viollet-le-duc and american 19th century architecture

Viollet-le-Duc and American 19th Century ArchitectureAuthor(s): Daniel D. ReiffSource: Journal of Architectural Education (1984-), Vol. 42, No. 1 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 32-47Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture,Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1424998 .

Accessed: 05/10/2013 14:24

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

Taylor & Francis, Ltd. and Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, Inc. are collaborating withJSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Architectural Education (1984-).

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 192.236.36.29 on Sat, 5 Oct 2013 14:24:57 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=taylorfrancis

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=acsa

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=acsa

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1424998?origin=JSTOR-pdf

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp


Viollet-le-Duc and American 19th Century Architecture

U

Daniel D. Reiff, who holds BA, MA and PhD degrees from Harvard University, was acting assistant secretary of the U.S. Com- mission of Fine Arts, Washington, DC in 1969-70. He has taught art and architectural history at Baylor University, and since 1970 at the State University of New York College at Fredonia. His special interest is in the origin and genesis of architectural designs and types, and the relationship of published models to architectural practice. Two of his books, Washington Architecture, 1791-1861: Problems in Development (1971) and Small Georgian Houses in En- gland and Virginia: Origins and Develop- ment through the 1750s (1986) treat this topic extensively.

In the 1870s and 1880s, when the establish- ment of schools of architecture in the United States was in its infancy, one of the main methods of architectural education for builders, carpenters and others who wished to advance in the field was to study the many books on architecture being published after the Civil War. Even professional architects had frequent recourse to books (and also periodicals) for design ideas, theory and contemporary issues.

Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc was one author who was avidly read during this period; at least eight volumes of his writing were available in English. His Discourses on Architecture (volume 1 published here in 1875; both volumes in 1881) was of immense importance both to well known architects such as Furess, Van Brunt, Jenney and Root-and probably even Hunt-but also to uncounted lesser architects. Viollet was extolled by architectural critics such as Montgomery Schuyler, and even the young Frank Uoyd Wright owed much to his writings. Viollet's influence here ranged from architectural theory to providing specific design motifs to an eclectic American architecture.

1 Fl 1988 JA 42/1

The 1 870s and 1880s was a critical period for the transformation of architecture in the United States, both in how architects were educated, and for the sources of their design ideas. Although we tend to think of the writings of Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) in terms of his theories of functional rationalism and his impacton Frank Lloyd Wright,' his books in fact had a pro- found impact on many facets of architecture during the last two or three decades of the 19th century-and in some surprising ways. In the context of both architectural training of the post-Civil War era, and also in light o the influence of publications on architecture in general, we can examine the considerable impact of Viollet's works on architecture in America.

Architectural Education Prior to the 1870s Few architects of the pre-Civil War era were

rofessionally trained. Most nationally known architects of the day came from the craft tradition: for example, Alexander Parris (1780-1852), Ithiel Town (1784-1844), Minard Lafever (1798-1854), and Henry Austin (1804-1891) were all trained as carpenters; Richard Upjohn (1802-1878) began his career as a cabinet maker. Natu- rally their apprenticeships and experience as carpenters gave them much technical information and design practice well beyond the

"mere" manual dexterity needed in the craft. A review of any of the 18th and early 19th century carpenter's manuals leaves no doubt in one's mind that the best professional carpenters and builders had a high level of ability in many areas of design, theory and construction. Only a very few in America, such as William Strickland (1788-1854)- whose father was a carpenter-and Robert Mills (1781-1855), were trained from the start in engineering, design, and drafting: but then their teacher, Benjamin H. Latrobe, was a unique professional in America.2

Both nationally known architects of the period, and lesser known regional architects, achieved the status of "architect" when they had gone beyond their craft training (usually as carpenters) through extensive experience in building, learning from other craftsmen (such as masons) during various projects, sometimes apprenticeship with an established architect, and through studying books. Naturally their abilities and achievements varied considerably.

Books began to take on real importance in American architecture from the 1750s on- ward. Prior to that time the strength of the craft tradition and experience gained through apprenticeship was essentially enough: the books available prior to the middle of the 18th century by and large repeated the material that a thorough apprenticeship would have already covered.3 But after about 1750, the importance of the printed page for additional technical information, architectural theory, design motifs, plans and elevations, and even architectural history increased considerably. A glance at the number of such books imported into the Colonies, as listed by Helen Park, gives graphic indication of the sudden surge of interest in architectural books at mid-century: 1701-19 = 0; 1720s = 1; 1730s = 4; 1740s = 5; 1750 = 23; 1760s = 38; and 1770s = 3 1.4 It is surprising that even during the decade of the American revolution, the number of titles known to have been imported is quite high.

After the revolution there was a renewed burst of imported books, and also the beginning of publishing such volumes in America (the first, John Norman's The Town and Country Builder's Assistantwas published in Boston in 1786). Research by Janice Schimmelman has revealed at least 147 titles of architectural books available here through 1800.

Naturally during the 19th century imported books continued to play a very significant role; butthegrowth of architectural publishing in America during that century confirms the demand for such books by carpenters, builders, and architects eager to learn. Since architectural publishing in America took some decades to mature, it is seldom realized just how many books on or relating to architecture were actually available-through importing from England and the Continent. Ithiel Town's famous private library gives us some idea: when he began to sel it off in 1842, it contained about 11,000 volumes (and he had about 25,000 prints as well)!5

While we assume that carpenters improved their knowledge by reading books, we can confirm it by noting that two regionally famous architects in New York state are documented as having advanced professionally through the study of books. Enoch A. Curtis (1831-1907), active in western New York



Uan

and northwestern Pennsylvania, began life as a farmer, and at 21 was apprentice to a carpenter and joiner. He followed this trade until he enlisted in the Army in 1862; dis- charged in late 1864 after being seriously wounded, he ran a hardware business in Fredonia, N.Y. for several years-presuma- bly because his injuries prevented returning to carpentering-and studied architecture from books. References to this study are found in several contemporary biographies, and the architecture he designed beginning about 1870 is indeed often traceable in general form and even specific details to published designs.6

William H. Miller (1848-1922) was also the son of a farmer. He entered Cornell in the fall of 1868 and studied there for about 2 1 / 2 years. After leaving college, he remained in Ithaca "to begin architectural practice"- and by the time he died he had designed over 80 buildings throughout the region. He appears to have hadaccess to the extensive library of books on art and architecture col- lected by the President of Cornell, Andrew D. White, who had hired him to help design his own house. In 1873 White presented Miller with a complete set of the London architectural journal the Builder-a sure indication of the importance of published material for self education.7

But clearly this sort of preparation to be an architect was an unsystematic and uneven mix of craft training, experience in building, learning from books and journals, and per- sonal initiative. Especially for aspiring architects with wider vision, professional training was essential. One route, very popular by the end of the century, was to study at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. While Richard Morris Hunt (who attended between 1845 and 1853) and H. H. Richardson (1859- 62) were the most famous, in fact a good number of Americans sought professional training at the Ecole.8

Under the guidance or inspiration of architects trained in Paris, who could see the need here for a comparable-or at least a professional-system of architectural training, schools of architecture were at last founded in the United States beginning with MIT in 1865. Others soon followed: Cornell in 1871, University of Illinois and Syracuse University in 1873, Columbia in 1881,

University of PA in 1890, George Washing- ton University in 1 893, Armour Institute or Technology and Harvard University in 1 895 (and the University of Notre Dame in 1898).9 But what is especially revealing is that while there were indeed nine schools of architecture with an enrollment of 384 students in 1898, "yet the 1900 census re- ported 10,581 persons calling themselves architects."'0 Obviously the self-education of experienced craftsmen through readily available journals and books of all kinds was still a dominant method of architectural training.

