video game literacy - what can games teach us about learning and the future

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    Video Game Literacy: What Can

    Games Teach Us About Learning

    and the Future?

    Laurence Nairne

    ABSTRACT. This paper intends to argue for the case of using video games to educate specific types of

    problem solving and future planning literacies. We will discuss game design, with a focus on the

    methods of encouraging continued effort and engagement from the end user. We analyse the

    interrelationship of system and play with a focus on rewards and dynamic, rapid feedback, questioning

    why these virtual rewards are so desirable to the player, despite having no real world value. We willdissect the persuasive nature of video games to assess procedural rhetoric, and see how this facilitates

    the creation of paratexts by members within gaming communities. We will contextualise this argument

    by considering how social change can be instigated by game playing experience, and how we can

    utilise the stimulation that video games provide to translate these skills into real world pursuits.

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    THE WHY.

    Gaming literacy [] is the ability to understand and create specic kinds of meanings. [It] is

    based on three concepts: systems, play, and design. All three are closely tied to game design,

    and each represents kinds of literacies that are currently not being addressed through

    traditional education. (Zimmerman, 2008: 24-25).

    In the above quote, Eric Zimmerman defines what one can consider to be the foundations of video

    game literacy. However, it is a rather single minded summary, from a paper which covers a very

    specific area, and does not begin to cover the multitude of practical issues that arise when

    contemplating its application. There are a great many theories and intellectual positions that complicate

    this literacy, and many more misconceptions that confuse its potential role in modern education. In light

    of this, I will collate my research into what I consider to be the most logical order, taking pieces of the

    various hypotheses that work together. Through this I will compile a document that will highlight the

    skills that video games can provide for education, producing my own thesis to provide the beginnings of

    a developed understanding of the literacy.

    For the sake of clarity, we must begin with the knowledge of video game design, and the

    interrelationship between the three sub-categories mentioned in the quote above. In order to realise the

    potential of game literacy, we must first be aware of the literacies that are required in the modern day

    world, literacies that, as Zimmerman explains, are not yet being covered in mainstream education

    (2008).

    Todays western civilisation (and increasingly that of the third world) is built upon a vast matrix of

    intersecting systems. When discussing systems, it is easy to think in terms of the technological

    examples that provide for our everyday requirements. To stop here, however, is to overlook the

    systems that we, ourselves, put in place to run our lives efficiently. For example, social circles work

    within systems of rules that dictate the kind of behaviour that is acceptable, and in a working

    environment, there is usually a web of specific roles within the workforce, and all positions interact with

    one another to keep the processes running smoothly.

    At this stage, one needs to be clear of the fact that, in order to deliver for the needs of the future, we

    must recognise how we; as citizens of a global community, network through these systems in our

    everyday lives, and we must acknowledge the importance of educating this to the next generation.

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    The problem is twofold however. Marc Prensky, global keynote speaker and author of Digital Game

    Based Learning(2007) writes that todays learners are receiving more of an education from the world

    wide web through self-driven research and globe spanning discussions in forums, that traditional

    models of teaching just arent supplementing. He argues that the teachers of today mostly deliver

    lessons through presenting scripted content in one direction without any hint of discussion or evaluation

    as it has always done (2007). However, this is no longer enough to enlighten a youth for life in the

    modern world and the situation is perfectly described in a quote from the same theorist:

    in the twenty-first century our kids grow up in the light, connected to the world [] long

    before they ever go to school. [] rather than building [] on their knowledge and

    connections, we instead cut off all their external links and, as they enter our school

    buildings, bring them back into darkness. (Prensky, 2007)

    Game literacy is a proposed model for the sole purpose of nurturing the development of the problem

    solving and future thinking skills required in todays world, whilst also tackling the issue of engagement

    in schools, incorporating a hugely popular form of media entertainment that carries a rich vault of

    educational properties.

    Of all media, video games have the clearest defined, interactive system. Each game is built upon a set

    of rules, regardless of how regimented or open minded they may be. A person interacts with the game

    in order to become more knowledgeable about its system. The initial driving force to play a game is

    based in the desire to be entertained, but what keeps us engaged is our natural human drive to learn

    and innovate.

    In a game world, we as players engage both actively and reactively. We use tools given to us to

    perform tasks within a virtual environment in order to complete objectives, or discover new regions. But

    we react to the rules placed down by the system or represented realities which govern the real world

    that we carry with us into our game experience. In a game like The Sims (Maxis, 2000); a game of

    creation and nurture, one might create a mod to further diversify the physical, social or ecological

    requirements of created sims in the hope of adding further realism to the experience, or on the other

    hand, neglect them with the intent to investigate their resilience to a severe lack of their simulated

    essentials. It is this playfulness; pushing the boundaries and exploring in game possibilities in response

    to the ideals and tools given to us by the system that so beautifully exemplifies how realistic systems

    can and should work.

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    Linking with the ability to manipulate relatively malleable simulations, I acknowledge that there is

    continual concern over how this might affect children and adolescence where violent games are

    concerned. I am also aware of the extensive coverage of this topic and thus, will not be discussing this

    at any point in this paper.

    One can elaborate on this issue by clarifying that the need for children who are literate in games is not

    rooted in their ability to use the systems that games provide, but in their ability to understand and digest

    the messages and arguments presented to them during game play, to discuss and collaborate on

    solutions to the complex problems that game systems present, and to feel comfortable in failure with

    the confidence to try all manner of approaches, assured of eventual success. We need to communicate

    the importance of translating that very real human effort committed to game play into the real world to

    tackle the problems that the future holds, by constructing simulated environments and scenarios

    designed around these issues. For one to feel compelled to action, game design teaches us that theplayer must feel a sense of ownership over the consequences, and we must see the effects of these

    actions to be motivated to commit to further interaction.

