206 and continuing until 1398 (Metcalf and Metcalf

xxvii). This introduction of Muslim rulers would forever change how North Indian classical

music was performed.

In the first chapter of A Concise History of Modern India, Metcalf and Metcalf explore

the political and social impact of Muslim rulers. It is important to note that there were no mass

conversion of Hindus to Islam. Instead sultanate and Muslim leaders focused on expanding

Muslim power but concurrently maintained a state of cultural pluralism. Despite the cultural

pluralism, Islam was clearly favored. As a result, conversion was viewed as a way to secure

strategic opportunities that were more readily available to Muslims. Furthermore, the Mughal

leader Aurangzeb exacerbated the division of the Hindu and Muslim cultures by instituting a

differential tax on Muslims, destroying Hindu temples, and heavily favoring Muslims for

employment in the government (3-23). Because of the slow, but steady, conversion of Hindus to

Islam, North Indian society and the byproduct of that society, Hindustani music, would both be

fundamentally changed.

Because of the conversion of many Hindus and the subsequent importance of Islam in

North Indian society, Hindustani music, with its Hindu roots, was viewed as a genre of music for

lower class citizens (Capwell 40-41). Capwell explains that in order to save Hindustani music,

North Indian musicians began redefining the genre as an art music with centuries-old, spiritual

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roots (40-41). To support their claims of Hindustani music being art music, Hindustani musicians

placed increased importance on virtuosity and melody (Capwell 40-41). This reconstruction is

vital to Hindustani music’s history as the genre might have been simply relegated to the lower-

castes of North Indian society and its potential as a style of music never realized.

Tansen, a legendary 16th Century Hindustani musician, and his performances best

exemplify the changes that Hindustani music underwent during its integration into a Muslim-

dominated society. In “A Tale of Two Sensibilities: Hindustani Music and Its Histories,” Daniel

Neuman explores Tansen’s role in the history of Hindustani music. Tansen, a likely convert from

Hinduism to Islam, studied Swami Haridas, a type of Hindu musical aesthetic, and had

experience as a court musician in Gwalior before joining Emperor Akbar’s court. Tansen’s role

as a Muslim court musician often conflicted with his traditional preparation as a Hindu musician.

Despite the many obstacles he had to overcome, Tansen saw great success as Akbar’s court

musician and was even named of his Nine Jewels. Tansen and his impact on Hindustani music

would live on in his “descendants.” Over the years, many major musicians have claimed descent

from him; in fact, most gharanas, Hindustani schools of music, have also claimed descent

(Neuman, 287). The success of Tansen’s music in the Mughal courts symbolizes the acceptance

of Hindustani music by the Muslim culture and paved the way for subsequent generations of

Hindustani musicians.

In reinventing Hindustani music to be more agreeable to the Muslim culture, much

importance was placed on virtuosity. This emphasis on virtuosity was at least partially realized

through an increased emphasis on improvisation. Improvisation in the Hindustani context is used

enhance the rasa created during the performance of the raga. Stephen Slawek explores

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improvisation in Hindustani instrumental music in his article titled “Keeping It Going: Terms,

Practices, and Processes of Improvisation in Hindustani Instrumental Music.” He writes “The

raga-esseence is made manifest through improvised performance and in the form of

precomposed, relatively stable compositions (bandis in vocal music; gat in instrumental music)”

(335). To improvise passages well is to be a virtuosic musician because of the skill base it

requires. A successful Hindustani musician must be knowledgable about the many ragas,

understand and be able to play in multiple tala, a term used to describe rhythmic cycles, and to

have command of a repertoire of improvised passages, called tan. In addition, the musician must

understand and be able to properly ornament phrases with respect to the raga they are playing in

(Slawek 335). Improvisation in Hindustani music is truly a virtuosic endeavor, and as a result,

there are many important factors involved when performing such musical pieces.

One of these factors is the soloist-accompanist relationship. In Hindustani music, the

soloist is usually paired with an accompanist, often a tabla player (Slawek 337). Their

relationship is built around clear communication and a coordinated effort to, as Slawek calls it,

“keep it [the music] going” (337). In general, the accompanist is subordinate to the soloist.

However, should the tabla player be more musically accomplished, he or she will have more

power during the course of the performance when paired with a relatively less accomplished

soloist. Today, most soloists prefer to be accompanied by skilled tabla players, who have the

ability to insert rhythmic fills in-between the soloist’s improvised phrases. This serves to both

keep the music going and to give the soloists time to prepare their next section of improvisation

(Slawek 337). All things considered, it is the virtuosity of both the soloist and their accompanist

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that determine how successful the duo is in keeping the music going and performing

improvisational passages.

Over the course of the performance, the audience can have a considerable impact on

keeping the music going. Slawek suggests that positive interactions with the audience can affect

the performer psychologically by reducing inhibitions and satisfying the ego, thus permitting the

creative process to occur more effortlessly by “creating a kind of musical inertia” (337). In his

article, “Keeping It Going: Terms, Practices, and Processes of Improvisation in Hindustani

Instrumental Music,” Slawek applies Racy’s ecstatic feedback model, in which the artist draws

inspiration from a certain ecstatic condition “which in turn owes to: the artist’s own physical and

emotional state; input from the accompanying musicians; possible inexplicable outside control;

and, above all, an educated and responsive audience” (qtd. in Racy 10). This social-aesthetic

complex then serves to communicate to the musician the success of their musical ideas and is

taken into consideration when developing future musical ideas (Slawek 337-338). Because of its

power influences on both the musician’s psyche and the creation of his or her work, the audience

responses play a significant role in the improvisation of Hindustani work.