Although books published in America are obviously only part of the picture (since many books were imported), an examination of what was published here will at least give us a profile of what was in demand, and what was thought profitable by the publishing industry in the United States. A study of the books and pamphlets Hitchcock has listed as published in America between 1786 and 1895 provides some very revealing points.1 As the graph shows, the number of publications relating to architecture began a rapid ascent in the 1850s, and after a decline caused by the Civil War continued at

an even more rapid rate in the 1870s and 1880s. Not only is the actual number of different titles issued impressive (126 in the 1870s and 192 in the 1880s) but their character is also significant.

While the subdivision of books judged primarily by their titles is not, obviously, completely accurate-and there is certainly considerable overlap-it appears that while design books continued to be the main interest, both technical studies, and also books dealing with historical and esthetic issues12 had a strong growth-with a dramatic increase in the latter during the 1880s. From this it is clear that carpenters, builders, and architects in America had a vivid interest in what the printed page had to offer.

Books on Architectural History and Architectural Theory, 1870s and 1880s It is not surprising that few books on architectural history or theory were published in America prior to the 1 850s-a period when the architectural professioh was by-and- large only a short distance from the craft tradition.

1 Books, pamphlets, etc. relating to architecture published in Amer- ica between 1801 and 1890, based on Hitchcock(author).

Fall 1988 JAE 42/1

200- 92

- Design Books

- Technical Studies

~150:- :

::::::i Historical/Esthetics

126

- -

88

410- 32

lo- 5 4 '7/

30-- --1- -~P~- Yr::~: v~iiIi ~:: 20 --?''

1801-10 1811-20 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 * I ._ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~81.-9



U

From the 1860s on, a few titles in architectural theory were published, evincing a pro- tean interest in larger issues. John Bascom's Aesthetics; or The Science of Beauty (Boston, 1862) included two lectures on architecture-though only 44 pages out of the book's 256. But the volume was popular, with six further editions through 1893. Two brief works are also listed by Hitchcock: George C. Mason, Thoughts on Architecture, its Lit- erature and Practice (Newport, 1879) of 24 pages, and E. A. Silsbee, An Informal Talk on Architectural and Art Topics (Salem, 1880), of 22 pages. The first major American work was Leopold Eidlitz's The Nature and Func- tion of Art, more Especially of Architecture (NewYork, 1881 ) of 493 pages.13 Thus it is understandable that John Ruskin's writings had such an enthusiastic reception with the American publication of The Seven Lamps of Architecture in 1 849, the Lecture onArchitec- ture and Painting in 1854, and his Stones of Venice, the first complete edition in America of 1860. All these remained in print into the 1890s.'4

Architectural history was equally modest in the early years. Some of the carpenter's manuals and design books contained some background information. Minard Lafever's Beauties of Modern Architecture (N.Y., 1835), contained over 60 pages of "Archi- tectural History" focusing on ancient buildings (primary Egypt, Greece and Rome) which were "extracts from Elme's Dictionary;" but there were no illustrations, and the text drew primarily on literary sources. The earliest separate architectural history published in America was Louisa C. Tuthill's History of Architecture from the Earliest Times (Philadel- phia, 1848), which had 426 pages and 34 plates. Johann G. Heck (comp.), The Art of Building in Ancient andModem Times (N.Y., 1856) was 220 pages long with 60 plates. A book with very full illustrations was A. Rosengarten's Handbook of Architectural Styles (New York, 1876) which was 501 pages long, and had over 600 illustrations throughout the text.15 In the 1880s several titles on artand architectural history appeared from American publishers, although one of the most famous architectural books of the era, James Fergusson's History of the Modem Styles of Architecture (2nd ed., London, 18731 did nor appear in an American edition-though was surely well known to the architectural profession here.16

From this it is clear that there would be an eager audience for the publications of Eugene Emmanual Viollet-le-Duc, the prolific and persuasive French writer on a whole range of topics of interest to the architectural profession, including architectural history, theory, the use of new materials, and numerous contemporary issues in the field.17

Early Reception of works by Viollet-le-Duc The earliest published discussion of Viollet's ideas in America seems to date from 1866, when Henry Van Brunt reviewed the first volume of his Entretiens sur I'architecture of 1863 in The Nation.18 In 1869, the ten- volume Dictionnaire raisonnee de I'architecture Francaise (1 854-1 868) was reviewed by Russell Sturgis.19 Soon American editions of some of Viollet's works began to, appear. Selections from his Entretiens had been translated and published in 1870-71 by P. B. Wight,20 and Viollet's Habitations ol Man in AllAges appeared in Boston in 1872 (and a second edition in 1 876). The Story of a House (Boston, 1874) was next, followed by the first complete translation (by Henry Van Brunt) of volume 1 of the Entretiens, Dis- courses on Architecture (Boston, 1875). Other works soon followed: Annals of a Fortress (Boston, 1876), and in 1881 the second volume of the Entretiens, translated by Benjamin Bucknall. Less well known works by Viollet-le-Duc were also soon published in America,21 while other titles were available in translation in British editions.22

This great flood of translations of works by Viollet signaled the strong interest American architects had in his writings. He reached an even wider public through the periodical press. After The American Architect and Build- ing News was established in 1876, Viollet was frequently featured or mentioned in its weekly issues during the next two decades: between 1876 and 1895 they published at least 71 articles, reviews, excerpts, letters, serializations, and accounts by or about Viollet-le-Duc!

The professional respect accorded Viollet during this period was usually most generous. Van Brunt, in his 1875 introduction to the Discourses, explains why Viollet's writings were so welcome:

[S]ince Mr. Ruskin set the example of a literary man erecting himself into a dictator on questions of art, we have been subjected to a fearful tyranny in aesthetics.... In this condition of doubt we may welcome any man of trained observation and large professional experience, acquainted with the tech- nicalities and manipulations of the various crafts whose labors enter into the construction of a building,-any architect, who is willing and able to explain the sources of his convictions. ... Thus equipped, M. Viollet-le-Duc appears upon the scene...23

Others also acknowledge Viollet's importance. In 1876 one writer noted that he was

"known everywhere as an architect, and as perhaps the most accomplished and learned of his profession."24 In 1879 comment was made on the "extraordinary popularity in this country of some of the works"25 by Viollet; and from 1 880 we read that "the value of Viollet- le-Duc's works will be [long] appreciated, and I believe his name will outlive that of any of his contemporaries in France."26 As late as 1894 the critic Montgomery Schuyler observed that Viollet's writings "have had the strongest influence upon this generation of readers."27

In his writings Viollet-le-Duc had several themes which he explored with great thor- oughness-and all of them were studied by an American architectural community eager for new ideas and information. Viollet's main concerns can be grouped as follows: open and honest use of iron in modern construction; a theory of architectural design based on structural rationalism; his own architectural designs which exemplify his interests and theories; a thorough understanding of historic architecture (from which he derived his func- tionalist theories); and his vigorous con- demnation of the classical style taught by the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.

Honest Use of Iron in Architecture From his wide ranging and thorough study of historic architecture, Viollet-le-Duc recognized that structural and technical means in each age utilized the new materials and best engineering of the day. He repeatedly argued that the honest use of iron in contemporary architecture not only expressed our own era, but was consistent with history. His own

Fdl 1988 JA l 42/1



U/

2 Furness and Hewitt (Frank Fumess and George W. Hewitt), Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1872-1876 (author).

designs employing iron in imaginative ways are found throughout volume II of his Entre- tiens, published in 1872 and available in English in 1 881 . He repeatedly illustrated the use of iron beams, posts, girders, columns, tie rods, and decorative features in a rational system of iron and masonry construction. He also proposed designs for iron vaulting. This would certainly seem to be a promising inspiration for America.