    Never before has the need to encourage play been greater. Never has it been more important to

    challenge a child or adolescent to explore the systems they interact with. Traditional literacies teach

    fact, ideology, politics and ecology. Game literacy aims to teach how to apply these literacies to

    develop an innovative and progressive system in which we actively and collectively work to solve local

    and global scale problems.

    The use of video games in learning is not a brand new idea. Researchers such as Kaveri

    Subrahmanyam in his paper, Effect ofvideo game practice on spatial skills in girls and boys (1994) and

    Catherine Beavis in her essay, Computer Games, Culture and Curriculum (1998)explored some of the

    cognitive impacts of video game playing, with Beavis directing her research more comprehensively

    towards education. In the United Kingdom, video game use in learning is still tentative, and the only

    games deemed worth consideration are those known as serious games, or edutainment games.

    Michael Gove, the Secretary of State for education, stated that he backed the use of video games ineducation. He is quote here to signify a commonly misguided perception of how game study can be

    useful to learning, When children need to solve equations in order to get more ammo to shoot the

    aliens, it is amazing how quickly they can learn. (2011). Video games must become more influential

    than simply a method of offering a trivialised version of other literacies, and I will be presenting this

    paper along this line of thought.

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    THE HOW.

    We will be studying game literacy via the particular focuses of understanding game as a construct,

    understanding game as a media and the importance of game community. In all of this, we shall analyse

    the significance of mastering the system-player (or active party) interrelationship and how that

    knowledge can be transferred into the real world. Throughout, games will be highlighted and studied to

    illustrate the specific points that are raised.

    To fully explore game literacy, we will begin by conducting a better evaluation of play. Play is integral to

    all that game literacy aims to achieve. It is the driving force of anyone to become engaged in a game,

    be it digital or physical. We will be consulting theorists such as Tom Chatfield (2010), Lev Vygotsky

    (1966), Stuart Brown (2009), and Marc Prensky (2005; 2007) to establish the connection between

    instinctual play and the attraction of video gaming.

    This research will move forward into the process of developing an understanding of game via its

    construction. That is to say we shall begin developing the basis of video game literacy in light of

    Zimmermans system, play and design theory (2008). This will be a key focus on how the three react to

    each other within a game space. It is a distinct study of the dynamic relationship between the player

    and the designed system. Without this we open ourselves to the mistake of trying to build a house

    without the bricks, so to speak.

    To take only a structural perspective is to overlook the emotive engagement a player experiences

    however. Subject of this, we must consider the process of producing meaning from the communication

    between the player and the games system. This section will address the persuasive nature of specific

    unit operations within the game code that work to impart ideological concepts. It will seek to discern the

    importance of paratexts in evaluating the motivations of gamers and their experiences of game culture.

    The intention here is to highlight these persuasive and influential characteristics that lace the design of

    computer game systems, so that we might better understand how to harness these skills in teaching.

    For the final section in this paper, we will collate our findings to establish how video games might be

    used to inspire the next generation to engage in learning that will give them the knowledge and skills

    they need to innovate for the future. We will consider the research of the likes of Tom Chatfield with his

    book Fun Inc. (2010) and his talk on the ways in which games reward the brain (2010), and studying

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    the works of Jane McGonigal on games that hope to stimulate players to acts of greatness in their

    physical lives (2007; 2010) . We will cover the potential of continual dynamic refinement of educational

    paradigms via the feedback of vast a mounts of collected data during playing time and revisit our

    research in a conclusive summary.

    PLAY.

    So far we have a vague outline to our focus of research. We have a plan of study and an array of

    theory to cover in the coming pages. To begin, in order to accept video games as a learning tool, one

    must understand how playing is inherently linked to mental development and fully appreciating ones

    own humanity.

    Lev Vygotsky in the early 30s researched into play with regards to its significance in our mental

    development as children. While this research predates video games by a long shot, his findings do hold

    a large amount of relevance to how we play within those game spaces (1966). In Play and Its Role in

    the Mental Development of the Child(1966), Vygotsky argued that the desire to play is to develop our

    perceptions of the world around us, or as he says it, From the point of view of development, the fact of

    creating an imaginary situation can be regarded as a means of developing abstract thought ( 1966: 28).

    This definition can be extended to mean that all games are imagined abstract spaces, where the focus

    is to consider the hypothetical, to explore all that is possible in that space.

    Dr. Stuart Brown, founder of the National Institute for Play, argues that play in and of itself is an

    unproductive activity by necessity, that adult play especially, requires it to be down time outside the

    mundane. However, with this in mind, he writes that this down time does not only invigorate us with the

    motivation to be more productive and enthusiastic than one could be without any play, but that we as

    human beings are built for the process of play, in that, when we play we are acting in the purest form of

    our humanity and individuality (2009). He sums this up with, Play [] is the basis of all art, games,

    books, sports, movies, fashion, fun, and wonderin short, the basis of what we think of as civilization.

    Play is the vital essence of life (Brown, 2009: 11).

