Vindolanda tablets

• What do the tablets from the officer class & their families reveal to us?

• > 200 individuals named – writers & recipients, with ranks, places of origin and kinship connections

2nd-3rd Centuries: Crisis looming• 193-211 CE - Publius Septimius Severus

– north African, equestrian; fully “Romanized” as soldier/bureaucrat

– legatus in Upper Pannonia on the Danube, victor in civil war

– promoted equestrians (incl. ex-soldiers) in the administration, diminished Senate even further, and although African, not anti-Italian in administering

– interested in justice, law, and control of the treasury - res privata – including all imperial properties

– excessive spending debasement, inflation– ruling household domus divina – deified, laying

claim to descent from Romulus, Augustus, or divi Augusti

– repaired frontiers, stimulated economies to counter local bankruptcies

– d. 211, Eburacum (York), campaigning vs. Caledonians

2nd-3rd Centuries: Crisis looming

• 211-212 CE: Geta (P. Septimius Antoninus Geta)• 211-217 CE: Caracalla (M. Aurelius Severus Antoninus,

“the tunic,” born L. Septimius Bassianus)– sons of Septimius Severus, return to Rome, arrange for Severus’

deification– Caracalla arranges for Geta’s murder after 1 year– excessive spending (e.g., Baths, one of Rome’s last great

monuments – 2000 bathers at once) leads to • grant of citizenship to all freemen in 212 – constitutio Antoniniana

(primary purpose: increase tax revenues via inheritance taxes on citizens)

• coinage debasement by 25% to pay the legions (whose salaries he increased)

– spends most of career on frontiers, defeating Alamanni on the Rhine in 213, Danube in 215; plundering Alexandria and slaughtering 1000s for satirizing his claim of killing Geta in self-defense

– slaughtered by bodyguard while urinating in Parthia in 217

2nd-3rd Centuries: Crisis looming

• 217-218 CE: Macrinus and Diadumenianus– M. Opellius Macrinus ordered Caracalla’s death; he

and son first equestrian emperors)

• 218-222 CE: Elagabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus)– Julia Domna, widow of Septimius Severus, and sister

Julia Maesa, grandmother to next two emperors (1st cousins Elagablus & Severus Alexander) plot Macrinus’ death; Domna dies in 217, Macrinus killed in 218

– “Elagabal” = Syrian Sun God; emperor as priest, devotee, transferred cult image – black conical stone – to Rome and established cult

– appointed favorites to high office while mother J. Maesa ruled Rome; as hostility grew, she promoted interests of other grandson, Severus

2nd-3rd Centuries: Crisis looming• 222-235 CE: Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander

– Maesa, grandmother, instigates assassination of grandson Elagabalus, damnatio memoriae, termination of cult of Elagabal

– reinforced power of praetorian prefect (Ulpian, famous jurist) & equestrian order; attempted to control inflation

– unprepared to rule – 14 years old in 222 – dominated by mother Julia Mamaea, “Mother of Augustus & camps & Senate & patria”

– waged war with Persian dynasty, and attacks across Rhine & Danube

– assassinated in 235 by troops whose loyalty he didn’t earn

3rd Century: Crisis arrives• 235-284 CE: 50 years, 22 emperors

POLITICAL CRISES– surrender of Senate to emperor &

decreasing value of senatorial career– decreasing influence of assemblies– growing power of equestrian bureaucrats– growing power of princeps in all areas,

destroying checks and balances, evolving into autocracy

3rd Century: Crisis arrives• 235-284 CE: 50 years, 22 emperors

ECONOMIC CRISES– cost of government overwhelming: public

works, handouts, war, entertainment, frontier deployments, imperial bureaucracy, education, farm relief

– runaway inflation. Response: debasement of coinage, growth of black market, confiscation of property by princeps

– widespread looting, increases in taxes, bankruptcies of individuals, municipalities

– underfunded taxpayers brutalized by collectors

3rd Century: Crisis arrives• 235-284 CE: 50 years, 22 emperors

ECONOMIC CRISES– individuals fled farms, livelihoods, unfarmed

land, fewer crops and manufactured goods for trade trade deficit, as wealthy still require luxury

exotic items brigandage, as landless unemployed, army

deserters, war refugees resort to crime depopulation of communities; as wealthy take

untended land, can’t pay property tax, leading to more financial stress

– wealthy / public servants can’t afford local benefactions (works, games, philanthropy), and base of society collapses

3rd Century: Crisis arrives

• 235-284 CE: 50 years, 22 emperorsECONOMIC CRISESfueled by mismanagement, corruption, bankruptcy

of communities and loss of markets– state intervention, limiting local autonomy by taxing

formerly exempt industrial “guilds” – collegia – baking, wine, oil, haircutting, carpentry, etc. decrease in services, manufacturing & efficiencies

– bureaucrats infiltrate guilds, terrorize them and their communities, and themselves subject to bribery

– industries declined, society collapsed, fingers pointed at … Christianity

3rd Century: Crisis arrives

• 235-284 CE: 50 years, 22 emperorsOTHER CAUSESarmies far afield loyal to commanders promising

donatives, not emperors in Rome/elsewhere– soldiers on discharge empowered equestrians,

replacing senatorial class– armies marauding thugs supporting commanders

seeking booty & glory– empire for sale to highest bidder– frontiers collapse, end of pax Romana

• Saxons (NW), Franks & Alamanni (Rhine), Marcomanni & Quadi (Danube), Sarmatians & Vandals (Dacia), Goths & Herulians (Black Sea)

• emperors buy off invading hordes, but provinces devastated, cities plundered

• new empires: Persia 238-59; Palmyra (Arabia) 260-71, Gallic Empire (259-74); Agri Decumates (263) and Dacia (272) abandoned

Rome and Christianity: Key Events

• 64-68: persecutions under Nero• 81-96: persecutions under Domitian• 111-113: correspondence between Pliny and Trajan• 165-180: “Antonine plague” (~5M died) &

persecutions• 202: Septimius Severus bans conversions• 203: martyrdom of Vibia Perpetua• ca.200-300: writings of the Christian apologists• 250-251: edict of emperor Decius• 257: persecutions under Valerian• 260-268: principate of Gallienus (son of Valerian) and

reversal of Valerian’s persecutions• 303-311: persecutions under Diocletian and Gallienus