And in fact, we can indeed find cases where American architects used iron in a way that makes it clear that the idea came from Viollet's writings. Twocan becited: Frank Furness and Henry Van Brunt.

Furness, active mainly between 1870 and 1895, was noted for a robust and original style based on Medieval motifs, but treated with vigor and imagination. The Pennsylva- nia Academy of Fine Arts (1872-1876), the Provident Life and Trust Company (1876- 1879), the Kensington National Bank (1877), and the National Bank of the Repub- lic (1884)-all in Philadelphia-are good examples.28 A Philadelphia critic writing in 1876 recognized him as a "clever, original, and brilliant architect" with much "exuber- ance." 29His debt to Viollet-le-Duc has been recognized in certain decorative features in iron, and structural ideas.30 However, a careful study of details and motifs from his

buildings reveals that his use of iron has many remarkable parallels and congruencies with published designs in volume II of the Entre- tiens. These elements include exposed structural iron; iron balconies on iron brackets, or on stone consoles; exposed iron beams used with iron tie rods; exposed slender iron columns; and the use of decorative floral open ironwork.31 Since there are also other stylistic features in Furness' work traceable in inspiration to the Entretiens,32 it seems certain that Viollet's ideas and designs had the strongest impact on this American architect.

Fail 1988 JAE 42/1

Il

t ?-.-

14l



3 Fumess, Evans and Co. (Frank Fumess and Allen Evans), Baltimore and Ohio Passenger Station, Philodelphia, 1886-1888, demolished about 1963, Interior detail (Courtesy The Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia).

* . . . '

.

_ ... ...... ._. .;.... ... . . ....

..... . ...... ...... .

. .... .... ..... ..................................:

..

4 Eugene Emmanuel Vlolele-Duc, Enreftens sure I'ochitecwe, vol. 2, 1872, p. 323, ftg.8.

5 Fumess, Evans and Co., Philadelphia Saving Fund Society Build- ing, Philadelphia, addition, 1897-1898, interior detail (Courtesy Philadelphia Saring Fund Society).

6 Viollee-Duc, Entreliens, vol. 2, pi. 26, detail.

Fall 1988 JAE 42/1



7 Fumess and Evons, National Bank of the Republic, Philadelphia, 1883-1884, demolished 1953, interior detail (Courtesy The Historical Society of Pennsylvania.)

8 Viollet-le-Duc, Entretfens, vd. 2, p. 68, fig. 6.

9 Fumess, Evans and Co., Library, University of Pennsylvania, Phila-

delphia, 1888-1892, interior detail Oames F. O'Gorman, The Ahitectwe of Frank Furness, 1973, illus., 29-17; photograph ? Cervin Robinson 1988).

'~' ".?.t.' . .. .. ..~x'.J.'. ... ' ~ ';

'*'**}"???!? *ye- * _?_!'? -***?* *v-y^"*^-'_ ::^"^^ ^-^A-f,. . ^,.-,

42ii' i '

^^^^'^.^^'**.^ .t^w _ _ **''':^<"v*'^ -S -- a- -

_10VIAllete-Duc, Ent'efeens,. vat 2, plate 33, detail.

_. l i ,_ ~ S ,

A1Vioetue dcfronk Frneess, 1973l, 29-17; phlograph e

r?d i ?i?$,;1 - !Ii?-; ?i

t_s....5%!.svbr' .................. _ .. w.. ,_

10? Vilu,fnlen,vl.2 li 3,dol

Fall 1988 JAE 42/1



12 Viollet-le-Duc, Entreffens. vol. 2, pl. 21, detail.

Van Brunt's interest in Viollet dates to before 1866, the year he published his review of the Entretiens.33 Viollet's ideas on the need for an architecture appropriate to, and expressive of, the 19th century, a rationalist approach to design, and the use of new materials like iron, all influenced Van Brunt's own critical writings in later years. But what specifically of his use of iron in architectural design?

Van Brunt's overall style, unlike that of Furness, seems to have drawn little directly from Viol- let-le-Duc. But it seems likely that certain details of his great Victorian Gothic Memorial Hall of Harvard University, built with his partner William Ware between 1870 and 1878, were inspired by Viollet. The use of cast iron columns, undisguised in their slender strength, in both the vast dining hall (com-

pleted in 1874) and in the theatre(completed 1876) would certainly seem to be in response to the teachings of Viollet-le-Duc. So too might be the design of the prominent roof cresting.34

These two architects in fact stand out by their use of cast iron in ways that can be traced to Viollet's writings. Perhaps surprisingly, we do not see a great surge of interest in expressive use of cast iron in American architecture by others during the 1870s, in response to the Entretiens. In fact, there is good reason why his advocacy for open use of cast iron had modest impact. By 1872 the use of cast iron in public architecture, in an open and direct manner taking advantage of its unique structural characteristics, had already had over fiftyyears of development in the United States.

11 Fumess and Hewitt, Pennsylanla Acodemy f the Fine Ats, Phila- ddphia, 1872-1876, inweriordetal of stair (O'Gorman, illus. 3- 9; photograph 0 Cervin Robinson 1988).

Fall 1988 JAE 42/1



U1

13 Ware and Van Brunt, Memorial Hall, Harvard University, 1870- 1878, dining hall Interior (author).

15Ware and Van Brunt, Memorial Hall, detadl roof cresting (authoar.

14 Ware and Van Brunt, Memoril Hall, Sanders Theatre, interior detail (author).

Fall 1988 JAE 42/1

l



U

William Strickland was apparently the first in America to use cast iron columns in a public building, to hold up the interior of his Philadel- phia Chestnut Street Theatre, in 1820-22. He used them again on the porches of his Naval Asylum (also Philadelphia) of 1826- 30, and slender columns of cast iron were even employed by Charles Bulfinch in 1828 to support the gallery in the Senate Chamber of the U. S. Capitol.

Furthermore, the use of cast iron columns exposed for all to see was not restricted to professional architects. By the 1830s iron piers often replaced the granite posts that traditionally opened up the ground story of brick commercial buildings. By 1837 one builder even used cast iron piers to support two stories in a brick building of six stories, in New York City.35 By 1841 a building made completely of cast iron seems to have been erected in New York city,36 though the usually accepted "first" example in America of an iron frame building with iron facades is ames Bogardus's New York City factory of 1848- 50. Thereafter iron exterior walls (sometimes with traditional brick interiors, as in Bogardus's famous Laing Stores of 1848), interior columns and beams, and even floors and roofs of cast iron were not at all uncom- mon-twenty years before volume II of the Entretiens was published.

Professional architects had even written about cast iron and discussed its uses well before the 1 870s. Henry Van Brunt's famous essay

"Cast Iron in Decorative Architecture" had been published in 1859,37 and even Richard Morris Hunt had taken an interest in the use of iron as early as 1858.38

Thus Violet-le-Duc's advocacy for the obvi- ous and direct use of cast iron, a material of the age, in contemporary construction was not at all foreign to American architecture. Indigenous interest in cast iron had had a very long history prior to Viollet's advocacy of it in his writings. His enthusiasm simply paralleled an already established local tradition-itwas not a new and revolutionary idea.