    This paper is focused on the attributes of video games that lend themselves to this kind of learning. The

    ideas of play just discussed, take equal measure in explaining how we as a species have come to

    dominate the globe through exploration, trial and error, and eventually innovation. Chatfield explains

    that the thrill we experience when learning should come as no surprise when the very foundations of

    our evolution and survival have depended upon the desire and aptitude for that learning (2010).

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    Prensky argues that game based learning has a place in modern education due to two reasons. First,

    he acknowledges that, having grown up surrounded by digital technology and video games, the

    younger generations now engage with, and process information in different ways to that of any

    generation that has come before. Secondly, he believes that motivation tactics that once worked for

    students in the past, no longer work for students today. He reasons that learning requires effort on part

    of both the educator and the learner. For this effort to be reciprocal, it is necessary for a student to be

    motivated adequately. This, he figures, is where game based learning can succeed (Prensky, 2005).

    In light of this, one can venture to argue that todays youths have returned to a more natural and

    instinctual form of learning; one that humanity has long forgotten the importance of (Prensky, 2007).

    Gaming literacy seeks to bond this organic act of play with the growth of human innovation and

    understanding. Only through the analytical study of video games construction, can we begin to

    understand how influential play is becoming.

    GAME AS A CONSTRUCT.

    The importance of these principles was emphasised by Zimmerman in his paperGame Literacy: Game

    Design as a Modelfor Literacy in the Twenty-First Century. A game requires rules and play for it to be a

    game, as was understood by Vygotsky (1966). They are intrinsically dependent on each other in order

    to reach full potential.

    Every game is designed with the intention of making the player an expert at specific tasks. The purpose

    for this is to empower the player and induce the feeling of what Jane McGonigal explains as an epic

    win (2010). The level of data research that video games developers acquire from their consumers is far

    greater than that of any other industry (Chatfield, 2010), as I will later discuss. These epic win moments

    are possible as a result of this research, with the sole intention of encouraging consumers to spend

    more money on future titles, and fund the industry. Via the process of immediate feedback and visual

    prompting, a game system educates a player to be better at interacting with it.

    The system of a game compiles all of the constraints and methods dictated by the design. It provides

    the structure to a world to motivate a player to learn with some level of focus. Whilst this immediately

    seems to explain a system as purely restrictive, not all of the rules are such. For example, in the recent

    title Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (2011); a largely open world game, one effect of those rules is that, for the

    purpose of rising above the multitude of challenging encounters with enemies of varied levels and

    abilities, one must explore, meet smaller challenges, and slowly but surely get stronger and more

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    knowledgeable. In this regard, game systems are also motivational forces that drive us to improve our

    playing abilities within that space.

    However, the wealth of meaning discovered by the player is incalculable. Regarding Skyrim (2011)

    further, a player has a vast amount of freedom to take their own decided path through a great wealth ofquests, without any requirement to even commit to the main questline. One can simply explore the

    world, be a travelling tradesman or an alchemical practitioner without doing so much as the introductory

    missions. The tools provided by the system are a product of the initial designs which allow for this

    relative freedom. The player takes these tools to create a unique experience that produces a self-

    dictated level of success or failure that neither design nor system could have previously comprehended

    in its entirety.

    Zimmerman gives the example of a chess game to explain the link between system and play. Beforethe game is initiated, the pieces are small wooden statues without any specifically defining features.

    When play begins, they form their respective roles, governed by the rules of the game (2008). To

    elaborate, in chess, the system of the game dictates that each piece has a set of possible moves, and

    in no circumstance can they breach those restrictions. However, those rules teach nothing of the

    strategies required to master chess. There can be no meaning within the system aside the hierarchical

    importance of each piece, dictated by its usefulness (aside the king). The same can be said for play.

    Without the system of rules in place for the pieces, the game comprises of nothing but a series of

    meaningless moves without a rigid format to govern the success or failure of a manoeuvre. Also, thereare no ambitions to be realised in such a game without the system defining objective of pinning down

    the king in checkmate, and thus, no potential for strategy.

    The major difference between the relationship of play and system in most modern video game as

    opposed to a board game, is that much of the rules of the system are emergent through play as

    opposed to being defined before play begins. Will Wright, creator ofThe Sims (2000) and Spore (2008),

    wrote that the modern child with a new video game does not first pick up the manual before plugging in.

    Instead they press buttons until they understand the rules and methods of play. He argues that thisseemingly random process is actually scientific method, and that a player begins to understand the

    system through trial and error until they master the art of navigating the game space (Wright, 2006).

    The importance of being literate in the systems in games and how we interact with them is to recognise

    how that knowledge directly translates into an understanding of the systems that govern our ecologies,

    and the confidence to play with their structures with the intent to improve or better experience them.

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    Being literate in systems is to be focused on the process rather than the result. It is to be aware of the

    constantly shifting parameters of dynamic relationships between the individual elements that the

    system contains (Zimmerman, 2008). To be literate in play is to actively participate in, and strive to

    improve the systems we interact with. It encourages the kind of creative proficiencies required in

    modern society for innovation and progress, proficiencies that have resulted in the video games

    industry being currently worth $74 billion (Biscotti et al., 2011) thanks to the progress that game

    developing studios are making in creating dynamic and engaging virtual worlds.

    With the intention of illustrating system, play and design, one can study the online feature ofAssassins

    Creed: Revelations (Ubisoft, 2011). The central focus here is to determine the mechanics and features

    that the system utilises to encourage a player to interact productively within it. Its basic premise is a

    training facility for budding assassins (or Templars narratively speaking) to hone their skills for this role.