A goal for many soloists is to attain an elevated metaphysical state. Some artists describe

this higher state of consciousness as both a state of ecstasy and catharsis, in which musical

improvisation is effortless (Slawek 338). By attaining this state, the musician hopes to be able to

communicate on a higher level to their audience as their instrument has now become an

extension of themselves (Slawek 338). This relationship between music and the conscious is

even outlined in the Sangitaratmakra. In this ancient text, the sound of music and intonation are

related to the cakra, which are symbolic neural centers in Hindu physiology. Furthermore, the

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twenty-two shruti, the pitches of the scale used by Hindustani musicians, are described as being

representative of the twenty-two nadi, which are branches that pass through the cakra as part of

the susumna, or neural main line (Nijenhuis and Delvoye 36). Thus it is strongly believed by

many musicians that Hindustani music facilitates reaching this altered state of consciousness

through its repetitive stylings and its ability to create musical tension, similar to natya, which

will create feelings of rasa in both the musician and the audience (Slawek 338). The cyclical

nature of both the tala and the syntagmatic qualities of both the raga and the spiraling increase in

tempo also help facilitate catharsis in musicians (Slawek 339). Attaining these states would not

be possible without having full command of the many aspects of Hindustani music. These

musicians represent how virtuosity is used during performances and how it enables them to

better communicate feelings of rasa to their audiences.

In the process of reaching a higher level of consciousness, Hindustani musicians will

encounter obstacles, ranging from feelings of anxiety or barriers created by the technical

difficulty of the music (Slawek 338). Slawek explains that to overcome these obstacles often

means years of intense practice under the instruction of a master. It is believed by Hindustani

musicians that appropriate preparation of what Slawek calls the “context” (338) will enable the

musician to attain catharsis regardless of any impediments during the performance such as a poor

sound system or distracting noises. Context, as understood by Hindustani musicians includes not

just the performance and the venue, but the many years of preparation during which a musician

studies under a master (Slawek 338). Because of the importance placed on the context, it is

important that one understands how Hindustani musicians are prepared .

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While there are many differences between Hindustani and Carnatic classical music, one

of the most shocking is the difference in their approaches to teaching music; a difference

necessitated by the unique qualities and performance settings of each genre. In Hindustani music,

musical tradition is passed through lineages known as gharanas, which have been established by

families who specialize in music (Capwell 39). Each family would develop innovative ways of

performing ragas; this view of the genre would then be adapted by the student and become their

foundation for both playing and understanding Hindustani classical music (Cohoon 30). Capwell

goes on to explain how the gharanas then guarded these secrets in attempts to elevate their status

above other families (39-40). In comparison, Carnatic music was taught using the guru-shishya

system. Unlike the exclusiveness that existed in the gharana system, advancements in musical

ideas and styling were often shared among musicians (Capwell 40). This difference in not only

the performance but the teaching of music in North and South India is ultimately a result of the

13th Century Muslim invasion of North India.

The reasons for these differences lie in how the Muslim takeover changed the role of

music in North Indian society. Capwell explains that Hindustani musicians had to maintain their

music as a virtuosic art form in order to make it acceptable by their Muslim leaders (40). As a

result musicians played in a professional manner, and they were even called to serve in Muslim

courts (Capwell 40). As a result it became important to protect one’s stylings that set one apart

from other musicians. In contrast, Carnatic music, in addition to being performed professionally

(though not nearly to the extent of Hindustani music), was often performed at both social and

religious functions (Capwell 40-41). Unlike North India, social music was much more widely

accepted in South India (Capwell 40-41). Moreover, musicians often served to play music for

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their chosen gods and would perform music as a religious duty, rather than one done for money

(Capwell 40). As a result, there was a greater exchange of musical ideas amongst South Indian

musicians, who did not rely as heavily on music for their financial welfare as did their North

Indian counterparts.

In the development of Hindustani music, there is substantial interplay between the genre

and both political and social context of the society in which it was formed. By reshaping Indian

music as an art form, musicians like Tansen effectively saved Hindustani music from being lost

in history. Not only did they save Indian classical music in the North, but in developing

Hindustani music, musicians managed to find new ways in generating rasa through virtuosity

and improvisation. Furthermore, Hindustani musicians were also given the opportunity to

perform in Muslim courts. Thus, though it was a music once threatened, Hindustani music saw

great success even amongst the Muslim leaders who once viewed it as a nuisance created by the

lower class.

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Works Cited

Capwell, Charles. “The Music of India.” Excursions in World Music. 6th ed. Ed. Timothy

Rommen. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc., 2012. 26-52 Print.

Cohoon, Michaela K. An Exploration into North Indian Classical Music: Raga, Alif Laila, and

Improvisation. University of Maryland, College Park, 2012. Ann Arbor: ProQuest. Web.

18 Dec. 2014.

Metcalf, Barbara D., and Thomas R. Metcalf. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge,

UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print.

Neuman, Daniel M. “A Tale of Two Histories: Hindustani Music and its Histories.” Theory and

Method in Historical Ethnomusicology. Eds. Jonathan McCollum, and David G. Hebert.

Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2014. 279-276. Print.

Nijenhuis, Emmie, and François Delvoye. “Sanskrit and Indo-Persian Literature on Music.

Hindustani Music: Thirteenth to Twentieth Centuries. Eds. Joep Bor, François Delvoye,

Jane Harvey, and Emmie Nijenhuis. Delhi, India: Manohar Publishers and Distributors,

2010. 35-58. Print.

Slaweck, Stephen. “Keeping It Going: Terms, Practices, and Processes of Improvisation in

Hindustani Instrumental Music.” In the Course of Performance: Studies in the World of

Musical Improvisation. Eds. Bruno Nettl, and Melinda Russel. Chicago: The University of

Chicago Press, 2000. 336-365. Print