Architectural Design as Structural Rationalism The principles of architectural design which Viollet-le-Duc proposed repeatedly in his many writings were a structural rationalism incorporating new materials and fulfilling

new requirements of the age. Naturally, these ideas are ones which we are most familiar with today, both after the publication in 1949 of Sir John Summerson's seminal essay on Viollet,39 but also from Frank Lloyd Wright's well known interest in Viollet's writings: he be- lieved that the Discourses "was the only really sensible book on architecture."4

Henry Van Brunt felt that the Discourses would provide a much needed new perspective for architectural design in America. In the 1875 Introduction to his translation he explained:

[Viollet-le-Duc] endeavors to set forth the true sources of design; how best to analyze, classify and use the enormous accumulation of precedents in all styles, by which we are so seriously embarrassed; how to receive the developments of modern science in the arts o construction, and how to give them place and due expression in our modern architecture.41

Viollet's principles were amply set forth in this volume, but-equally important-were also expressed in the periodicals of the day. The American Architect and Building News published many articles which mentioned, or specifically dealt with, his rationalist theories of design and construction. In 1877 a long account entitled "M. Viollet-le-Duc on Modern Architecture" was published,42 and his principles were frequently (though not always) pointed out in published reviews. In 1879 one writer observed that Viollet's writings were a great resource "as showing by example the way in which the characteristic properties of materials can be availed of for suggesting forms continually fresh and interesting."43 In 1880 another writer commented: "as the eternal principles of truthful construction and logical decoration reassert themselves, the value of Violtet-le-Duc's works will be appreciated."4 Between 1892 and 1894 TheAmerican Architectand Building News also published a serialization of "Construction" from the Dictionnaire in 29 parts.

Viollet's principles seem to have influenced a number of late 19th and early 20th century architects. John Wellborn Root was, according to P. B. Wight, "and exponent of the principles of Violet-le-Duc" because of his

"exceptional feeling for structure."45 We have

already mentioned Wight's interest in Viollet's theories, and his translation of por- tions of the Entretiens. And Frank Furness's use of iron in much of his architecture is a clear case of an architect putting the theories into practice. William LeBaron Jenney also thoughtvery highly of the Entretiens. When he applied for a professorship of architecture at the University of Michigan, he wrote that the Discourses (in Van Brunt's translation) would be essential: "This book is very valuable and I contemplate using it extensively."6 Certainly the critics Russell Sturgis and especially Montgomery Schuyler were advocates of his principles. And Frank Lloyd Wright, as Donald Hoffmann has thoroughly explored, based a great many of his ideas regarding his own architecture on concepts explained in both the Discourses, and the Habitations of Man in All Ages. Hoffmann identifies at least a dozen parallels found in these books and in essays by Wright of 1908 and 1910.47

But just as clearly there was no revolution in American architectural design or theory in general. It was the more adventuresome architects-Root, Furness, Jenney, and Wright-who learned from Viollet's principles, not the average architect who read of them in The American Architect and Building News.

Yet the lack of consistent acclaim for Viollet- le-Duc's theories is not really surprising, upon reflection. Similar ideas had already been proposed in America more than thirty years before-and had been largely ignored by most of the building profession. As early as 1841 Thomas U. Walter had urged that architects should oftener think as the Greeks thought than do as the Greeks did;"48 Ralph Waldo Emerson also published his ideas on functionalism in art as early as 1841.4Q In different ways, both AndrewJackson Down- ing and Orson Squire Fowler, in the 1840s and 1850s, had persuasively argued for rational and efficient designs, and the use of appropriate new materials-though the ve- hicle for rational design and construction for both was still historical forms.

By far the most outspoken writer along these lines was Horatio Greenough. Writing in 1 843 he stated: "We believe firmly andlully that [the Greek masters] can teach us; but let us learn principles, not copy shapes; lt us imitate like men, not ape like monkeys."50

Fal 198 JAE 42/1



U

These admonitions were expressed again even more succinctly in 1852: "I contend for Greek principles, not Greek things."51 And Emerson returned to the theme in 1 860: "The lesson taught by the study of Greek and of Gothic art...[is] that all beauty must be organic; that outside embellishment is deform- ity."52 It seems very close indeed to the words of Viollet-le-Duc in his Discourses years later, that Greek architecture-as Gothic architecture-was "construction made art."3

Furthermore, since the American architectural tradition was strongly based on the builder and vernacular traditions with their inherent pragmatism and practicality, Viollet's theories probably did not seem as radical to American architects and builders as they would to French practitioners following the Beaux-Arts traditions.

Influence of Viollet's Own Architectural Designs Throughout the Discourses, and elsewhere, Viollet-le-Duc published illustrations of his own designs and projects.

These aimed at demonstrating both the modern application of the structural and design principles derived from past architecture (especially the rationalist Greek and Gothic), and also proposals for the use of modern materials. As we have seen, Frank Furness (and to an extent, Van Brunt) drew inspiration from some of these designs. Inter- estingly enough, they seem to have been in the minority.

In the professional press, Viollet's designs were not well received. They were criticized on two grounds: that his knowledge of structural engineering was not always sound; and that the designs themselves were unattractive.

In a review of the Discourses in 1876, the critic at one point observed that Viollet's understanding of the laws of sound construction were faulty:

We must call attention to a singular instance, at pp. 304-306, of mis- taken judgment respecting the laws of sound construction, a department of architecture in which our author is far from being a trustworthy guide, as the second volume of this work will more emphatically testify.4

The item in question dealt with the settlement of walls of masonry construction.

More frequently expressed was the dislike some critics had of the designs for modern architecture Viollet published-both his own projects, and designs in the Discourses illus- trating his principles. In 1 879 in The Ameri- can Architect and Building News we read that "neither in design nor in construction did he stand among the first;"55 that same year, in The Nation, "Intelligence there is in [his own buildings]; resource, dexterity, but scarcely a spark of genius, scarcely any evidence of power of artistic design. ...His designs are really of no great value."56 Regarding his project for the Paris Opera House, one critic wrote that "the plan is commonplace and lacks simplicity and boldness of conception, while the facades are surprisingly poor and mean." His design for the tomb of the Duc de Morny was characterized as "whimsical and ugly,"57 As late as 1 895 this opinion still held with some critics; one wrote that Viollet's designs "seemed incapable of rising above the dead level of mediocrity."58

Even the late 19th-early 20th century critic Montgomery Schuyler, who was greatly indebted to the writings of Viollet-le-Duc for his own theories on architecture, thought little of Viollet's own designs. In 1904 he wrote that Viollet had been "unsuccessful as a designer," and that had he "confined himself to precept, and refrained from the examples of actual design, which only showed his own lack of artistic tact, he would have had the greater effect upon the actual practitioners of architecture."59

The Influence of Viollet's Historical Studies The thoroughly illustrated architectural history which VioTlet-le-Duc included in his Dis- courses (and even the massive historical record of medieval French architecture in his Dictionnaire) existed essentially to prove his case that his principles of design based on structural rationalism had thorough grounding in the practice of the finest architecture of the past. Yet it is not surprising to discover that his clear, accurate yet elegant drawings had enormous appeal on their own-as sources for architectural design! It is perhaps sympto- matic that the first serialization in The Ameri- can Architect and Building News was from The Habitations of Man-which ran for four

issues in 1 876, complete with illustrations of the early dwelling types.60

Subsequent issues also paid special attention to the history of architecture. For example, in 1879 "The Origin of Doric Architecture" was published;61 "the Mediaeval Grille" appeared in two issues of 1 887;62 "Mediaeval Houses" in two issues in 1888;63 and of course "Construction" was full of illustrations of Medieval motifs and buildings. Further- more, during this same period, other illustrated series on historical building types were included in The American Architect and Build- ing News, drawn from Paul Planat's Encyclopedie de I'architecture (1888- 1892). And we find the same in the non- professional press of the day: in 1890 Leslie's Monthly published a "History of Human Habitations" by Marc F. Vallette with illustrations of 17 different historical house types, from Egypt and Assyria, through Greece, Rome, the Middle Ages, and later.4