    Across all game modes, the basics are the same. You have a series of targets to kill, whilst there will beat least one other player with you as their target. This is the case in most games where the focus is to

    kill an opponent, which I define as digital tag games, due to their uncanny similarity to the childhood

    playground game. However, the difference in this particular game is that its not a simple case of

    running after the target and fending off your pursuer.

    All players assume the visage of a chosen avatar, and there are dozens of computer controlled players

    who share those avatars. Whilst you, in most game modes, know the visage of your target, it is often a

    case of distinguishing them from the crowd. This is both aided, and hindered by the use of abilities andperks. For assailants, these range from a vision mode that momentarily allows you to see your target lit

    up in blue, to a selection of projectiles to incapacitate, or disadvantage opponents. Likewise, defenders

    have access to tools like disguises, that change the appearance of the players avatar to one of the

    others (particularly tricky when your pursuer relies on a small image of their target in the top right of the

    user interface on screen for a short period of time, and an ability called morph which changes all

    surrounding computer players within a nearby group to all don the same avatar as the player using it.

    This isnt the entire picture of the systems design though, and the conditions of play are encouragedvia reward. Like the chess game, it is not enough to simply take pieces at any moment possible, as this

    leads to a poor game in which strategy and objective become obscured and redundant. Each kill the

    player achieves is awarded a score calculated in terms of experience points. The higher scores are

    reserved for those who play cautiously and tactically. As points are gained, one moves from level to

    level, each one requiring a larger amount of invested time. For consistently playing calculatedly, game

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    players will unlock the aforementioned perks and abilities quicker than others, giving them an edge in

    game. As an addition to this, more control is given to the player in terms of those unlocked skills. It is

    not enough to reach the level where these are available, but one must choose the abilities they wish to

    add to their roster by buying them with their accumulated XP. Immediately this opens up an entire

    realm of individual play styles, with strategies being formulated to deal with defence and attack.

    This type of staggered reward structure is an elaboration of the ideas covered by Chatfield (2010). The

    willingness to master stealthy and tactical play is motivated by seeing the usefulness of this talent from

    other, more masterful players, and by the nature of the extra perks and skills, which are all clearly

    visible in the advancement ladder. Moreover, continual feedback appears onscreen after every

    successful contracted kill is completed. A score break down shimmers into view in the user interface

    making you vividly aware of how clever your approach was. It will measure the stealth, the creative flair

    and a tally of other conditions, giving overt encouragement to continue operating in such a manner, orimprove tactics in the event of a poorly timed hit.

    With so many varying ways to hunt and avoid being hunted, this produces a gaming experience that is

    incredibly dynamic. The sheer depth of play style system lends itself to Zimmermans explanation of

    game design, in which he states, [it is] the process by which a designer creates a context, to be

    encountered by a participant, from which meaning emerges (Zimmerman & Salen, 2004). The context

    here is the obvious role play as an assassin that must out manoeuvre their opponents, both as predator

    and prey, putting an arsenal of abilities and equipment to use in an effective manner worthy of a trainedkiller. The meaning is gleaned from choices of play style and the loose narrative. The game elements

    and mechanics used in the online feature of Assassins Creed: Revelations (Ubisoft, 2011) come

    together to present a masterfully designed system in which dynamic play can exist, feedback is detailed

    and every effort is rewarded with experience and credit to be used on improved equipment.

    To reflect then, we have discovered how play is a fundamental tool of human nature to develop the

    mind and a keen motivational force for effort and creativity. We have seen how play works in response

    to the design of a system and how that system encourages playful exploration and expression throughthe analysis ofAssassins Creed: Revelations (Ubisoft, 2011). Understanding games only by how the

    system encourages play is only the tip of the iceberg when considering how we interact with them,

    however. If we are to evaluate the effectiveness of conveying messages, persuasive arguments and

    meaning during gameplay, we must further develop our vision of representation in a game world, and

    appreciate the value of game experience within the wider context of its media ecology.

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    GAME AS A MEDIA.

    Misunderstandings often occur when considering the potential of using video games in education,

    which includes the likes of Michael Gove in the quote I gave earlier in this paper. In Reading at Risk

    (2004), it speaks as one concerned with the domination of modern digital media, as if traditionalliteracies are witnessing their final days.

    Standard methods for teaching traditional literacies - such as skill-and-drill - dictate that learning flows

    in one direction, from the top down, using repetition until the lesson is learnt. Within this method, there

    is little room for developing contextual understanding. The emphasis lies with the knowledge of the

    facts, as opposed to the contextual placement of those facts in the system processes that govern our

    lives.

    At this juncture I give an example of my experience of studying philosophy between the ages of sixteen

    and eighteen. When I would question the theories set in front of me for study, I would receive the same

    response from my teacher: You dont have to believe it; you just have to understand it. In a subject

    designed to explore reason and develop understanding of our existence, this reaction exemplifies the

    lack of context within a curriculum for a discourse intended to develop abstract thinking. To deny a

    student the right to challenge and explore the theory, is to deny them the establishment of a personal,

    contextual understanding of philosophy in its entirety. Prensky signifies this as the removal of the

    student from the lesson. He states that education is only concerned with the decisions that authorities

    are going to make regarding students, and rarely includes an effective influence from the learners

    themselves. This is arguably allowing education systems to stagnate and become ineffective (2007).