Critics of the day recognized that this "quarrying" of his illustrations was pooular. In 1 879 one writer observed: "It is not Viollet's] fault if his books are frequently usec as mere storehouses of forms, to be employed without discrimination: no one would rebuke such abuses of his labors more severely that himself."65

Frank Furness, as we saw, was one prominent architect to draw creative inspiration from the designes using iron in Viollet's publications. Buthe also drew on the historical material as well-in a surprisingly original manner. A careful comparison of details and motifs from Furness buildings reveals that there are a great many features-in addition to those using iron-which he used frequently in his architecture based on designs in the Discourses. We can cite, for example, his use of prominent eaves corbelling; angular N.o- Grec or Medieval motifs; short, stubby Medieval-style columns; columns of this type set into the projecting angle of masonry; and timber framing used expressively. sometimes the Viollet-inspired feature is a dominant element in an architectural composition, such as the use of round towers with Medieval- style conical roofs; or multi-staged gabled towers with prominent brackets, dormers, and finials. Each of these features can be found in the architecture of Furness, occasion- ally in over a dozen instances.6

Fdl 1988 AM 42/1



U

1 6 Fumess and Hewwit, Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, Philadelphia, addifftion, 1874-1875, detail (O'Gorman, illus. 8- 1; photograph ? Cervin Robinson 19881.

17Violet-e-Duc, Entreens, vd. 2, plate 31, detail.

1 8 Fumess and Hewilt, Thomas Hockley House, Philadelphia, proaba- bly 1875, detail (O'Gaman, dllus. 9-2; pholograph @ Cervln Robinson 1988).

19 Vollet-le-Duc, Enreffens, vol. I, 1863, plate 12, detail.

20 Fumess and Evans (Frank Fumess and Allen Evans), First Unitarian Church, Philaddelphia, 1883-1886, interior detail (O'Gorman, illus. 24-1; photograph ? Cervin Robinson 1988).

21 Volle-e-Duc, Entreffens, vol. 2, p. 342, fig. 16.

Fall 1988 JAE 42/1

,;..1- ;r.-.i=,,Jr, - ,~ 7R S' xi'' A;f; --

-rf'r,-'?~r;7-~'~'727';r'2 2t _

.

4 _ _ +- 6 11 -I C _

....... . ...... - . .. . . .: ......... .. .... . , .. - . 'A. I _ .. . - ..

.....

1.



U

.... -... .... ~'11 l: ,.' ..

. . ^ .... .. .......... . . .... ., ^,..1, *:.* '

^_.... . .-

22 Furmess, Evons and Co., B'alhmore and Ohio "Pssenger Stoion, 23 Violletle-Duc, EnlreKiens, vo. 2, pi. 23.

detail of elevotion drawing by A. Croig .o'son, Historic Amercan Buildings Survey, 1968.

24 Richard MorrisHunt, GeorgeW. VanderbfltMnsion (Bilntorel, AshWlle, N. C. 1888-1895 (author).

Though naturally hard to pinpoint, it would appear that other major architects were also inspired by historical motifs or details pro- vided by Viollet-le-Duc. for example, it seems possible that Richard Morris Hunt's Biltmore (1 888-1895) may owe more than is realized to the interior elevations of Viollet's restored Gothic castle Pierrefonds (rebuilt primarily 1858-1 870). Given the encyclopedic wealth of historic French detail in the Dictionnaire, it would in fact be odd if Hunt had failed to consult it. Another building which seems to have many references to Viollet's designs is the Healy Building, Geor- getown University, by Smithmeyer and Pelz (exterior built 1877-1879). The main tower, and many of the exterior details and motifs, are certainly in the manner of some of Viollet's studies. On the interior one can find two details which may be specific references to Viollet: the owl used in the cast iron library stacks of 1889, a motif found on the facade of Viollet's own house in Paris (1862-63); and the fanciful salamander-like creature also found in the library decoration, which may be based on the salamander used at Pierrefonds.67

If major architects like Furness or Hunt (or Smithmeyer and Pelz) were inspired by published illustrations by Viollet-le-Duc, and the

"quarrying' of his motifs was commented on in the architectural press of the day, it seems likely that it was very widely practiced indeed.68 Of course, this sort of eclecticism was vigorously condemned by Viollet-le-Duc himself in the very books available in English to American readers. In the Discourses architects could read the following:

Have we reached an incurable stage of decline that we cannot hope to see architecture free itself from the rut in which it has been dragged along? Are we reduced to the necessity of copying the Romans, very badly-the Greeks...-the Middle Ages-the Renaissance-the a e of Louis XIV. .. because we can do no better...?69

While it is well to examine by what means civilizations anterior to our own succeeded in satisfying the architectural programmes of their time...it is desirable that such study should not draw us into imitation.70

Fall 1988 JAE 42/1



Archaeological studies should greatly aid us, ... and ought to give [our intellect] an aptitude for appying, not the forms we see, butthe principles that produced these forms.7'

What some have called Eclecticism in art,-the adaptation of elements derived from various quarters to the composition of a new art,-is, in every respect, barbarism.72

Even in his Dictionnaire, that massive 10- volume study of French architecture from the 11th to the 16th centuries, he proclaimed:

"This is not a plea in favor of Gothic construction, but a simple exposition of its principles and their consequences. If we are well under- stood, there is no sensible architect who...will not recognize the uselessness...of imitations of Gothic art."73

Ironic as it may seem, it appears from what was published in TheAmericanArchitect and Building News and in other journals, and from comments by critics of the day, that the popular interest in Viollet-le-Duc's many publications was for their encyclopedic reper- toire of historical architectural models, all carefully described, analyzed, and depicted in clear sectional, perspective, and detail drawings. This interest in historical motifs is not really surprising, of course, since architecture in America between 1860 and 1890 was highly eclectic, drawing readily on a variety of past styles with enthusiasm-and sometimes with originality.74 His publications were thus a timely and eminently accessible contribution to American architectural eclecticism.

Viollet's Criticism of the Beaux-Arts Style Viollet-le-Duc condemned the classical style of Beaux-Arts architects, as well as the training of the school. As we have seen, Viollet felt that decoration and architectural form based on structural logic was one of the key principles of architecture. "It is impossible to separate the form of the architecture of the thirteenth century from its structure; every member of the architecture is the result of the necessity of that structure."75 And this was a principle not unique to the Gothic age: "The architectural orders invented by the Greeks composed the structure itself;...therefore the structure of the Greek edifices and their appearance were essentially united."76 Fall 1988 JAE 42/1

25 Choteou de Pierrefonds, Oise, interior courtyard as restored by Violle-le-Duc 1858-1870 (author.

26 Smithmeyer and Pelz Oohn L. Smithmeyer and PaulJ. Pelz), Healy Building, Georgetown University, exterior 1877-1879 (author).



U

Roman architecture, by contrast, saw the orders only as "a decoration which might be removed, omitted, displaced, or replaced by something else, without the structure to which the decoration was applied being thereby seriously affected."77 Thus, for the Ecole to

"insist on limiting the studies by which architects are to be trained to certain monuments of classical antiquity which have not even come down to us in their complete state" was preposterous, and certainly "not the way to obtain what is asked for everywhere-an architecture of the nineteenth century."78

Furthermore, Viollet felt that the Ecole educa- tional system, in which aspiring prize-win- ners devoted their talents to grandiose imagi- nary classical buildings, sidestepped the real issue of the day. "If in the provinces competent architects are gradually disappearing, we must attribute this in great measure to the system adopted by the Ecole des Beaux Arts...which takes no pains to form a body of useful artists, acquainted with their duties and with the innumerable details required in the practice"79 of architecture in the real world.

Viollet's criticism of the Ecole was thus on several levels, but two stand out: students studied the styles of classical architecture but did not grasp the underlying principles suited to contemporary architecture; and that they slavishly copied the classical models which they studied: "it is desirable that such study should not draw us into imitation."80

grew rapidly in popularity, with their apothe- osis at the enormously influential Columbian Exposition of 1893. For the next 30 or 40 years, in fact, the Beaux-Arts style dominated much of American architecture.

Conclusions If one looks only to the rationalist theories of architectural design which were fundamental to Viollet-le-Duc's writings, then we would have to conclude that the influence of his books in the last two or three decades of the century was limited. But Viollet's books unde- niably did have a large impact in many other ways. Probably the most important was providing a rich visual cornucopia of historical motifs which the eclectic architects of the day could draw on with enthusiasm. Because his illustrations were so copious, and his drawings were so clear-in both general views and the many detail studies-and wide ranging, Viollet's publications stand out during these decades as major architectural re- sources, for both novice and professional architects. While this may be the exact opposite use of his publications expected by Viollet-le-Duc, it was nevertheless a major contribution to the real needs of architects in America.

But this opprobrious view of the Ecole and its classical style found few followers in Amer- ica. To American architects unused to pro- found architectural theorizing, Viollet's dis- tinctions based on underlying principles (not on exterior forms and their associations) was probably unconvincing or incomprehen- sible-especially because America had had a vigorous and beautiful classical phase in the Greek Revival which did, in its best masonry examples, combine structural units and exterior architectural forms in a felicitous congruency.81

Certainly if we look at what was built during the 1870s and 1880s-pace H. H. Richardson-we can see that the academic classical style had some vigorous propo- nents. During these two decades Richard Morris Hunt erected major buildings in the Beaux-Arts style; such classical buildings

Notes

A portion of this article was presented 17 April 1980 at the Coloque International Viollet le Duc, held at the Galeries nationales du Grand Palais, Paris. It was published (in French) in Auzas, Pierre-Marie, ed., Actes du Colloque International Viollet le Duc, Paris 1980 Nou,elles Editions Latine (Paris) 1982, pp. 39-48.

1 Frank Uoyd Wright's interest in the ideas of Viollet-le-Duc is well documented. As early as 1886 Wright read the Habitations of Man in All Ages, and the Discourses on Architecture. In Wright's An Autobiography Duell, Sloan and Pearce (New York) 1943, p. 74, he states that the Discourses were 'the only really sensible book on architecture.' When his son,John Lloyd Wright, asked him 'how he should prepare for architecture Frank Lloyd Wright handed him Viollet-le-Duc saying, 'In these volumes you wfll find all the architectural schooling you will ever need. What you cannot learn from them, you can learn from me'. Jordy, William H. and Coe, Ralph, eds., American Architecture and Other Writings by Montgomery Schuyler Vol. 1, Harvard University Press (Cambr- idge, Mass.) 1961, p. 12, quoting Wright, John Lloyd My Father Who Is On Earth (New York) 1940, p. 69.

The parallels between Frank Lloyd Wright's early theories or architecture and the writings of Viollet are fully outlined in Hoffmann, Donald 'Frank Lloyd Wright and Viollet-e-Duc,' Jourmo of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. XXVIII, No. 3 (October 1969), pp. 173-183. Hoffmann clarifies the mistake Wright makes in his autobiography in referring to the Dicftonnaire raisonnee when he in fact meant the Discourses, p. 174.

2 Information on all these architects can be found in Placzek, Adolf K., ed., Macmillan Encyclopedia ofArchitectsThe Free Press (New York) 1982.

3 The relationship of carpenter's manuals and design books to Ameri- can architecture-at least as seen in Virginia-prior to 1750 is examined in Reiff, Daniel D. Small Georgian Houses in England and Virginia: Origins and Development through the 1750s University of Delaware Press (Newark) 1986, pp. 275-283.

4 Park, Helen A List of Architectural Books Available in America Before the Revolution Hennessey & Ingalls (Los Angeles) 1973; tabulation from Reiff, op. cit., p. 283. The listings in Schimmelman, Janice G. Architectural Treatises and Building Handbooks Avail- able in Americon Libraries and Bookstores through I 18OAmerican Antiquarian Society (Worcester, Mass.) 1986 complement and continue data in Park.

5 Placzek, op. cit., Vol. 4, p. 222.

6 Merrill, George D., ed., History of Choutauqua County, N.Y.WA. Fergusson & Co. (Boston) 1894, pp. 503-505 and 'Death of Capt. E. A. Curtis,' The Fredonia Censor, 9 Oct. 1907, p. 1, are the main sources.

7 Tomlan, Mary Raddant 'The Work of William H. Miller,' Preser- vation Leagueof NewYork State NewsletterVol. 11, No. 3 (May- June, 1985), pp. 4-5.

8 Draper, Joan 'The Ecole des Beaux-Arts and the Architectural Profession in the United States: The Case of John Galen Howard' in Kostof, Spiro, ed., The Architect: Chapters in the History of the Profession Oxford University Press (New York) 1977, pp. 212- 215.

9 Draper, op. cft., pp. 209-210

10 Ibid., p. 214

11 Hitchcock, Henry-Russell American Architectural Books: A List of

Books, Portfolios, and Pamphlets on Architecture and Related

Fadl 1988 JAi 42/1



U

Subjects Published in America Before 1895 University of Minne- sota Press (Minneapolis) 1962

12 'Design books' include volumes on specific buildings or building types (such as schools, houses, churches, farm buildings, etc.), on architectural details, photographs or drawings of completed buildings, and catalogs of house designs. 'Technical studies' includes books on bridges, architectural specifications, iron and steel, engineering, and building price lists. 'Historical/esthetics' includes books on the history or theory of art and architecture, criticism, and opinion.

13 Because Eidlitz's book makes much of the honest use of materials and structural rationalism, some have thought it might have been inspired by Viollet's writings. ButJordy and Coe fed that 'Eidlitz seems to have developed his ideas independently,' (p. 24) as

early in fact as the 1850s. Viollet is mentioned in Eidlitz's book

'only once, in an incidental manner' (ibid.).

14 See also Hitchcock, Henry-Russell 'Ruskin and American Architec- ture, or Regeneration Long Delayed' in Summerson, John, ed., Concerning Architecture: Essays on Architectural Writers and Writing Penguin Books (Baltimore) 1968, pp. 166-208.

15 The 1896 edition of Rosengarten, which like the 1876 edition is 501 pages long, has 630 illustrations.

16 The book was reviewed byJ. T. Emmett in the American edition of QuarterlyReview, Oct. 1874, pp. 187-205. See Coles, William A., ed., Architecture and Society: Selected Essays of Henry Van BruntHarvard University Press (Cambridge, Mass.) 1969, p. 541, n. 8.

17 The essayof Robin Middleton on Viollet-le-Duc in Ploczek, op. cit., Vol. 4, pp. 324-332 gives an excellent overview of his work and career; most relevant books on Viollet are cited in his bibliography, although the volume in the paragraph before n. 1 is not included.