    Considering game as a media is to understand processes of interaction and the sharing of our

    experiences. To fully understand this, we must first establish the intricate communications between

    game system and player through procedural rhetoric. In Persuasive Games: The Expressive Power of

    Video Games (2007), Ian Bogost invents this concept as a purely digital dialectical framework. It

    focuses on symbolic representations authored by a computer system - made possible by the authoring

    of programmed code in the design. Whilst Bogost goes into great depth to determine the history of

    dialectical rhetoric dating as far back as Socrates, he also places great emphasis on establishing a

    rhetoric that effectively encompasses the ability of computer systems to present persuasive arguments

    and effectively express ideas. He states that procedures are not so much the rigid, constricting

    boundaries within a system (as they are often deemed) as they are a series of intersecting operational

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    parts of a much larger context from which action, meaning and consequence derives. He labels them

    unit operations and amounts a range of examples to emphasise his point.

    To use one of these examples, he describes the in-store returns policy of a hypothetical outlet. His

    particular illustration is the scenario of buying a faulty DVD player, and not having the free time to returnit within the refund period. He argues that, should the customer attempt to return the product in-store, a

    customer services representative may refuse the return, or allow it based on other information, such as

    the pleaded case of no free time, or the fact that the subject in question is a frequent customer. Though

    this is commonly understood as a breach of normal protocol, or breaking procedure, Bogost insists

    that this is simply the intersecting of other procedures within the context of customer service, that is; the

    returns policy is being evaluated against the protocol for improving customer satisfaction, personal

    morale procedures of empathy or familiarity, and often the procedure for customer complaints (2007).

    He goes on to elaborate that digital versions of returns policy procedures are not more constricting

    because they follow that procedure without question, but that they have simply been designed to be

    basic, and not built with these interrelating procedures in mind (2007).

    This concept is hinged somewhat, on the theory of Kenneth Burke that, wherever there is persuasion,

    there is rhetoric. And wherever there is meaning, there is persuasion (1950: 172). By this definition, a

    construct such as a video game, where meaning is derived dynamically between arguments

    constructed by the system, and player interaction is procedurally rhetorical.

    Sim City 4 (Maxis, 2004) is effectively a system heavily dependent on a vast amount of procedures. It

    simulates the construction, development and management of a city, with the aim being to increase the

    population, fill the city bank and maintain a peaceful balance between public servants, citizens and

    advisors whilst making good on trade agreements with neighbouring businesses. You play the mayor

    and have to straddle the line between tyrant and idealist in what becomes as much of a moral battle as

    it is a lesson in logic, statistics and financial budgeting. Extending from the classical angel and devils

    advocate on each shoulder, you are lobbied by a panel of advisors that haunt your every decision.

    There are, understandably hundreds of discrete unit operations at play throughout. In real time, roads

    will degrade, fires will run amok in places not covered by a fire department, and if public unrest

    becomes unanimous, riots begin to appear on the streets. Each of these operations coexist with each

    other and to quell such a riot, one could simply increase spending in the police department, or amend

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    taxation and health spending until the public are satisfied. Each decision carries the weight of

    consequence and feedback is something that is progressive and often problematic for a plan of action.

    All of these minor instances amount to creating the rhetoric ofSim City 4 and interestingly enough, that

    rhetoric here is one which may exist intentionally, or as a subconscious assumption about how asociety must work based on an ingrained western ideology. To use the term loosely, in order to win,

    one must create a city that is continually growing, with small businesses inevitably having to be

    replaced with department stores and centres of commerce over small outlets and off licenses. It holds

    public approval, health and safety and transit as subordinate focuses to productivity. In all, each unit

    operation comes together with the intention to represent an idealistic capitalist utopia.

    Whilst Bogost speaks generally of procedural rhetoric as a digital rhetorical framework, we can consider

    video games as a highly persuasive and vivid example of this (Bogost, 2007). He considers thedialectical nature of procedural rhetoric and argues that one need not be able to directly counter

    representations and ideologies in the interface - that it is not necessary to amend the rules of play

    within a game for example - as dialectics [] function in a broader media ecology (Bogost, 2007: 37).

    This brings us onto the place and purpose of paratexts.

    In Gaming Capital: Rethinking Literacy (Walsh & Apperley, 2009) they are defined as the physical

    manifestation of gaming capital created within game communities, but existing independently from the

    virtual worlds they represent. Furthermore, they are the agents of the forming of relationships between

    members of any given game community (2009).

    In Fun Inc. (2010), Chatfield states that,

    From the first time I sat up all night with a group of friends, chewing over the best strategies for

    victory in the fiendishly complex game version ofThe Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy, to my

    current weekly raids at the top end ofWorld ofWarcraft, it has always been my experience that

    the best games are triggers for discussion, reading and writing not an end to it (2010: 3).

    Chatfield here demonstrates a natural human process of sharing our experiences with others belonging

    to similar circles of interest. Words are still our primary source of expressing ourselves. Media is not

    only powerless to overcome this dependency, but absolutely relies on it. Video games are no exception

    to this rule, and as narrative and interactive sources of debate and discussion, they work as catalysts

    for creativity and expression via the mediums of media and literature (2010).

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    In the triple A, first person shooter series Halo (Bungie, 2001) there are six titles at the time of writing,

    with a high definition remake of the original game and the promise of a sequel due this year. Three of

    these titles - Wars (Ensemble Studios, 2009), ODST(Bungie, 2009) and Reach (Bungie, 2010) - delve

    into the mythos beyond the central story of Master Chief and in this respect, are interactive paratexts

    themselves.