18 'Architectural Reform,' The Nation, Vol. 2 (5 April 1866), pp. 438-439, and (12 April 1866), pp. 469-470. Van Brunt translated Entretiens as 'Discourses;' Benjamin Bucknall used 'Lectures.'

19 'Viollet-le-Duc's French Mediaeval Architecture,' The Nation, Vol. 9 (12 August 1869), pp. 134-135

20 P. B. Wight had read his own translations of Viollet's lectures to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts (part of his Entretiens) to the New York

chapter of the American Institute of Architects in 1868; the translation was published in the Manufacturer and Builder in 1870 and 1871. See Landau, Sarah Bradford, P. B. Wight: Architect, Contractor, and Critic, 1838-1925 The Art Institute of Chicago (Chicago) 1982, pp. 51-52, 60.

21 Annals of a Fortress, trans. Benjamin Bucknoll, J. R. Osgood and Co. (Boston) 1876; earning to Draw; or, The Story of a Young Designer, trans. Virginia Champlin, Putnam (New York) 1880; Rational Building: being a Translotion f the Article 'Construction' in the Dictionnaire..., trans. GeorgeMartin Huss, Macmillan & Co. (New York) 1896.

22 An Essay on the MilitoryArchitecture of theMiddleAges, trans. M. Macdermott, J. H. and J. Parker (London) 1860; On Restoration, trans. Charles Wethered, Sampson Low, Marston, Low and Searle (London) 1875; and Mont Blanc: a Treatiseon its Geodesical and Geological Constitution, trans. Benjamin Bucknall, S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington (London) 1877.

23Coles, op. cit. pp. 101, 102

24 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 1 (1 January 1876), p. 7

Fll 1988 JA 42/1

25 [R. Sturgis], 'Viollet-le-Duc,' The Nation, Vol. 29 (2 October 1879), p. 219

26 'R." 'The Exhibition of the Works of Viollet-le-Duc,' The American Architect and Building News Vol. 8 (14 August 1880), p. 77

27 'Modern Architecture,' Architectural Record, Vol. 4 uly-Septerr ber 1894), reprinted in Jordy and Coe, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 104

28 See O'Gorman, James F. The Architecture of Frank Funess Philadelphia Museum of Art (Philadelphia) 1973, catalog illustrations 3-1, 14-1, 15-1, and 25-1

29 O'Gorman, ibid., pp. 68-69

30 O'Gorman, ibid., pp. 22, 37, 38, 39, 56, 57 58, and 63

31 Listed below are some of the parallels between design features or details in works by Frank Furness and illustrations from Viollet-le- Duc's Discourses. The first number is the catalog illustration in O'Gorman, op. ct.; the second is the volume and illustration number in the Discourses on Architecture, 2 vols., trans. Benjamin Bucknall, Ticknor and Co. (Boston) 1889-90; reprint ed. Grove Press (NewYork) 1959: curvilinear ironwork, 21-1 and II, pls. 34 and 36; iron beams with tie rods, 25-3 and II, 68, fig. 6; arched iron girders with bolt/rivet heads exposed, 29-17 and II, 69, fig, 7; iron balconywith iron rosettes, 21-1 and II, pl. 24; iron railing on masonry consoles, 38-1 and II, pl. 26; box girders with bolt/ rivet heads exposed, 26-8, 26-9 and II, 321, fig. 7, 323, fig. 8; openwork iron staircase, 29-10 and II, pl. 33; slender iron columns, 29-17 and II, pls. 23 and 25; and ironwork in floral pat- tern, 3-11 and II, pl. 21.

32 For these comparisons, see n. 66 below. It should be pointed out, however, that another possible source for the vigorous and often quixotic style of Furness might be the 'muscular' Gothic Revival practiced by numerous British architects. Bestwood Lodge, Notts., byS. S. Teulon, 1862-64 would be one example; see Girouard, Mark The Victorian Country House, rev. ed., Yale University Press (New Haven) 1979, frontispiece, and pi. 387.

33 Reprinted in Coles, op. cit., pp. 89-96

34 For the development of this important High Victorian Gothic building, see Whitehill, Walter M. 'Noble, Neglected, Memorial Hall turns 100,' Harvard Bulletin, Vol. 74, No. 8 (March 1972), pp. 23-26; Reiff, Daniel D. 'Memorial Hall, the Splendor Beneath the Dust,' ibid., pp. 29-32, 37-42; and Reiff, Daniel D. 'Harvard's Memorial Hall and its Tower,' The Victorian Societyin American Newsletter, Vol. 5, No. 5 (Spring-Summer 1973), pp. 3-6, 8.

35 For the development of the use of iron in 19th-centuryAmerica, see Condit, Carl W. American Building Art: The Nineteenth Century Oxford University Press (New York) 1960, esp. pp. 25-74; and Lee, AntoinetteJ. 'Cast Iron in American Architecture: a Synoptic View" in Jandl, H. Ward, ed., The Technology of Historic American Buildings Association for Preservation Technology (Washington, D. C.) 1983, pp. 97-116. See also Gayle, Margot, Look, David W., and Waite,John G. Metals in America's Historic Buildings Association for Preservation Technology (Wash- ington, D. C.) 1980, pp. 42-83.

36 An item in the New York Times of 29 July 1853, discovered by Jeanne H. Watson, claims unequivocally that 'the first building erected entirely of cast iron in this country' was planned, and construction supervised, by James Rodgers of New York City in 1841. It was set up briefly, then taken apart and shipped toCuba. See 'The Very First Cast-iron Building, 1841,' The Magazine Antiques, Vol. 113 (February 1979), p. 448.

37 First delivered as a paper at the 7 December 1858 meeting of the American Institute of Architects in New York, it was then published in theJanuary 1859 issue of The Crayon. It is reprinted in Coles, op. cit. pp. 77-88.

38 Baker, Paul R. Richard Morris Hunt The MIT Press (Cambridge, Mass.) 1980, p. 115

39 Summerson, John 'Viollet-le-Duc and the Rational Point of View,' in HeavenlyMansions and Other Essays on Architecture, W. W. Norton & Co. (New York) 1963, pp. 135-158

40 see n. 1. It is interesting to note that Wright's mentor Louis Sullivan possibly found support for his own ideas of functional and organi architecture in Viollet's writings. Two passages stand out:

'Every member of 1 3th Gothic] architecture is the result of a necessity of that structure, as in the vegetable and the animal king- dom there is not a form or a process that is not produced by a necessity of the organism.' Discourses, Vol. 1, p. 283.

'The materials used must indicate their function by the form we give them; ...and these substances, while assuming forms suitable to their nature, must be in mutual harmony.' Ibid., p. 469.

41 Coles, op. cit., p. 102

42 TheAmerican Architect and Building News, Vol. 2 (7April 1877), pp. 108-109; translated from the Revue Generole de l'Architecture.

43 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 6 (11 October 1879), p. 115

44 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 8 (14 August 1880), p. 77

45 Hoffmann, Donald The Architecture of John Wellborn RootJohns Hopkins (Baltimore) 1973, p. 8

46 Hoffmann, Donald "Viollet-le-Ducand the 'American Revolution," p. 5 (an unpublished ten page paper presented at a symposium at the Universityof Michigan 19 November 1979; copy courtesy the author, April 1982).

47Hoffmann, 'Frank Lloyd Wright,' pp. 174-179. Among the parallel ideas he identifies 'truth in engineering,' 'truth in architecture,' 'excessive ornamentation,' 'principles, not forms,' 'the organic analogy,' and 'the Gothic example,' among others.