    Moreover, Halo: Reach (2010) tells a version of the prequel to the events of the central trilogy, a story

    that was originally penned by Eric Nylund in Fall ofReach (2001), thus highlighting the cyclical nature

    of game community development. There are a further ten published novels by various authors (Nylund,

    2003; Dietz, 2003; Buckell, 2008) - with the promise of at least another four - amongst a significant

    number of art books, encyclopaedias and graphic novels.

    More interestingly, however, is the grand scale of paratexts produced by the amateur members of anygiven game community. These paratexts are all, first and foremost an expression of personal

    perspective, Be they simple FAQs and walkthroughs, or video compilations of skill or humour.

    WoWWikiwas once the primary resource for information on World of Warcraft(Blizzard, 2004) and in

    early 2010 it reached 80,000 articles, marking it as the top specialised wiki in the world, and flaunted

    between 400,000 to 500,000 daily readers (WoWWikki, 2010). As a website devoted to the written

    word, this only serves to reinforce our most fundamental of literacies language - and allows for the

    practice of skills in research, analysis, evaluation, and contextualising those findings with meaning.

    From this, we can be lead to question what can be gleaned from understanding these aspects of game

    design and culture. By acknowledging the persuasive power of video games to create meaning and

    express specific ideas, we can develop methods of applying this to the games we might use to educate.

    In discussing the rapid feedback that video games provide, Chatfield argues that its difficult to

    understand issues like global warming and pollution when the consequences are seemingly so

    disconnected from our daily lives. He argues that, by giving people contextual objects to manipulate,

    they will understand and learn the lesson (2010). One could extend this for the purpose of introducing

    global scale problems and initiatives into these simulated environments to inspire analytical

    investigation, experimentation with tools and environments, and consequently provide the groundwork

    for innovative ideas.

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    Moreover, from what we understand about paratexts, we can deduce that there is a very natural drive

    and indeed, pleasure attributed to the consumption and expression of contextual information that holds

    meaning within a given community, here represented by game culture. Such habits are considerably

    useful for collaboration and - with the online presence of video games - harnessing mass awareness.

    To recapitulate, we have established how games work to provide constant feedback of progress to the

    player, rewarding effort and attainment respectively to encourage the continuation of engagement

    (Chatfield, 2010; Zimmerman, 2008). We know that game systems author representations through the

    coding, and that this presents a system of procedural rhetoric as unit operations intersect and create

    meaning (Bogost, 2007). We have acknowledged that many of us as game players explore these

    arguments and use them as fuel for our own discourses within gaming communities to engage with

    others as a natural process of social identification and to dynamically contribute to the creative and

    intellectual growth of those communities (Walsh & Apperley, 2009).

    CONTEXTUALLEARNING.

    This knowledge of the inner workings of video games and the interactions they facilitate is of little use to

    us without context, however. The avatars we control within a game world are designed purely for the

    purpose of educating us in their specific perspectives and agendas. Through the simulated

    representations of life and interaction - which seek to motivate us to explore and solve the problems

    that the narrative introduces to us - we form our own perceptions and develop them through discussion

    with others and expressing ourselves, whether it falls within the confines of the game or beyond in the

    likes of forums, blogs and wikis.

    If we understand how play affects our mental development and the complexity of interactive systems

    that satisfy our natural desire to learn and solve problems, we can begin to construct a framework for

    communicating explicit educational messages about current world issues utilising the powerful tools of

    persuasive engagement found in abundance in video games.

    To explore this concept, I give credit to the efforts of Jane McGonigal in working for social change

    through the development of alternate reality games. In 2011, she gave a sermon at the School of Lifes

    Sunday Sermon programme in which she discussed the nature and misconceptions of productivity.

    From this she deduced that the psychology theory of positive emotional relationships and meaningful

    accomplishment (PERMA) (Seligman, 2011) should be the motivation to be productive, i.e. that we

    should always strive to produce meaningful accomplishments that will benefit the world and life, that our

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    productive work should be optimised to produce positive emotions and build on our relationships with

    those around us (2011).

    McGonigal believes that our attraction to playing games is born in our underlying desire to produce

    work that we know within ourselves is meaningful. From this she argues that games provide us withexperiences that allow us to exist in a movement that is much greater than ourselves. They give us

    constant reward for our steady progress towards the climax of a consequential journey, determining the

    fate of the world we explore (2011).

    Through the constant feedback that we discussed in our analysis of game design, and the persuasive

    rhetorics presented in the code that we discovered in our evaluation of the media ecology of games, we

    are made to care for these virtual environments and scenarios. In short, McGonigal argues that our

    hunger for positive emotional relationships and meaningful accomplishment (Seligman, 2011

    ) is satedby playing games and through discussing our experiences with others in our social circles (2011). As

    we explored earlier, World of Warcraft (Blizzard Entertainment, 2004) and the wiki that fully and

    progressively explored that game is an exemplary illustration of this communication.

    In her discussion, she provides statistics found in her research about time spent playing and success

    rates. It is believed, she states, that the average adolescent gamer will have spent ten thousand hours

    playing video games by the age of twenty one, which includes males and females. Not only this, but

    eighty percent of that time consists of failed attempts (2011).

    This highlights a few points of discussion that are beneficial to this paper. Firstly, her figures for time

    spent playing overlook the hours beyond play time that consist of those gamers conferring on

    strategies, meaningful experiences and forming relationships through the context of gaming. If we are

    to adopt the perspective of Walsh and Apperley (2009), we would argue that this is the pinnacle of

    game literacy. Secondly, ten thousand is, McGonigal states, twenty four hours short of the time spent in

    education from the age of eleven to eighteen if a student had no absences. It should be clear from this

    that video games can no longer be dismissed as an anti-productive adolescent media, but rather,

    acknowledged as vessels for conveying meaning through a simulated environment specifically

    constructed to engage, challenge, reward and satisfy our human impulses for progress by introducing

    problems in a fully accessible context. Lastly, it is interesting to point out that an eighty percent failure

    rate during game time dictates that game playing teaches resilience, endurance and facilitates

    extremely high levels of motivation to succeed. Through constant encouragement, we as gamers are

    always aware that success is not only possible, but within reach, despite the odds and the difficulty of

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    challenges presented, with rewards that are worth the commitment. McGonigal argues that a player will

    never quit a good game experience permanently because of difficulty if the rewards are calibrated

    effectively with the challenges (2011).

    The alternate reality gameE

    voke (Avant Game, 2010) puts these desires for a meaningful experience

    and the drive to innovate, learn and reap rewards irrespective of the challenge, to good use. The

    premise is set ten years in the future, where famines, natural disasters, pestilence and unclean water

    supplies are rife in particular parts of the world. Players are tasked with the role of collaborating with

    others in an organisation that works in secret to eradicate these problems.

    Unlike other games, this specifically focuses on the problems of today and tomorrow, and does this

    through real world action. Players do not engage with a virtual world, but take on these problems as if

    they were real in the physical world. They are instructed to build projects from which they can solvethese issues and gain points for integrating them into their daily lives. Networking, documenting

    development cycles and innovative ideas all contribute to the progress of, what is effectively a dynamic

    experiment in dealing with the concerns of the future.

    More so than the video games that we as gamers play every day, these alternate reality games have

    tangible benefits beyond the game experience. For the world, they potentially provide real and useful

    ideas for the years to come, with rising water levels and world hunger becoming a larger problem as the

    population grows. For the players, there is the incentive that the best players and ideas will be brought

    forward to the attention of real social change professionals who work on bringing these projects to

    fruition, providing their lives with the platform to put their skills for collaboration and creative thinking

    into practice.

    Whilst McGonigal does not create video games, those same virtues of her games carry over onto a

    video game platform. There are pros and cons to both approaches. Whilst video games require you to

    perceive virtual realities through the pivot of an avatar under your explicit control, alternate reality

    games incorporate game elements into the physical world, with only you as the driving force for your

    own gaming experience. One could argue that the latter allows you to become more personally

    connected with the consequences and context of your play and that the experiences are more likely to

    be carried through to the rest of your life once the game has ended.

    However, digital games allow developers to create scenarios and simulations that would not be

    possible to effectively carry out in the real world. They can present the consequence of neglecting the

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    conditions of success, whereas one is forced to imagine these consequences with alternate reality. Not

    only this, but as a tool of developing problem solving skills, they are much easier to calibrate to different

    levels of skill and give immediate feedback on progress, where the alternate reality games McGonigal

    creates rely on the presentation of progress from the players.

    So as not to dismiss either method of inspiring real effort into saving the world, one could argue that

    they complement each other in their usefulness. Video games potentially provide a sandbox for creative

    and innovative skills. Difficulty, specificity and intensity can be both monitored and calibrated

    dynamically through the design. A real time running video game can be updated regularly with patches

    to make adjustments based on play data readings.

    Alternate reality games bring the skills acquired from video game play into the real world, and place

    more emphasis on the application of ideas and methods. In this way, it can be seen as a dressrehearsal for the event of these problems becoming a significant reality.

    In his TED talk, Chatfield emphasises the value of this collected data. He states that one billion points

    are collected everyday via game servers to examine precisely how gamers are playing (2010). With the

    sheer level of financial investment that comes together to create a top selling title, developers need to

    know what their consumers want in an effort to secure their purchases. This covers the part of selling

    their product to the public, and keeping them engaged for as long as possible. One could argue that we

    require the same from education. For us to invest effort and time in our tutelage, we must be persuaded

    to see the value of literacy learning. In order for those lessons to become imprinted in our minds we

    require context, feedback and tangible reward for our investment, be that a lesson to be used in our

    lives beyond its immediate area of effect, or direct progress towards a deeper and more useful

    understanding of a larger framework.

    Furthermore, from researching this data, Chatfield defines ways in which games benefit the human

    mind. He covers the concepts of reward and feedback that we have already discussed, but he also

    focuses on the benefits of presenting progress to the player (2010). Knowing the distance left to

    complete tasks and objectives in learning encourages us to keep moving forward. Much of the difficulty

    that traditional literacy education is faced with, Prensky would argue (2005), is down to the fact that, for

    a student, there is little awareness of how each lesson fits into a bigger picture. These lessons seem

    remote, isolated, and therefore disconnected from anything but educational practice. The ability to

    visualise progress could arguably override this issue if the end goal is clearly visible along with the

    distance travelled from the start line to the finish. Moreover, Chatfield continues that, by incrementing

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    each milestone down into smaller portions, students can make progress towards various minor goals

    that all collate to achieve the major target (2010).

    Game developers are experts at utilising this method by digesting tasks into side quests, which are

    accessible at the players wish, but are actively encouraged through the potential of rewards thatbenefit the success of the main quest.