48 'If architects would oftener think as the Greeks thought than do as the Greeks did, our columnar architecture would possess a higher degree of originality;' Thomas U. Walter, quoted in Fitch, James Marston American Building, the Historical Forces that Shape It, revised ed., Schocken Books (New York) 1973, P. 94.

49 'Fitness is so inseparable an accompaniment of beauty that it has been taken for it. The most perfect form to answer an end is so far beautiful.' From 'Thoughts on Art,' reprinted in Gifford, Don, ed., The literature ofArchitectureE. P. Dutton &Co. (NewYork) 1966, p. 107.

50 From his essay 'American Architecture,' first published in 1843; reprinted in Gifford, op. cit., p. 149.

51 Gifford, op. cit. p. 140

52 Gifford, op. cit. p. 116

53 Discourses, Vol. 1, p. 101



m

54 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 1 (8April 1876), p. 117

55 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 6 (27 September 1879), p. 97

56 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 29 (2 October 1879), P. 220. The author, according to Poole's, is Russell Sturgis.



59Jordy and Coe, op. cit., p. 134, quoting Schuyler writing in the Architectural Record of September 1904. Jordy and Coe, while asserting that his 'ferro-lithic neomedievalism was fantastically ugly' still recognize that 'it had considerable boldness too,' p. 33. See also p. 34.

60 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 1 (26 February 1876), pp. 68-70; (4 March), pp. 77-78; (11 March), pp. 85- 86; (1 April), pp. 107-109

61 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 6 (27 September 1879), p. 104; translated from 'Art.

62 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 22 (10 Decem- ber 1887), pp. 278-280; (17 December 1887), pp. 292-293

63 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 23 (16 June 1888), pp. 282-283; (30June 1888), pp. 307-309

64 Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly, Vol. 30 Uuly-December, 1 890), pp. 631-639

65 Ahe American Architect and Building News, Vol. 6 (11 October 1879), p. 114

66 As in n. 31, we can draw precise parallels by comparing illustrations of Furness's work with illustrations from the Discourses. eaves corbelling with machicolations, 8-1 and II, pl. 31; squat columns with arch, 9-2 and I, pi. 12; column recessed in corner, 3-2 and 1, 295, fig. 16; openwork timber roof supports, 24-1 and II, 242, fig. 16; round tower with conical roof, 31-1 and II, pl. 31; square multistage tower with pointed roof, 26-3 and II, pl. 23. Other parallels are half-timbering, 16-1 and II, 360, fig. 10, and Islamic cusped arch, 21-1 and 11, 377, fig. 19.

67 For relevant illustrations of Vidlet's work at Pierrefonds, see Foucart, Bruno, et al., Viollet-le-Duc Editions de la Reunion des musees nationaux (Paris) 1980, pp. 130-139 and 164-173. For the Healy Building tower, see Maddex, Diane Historic Buildings ol Washington, D. C. Ober Park Associates, Inc. (Pittsburgh) 1973, p. 1 23. The owl is illustrated p. 193; for the owl on Viollet's house, see Foucart, op. cit. p. 244. The salamander in Healyis illustrated byMaddex, op. cit. p. 125; that at Pierrefonds in Foucart, op. cit. p. 165.

68 The reception of Viollet-le-Duc's writing and designs in England had certain parallels with America. It was his splendid drawings of historical buildings, details, and even furniture, primarilyfromthe Dicftionnaire, that quite a number of British architects copied or drew upon. His own architectural designs, and his theory, found only a few supporters. See Middleton, Robin D. 'Viollet-le-Duc's Influence in Nineteenth-Century England,' Art HistoryVol. 4, No. 2 (une 1981), pp. 203-219. 1 am indebted to Francis R. Kowsky for bringing this item to my attention.

69 Discourses, Vol. 1, p. 321

70 Ibid., 332

71 Ibid., 451

72 Ibid., 484

73 The American Architect and Building News, Vol. 36 (21 May 1892), p. 119. This is a passage from the article on Construction. A similar sentiment can be found in Discourses, Vol. 1, p. 32.

74 SeeMeeks, Carroll L. V. 'Picturesque Eclecticism,' Art Bulletin, Vol. XXXII, No. 3 (September 1950), pp. 226-235; Meeks, Carroll L. V. 'Creative Eclecticism,' Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. XII, No. 4 (December 1953), pp. 15-18; and

Kidney, Walter C. The Architecture of Choice: Eclecism in America 1880-1930 George Braziller (New York) 1974.

75 Discourses, Vol. I, p. 283

76 bid., p. 210

77 Ibid.

78 Ibid., p. 460

79 Ibid., p.387

80 Ibid., p. 322

81 The Treasury Building and the Patent Office in Washington, D. C. , both begun in 1836, are prime examples. See Pierson, William H. Jr., 'Robert Mills' Treasury Building,' Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. XXVIII, No. 3 (October 1969), pp. 211-212; and Reiff, Daniel D. Washington Architecture, 1791- 1861: Problems in Development Government Printing Office

(Washington, D. C.) 1971, pp. 36-39.

Bibliography

The American Architect and Building News began publishing in 1876 and soon became one of the most avidly read (oumal for builders and architects in the United States. It influenced all strata of architectural sophistication.

Boyle, Bernard Michael 'Architectural Practice in America, 1865- 1965-Ideal and Reality,' in Kostof, Spiro, ed., The Architect: Chapters in the History of the Profession Oxford University Press (New York) 1977, pp. 309-344. A useful overview of changes In architectural training and practice.

Coles, William A., ed., Architecture and Society: Selected Essays of Henry Van Brunt Harvard University Press (Cambridge, Mass.) 1969 The influence of Viollet-le-Duc is seen throughout the thoughtful and progressive essays of Van Brunt.

Draper, Joan 'The Ecole des Beaux-Arts and the Architectural Profession in the United States: The Case of John Galen Howard' :n Kostof, op. cit., pp. 209-237. An excellent study of training at and influence of the Ecole.

Hitchcock, Henry-Russell American Architectural Books: A list oa Books, Portfolios, and Pamphlets on Architecture and Related Subjects Published in America before 1895 University of Minnesota Press (Minneapolis) 1962 The standard bibliography.

Hoffmann, Donald 'Frank Lloyd Wright and Violletle-Duc'Joumalof the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. XXVIII, No. 3 (October 1969), pp. 173-183 A persuasive and provocative essay on Vidlet's influence on Wright's thought and design.

Jordy, William H. and Coe, Ralph, eds., American Architecture and Other Writings byMontgomerySchuyler, 2 vols.,Harvard University Press (Cambridge, Mass.) 1961 Annotated collection of essays by one of the most insightful critics of the late 19th and early 20th centuries; he was much influenced by the writings of Vidlet.

Park, Helen A List ofArchitectural Books Available in America Before the Revolution Hennessey& Ingalls (Los Angeles) 1973 The pioneer- ing study which provides insights into the growing importance of books for building in America.

Summerson,John 'Viollet-le-Duc and the Rational Point of View,' in Heavenly Mansions and Other Essays on Architecture, W.W. Norton & Co. (New York) 1963, pp. 135-138 An early, but ex- tremely lucid, discussion of this key thread of Viollet's architectural theory.

Vidett-le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel Discourses on Architecture, 2 vols., trans. Benjamin Bucknall, Ticknor and Co., (Boston) 1889- 90; reprinted. Grove Press (New York) 1959 Of the dozen books byViollet available in English in the late 19th century, this influenced architects and critics alike most strongly.

Fdl 1988 JAE 42/1



viollet-le-duc and american 19th century architecture

Documents