    In Mass Effect 2(BioWare, 2010), the main quest consists of fighting a threat to all civilization in the

    known universe. As opposed to many role playing games where the playable avatar is the lone,

    necessary hero, in this title, the emphasis is on building up a team of experts in order to prepare for the

    fight ahead. Each team member has been designed to have different skills and benefits to the mission,

    but it is not compulsory to enlist them all. Whilst they are instantly willing to fight for the cause, their

    trust in the players leadership is not infallible and it is highly beneficial to nurture relationships withthem through conversation in order to gain their trust. Each character has an optional loyalty mission

    that is necessary for them to trust you, but not to finish the game. The benefits to the mission and to

    their skills are pitched at a level that makes the value in completing them vividly clear.

    Beyond the characters, there are missions outside of loyalty and the main plot which will allow for the

    development of skills and abilities, not to mention the equipment upgrades that are only obtainable

    through mining the worlds that can be found in ones travels and through barter in colonised systems.

    There is never the instruction to prepare oneself as well as possible before the inevitable climax to the

    story, but it is actively encouraged through conversation with ones peers and staggered interactions

    with the target objective, which increasingly make one aware of the large challenge ahead. In a game

    where choices are consequential, ignoring a lack of loyalty can result in the death of team members

    throughout the mission and a lack of cooperation, as well as being unprepared for the finale.

    In this same talk, Chatfield discusses the element of uncertainty as a vastly motivating factor in our

    productivity. He ventures that the rewards or solutions we seek that arent quite palpable, but remain on

    the verge of accomplishment, stimulate us the most. He links this with research being conducted at the

    likes of Bristol University (at the time of speaking) on neurological dopamine levels which facilitate our

    engagement in learning and reward seeking behaviour. Through this we can pin point the moments

    where the brain is more likely to learn and remember information (Chatfield, 2010). In video games, this

    information can be used to greatly affect the lasting appeal and connection to a game experience and is

    invariably beneficial to education.

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    The discussion of player confidence to take action in a game has been hinted at thus far, but this is an

    immeasurable quality of video games. All of the previously mentioned traits all coalesce together to

    encourage a willingness to take risks. Where contemporary education focuses on answers to

    questions, video games instead emphasise the importance of the discovery of solutions (Chatfield,

    2010). They tap into our evolutionarily styled learning patterns of trial and error, teaching us that

    progress is made through the eighty percent failure rate that McGonigal speaks of (2011).

    With the global issues of tomorrow, such as climate change, characterised by the likes of Dr. Gavin

    Schmidt (2011), and a growing level of ecological problems that are yet to be solved, it could be argued

    that reintroducing the virtue of exploration and experimentation at school level will be a step towards

    eradicating these dangers.

    Finally, Chatfield confirms what all our research to this point is signifying; that the opportunity to shareour success with other people, and collaborate is the epitome of human motivation. Without peers to

    review our progress and work with towards common goals, our experiences are without substance

    beyond ourselves (2010). Whilst the earlier titles in game history like Sonic the Hedgehog (SEGA,

    1991) and Super Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1985) depended heavily on a single player navigating through

    various traps and adversaries, more modern titles such as the aforementioned Mass Effect 2(BioWare,

    2010) and the likes ofBattlefield 3 (DICE, 2011) focus on our interactions with others, be they artificial

    intelligence or real people represented by their avatars.

    In order to provide for future innovation, we need to focus on collaboration in the classroom and shift

    the emphasis of learning from the dictated resources of the curriculum via the teacher, to the dynamic

    generation of ideas from all members of each class as active participants in community, in which a

    teacher acts as a catalyst for creative, productive discussion and progress.

    TO CONCLUDE.

    If we are to encapsulate the entirety of this discussion, we must state that video games are in essence,

    a much larger medium than they initially appear. Our interaction with these virtual worlds is simply the

    foundation for a series of much more important and influential experiences.

    We do not simply play as a means of idle escapism, but to engage in systems that are designed to put

    our potential for problem solving to effective use. They are tools of encouragement, monitors of

    progress and vessels of satisfying rewards. We play to create meanings, explore possibilities and to

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    actively participate in adventures much larger than ourselves. Me must distinguish this pursuit from that

    of wishful thinking, and instead realise that this represents our enthusiasm and willingness to be

    productive regardless of challenges and failure, and that games are successful in capturing this effort

    through the expert balance of reward (McGonigal, 2011 ; Chatfield, 2010).

    We must understand the power of video games to impart persuasive arguments upon us and harness

    this tool with an understanding of the neurological satisfaction we gain from deciphering these

    meanings. Not only this, but we must acknowledge that our in-game experiences far exceed the realms

    of the design and coding that define a game system when we create paratexts and contribute to

    worldwide gaming communities, and that this discussion leads to strategizing and collaboration in order

    to improve a system or experience it better.

    Furthermore, it is essential that we acknowledge that it is not simply the level of fantasy in games thatmotivates us to play, and that social change can be instigated through games such as Evoke (Avant

    Game, 2010), where players can tackle future issues through the creation of a hypothetical reality. In

    the words of Will Wright, Games aren't just fantasy worlds to explore; they actually amplify our powers

    of imagination (2006), and it can be assumed that, when considering an outcome that has yet to take

    place, one must use ones imagination.

    Finally, and most importantly, we must accept the powerful tools that video games present us with; that

    we might use them to educate the next generation in securing the future survival, wellbeing and

    progress of humanity. It is no longer acceptable to dismiss video games as idle unproductivity, and

    envy or fear its influential nature. It is time to put these ten thousand hours of adolescent engagement

    to valuable use; to create a world of experts in problem solving and future planning.