Vespid wasp nest. (After Blaney 1976.)

Figure 12.1

First-instar nymphs of the subsocial aphid Pseudoregma alexanderi (Hemiptera: Hormaphidinae): (a) pseudoscorpion-like soldier; (b) normal nymph. (After Miyazaki 1987b.)

Figure 12.2

Cladogram showing proposed relationships among selected aculeate Hymenoptera to depict the multiple origins of sociality (SOL, solitary; SUB, subsocial; EU, eusocial). Apoidea includes all bees and some wasp families, but not all solitary groups of wasps are shown here. Relationships within non-social aculeates are not depicted. (Adapted from sources including Brothers 1999; Danforth et al. 2006; Pilgrim et al. 2008.)

Figure 12.3

Worker bees from three eusocial genera, from left, Bombus (bumble bees), Apis (honey bees), and Trigona (stingless bees) (all in Apidae), superficially resemble each other in morphology, but they differ in size and ecology, including their pollination preferences and level of eusociality. (After various sources, especially Michener 1974.)

Figure 12.4

The hind leg of a worker honey bee, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae): (a) outer surface showing corbicula, or pollen basket (consisting of a depression fringed by stiff setae), on the tibia, and the press on the basitarsus that pushes the pollen into the basket; (b) the inner surface with the combs and rakes that manipulate pollen into the press prior to packing. (After Snodgrass 1956; Winston 1987.)

Box 12.1

Figure 12.5

Development of the honey bee, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae), showing the factors that determine differentiation of the queen-laid eggs into drones, workers, and queens (on the left) and the approximate developmental times (in days) and stages for drones, workers, and queens (on the right). (After Winston 1987.)

Figure 12.6

The nest of the common European wasp, Vespula vulgaris (Hymenoptera: Vespidae): (a) initial stages (1–5) of nest construction by the queen (the embryonic phase of the colony’s life); (b) a mature nest. (After Spradbery 1973.)

Box 12.3

Figure 12.7

Weaver ants of Oecophylla making a nest by pulling together leaves and binding them with silk produced by larvae that are held in the mandibles of worker ants. (After CSIRO 1970; Hölldobler 1984.)

Figure 12.8

Developmental pathways of the termite Nasutitermes exitiosus (Termitidae). Heavy arrows indicate the main lines of development, light arrows the minor lines. A, alate; E, egg; L, larva; LL, large larva; LPS, large presoldier; LS, large soldier; LW, large worker; N, nymph; SL, small larva; SPS, small presoldier; SS, small soldier; SW, small worker. The numbers indicate the stages. (Pathways based on Watson & Abbey 1985.)

Box 12.4

Figure 12.9

A “magnetic mound” of the debris-feeding termite Amitermes meridionalis (Termitidae) showing: (a) the north–south view and (b) the east–west view. (After Hadlington 1987).

Figure 12.10

Section through the mound nest of the African fungus-farming termite Macrotermes natalensis (Termitidae) showing how air circulating in a series of passageways maintains favorable culture conditions for the fungus at the bottom of the nest (a) and for the termite brood (b). Measurements of temperature and carbon dioxide are shown in the boxes for the following locations: (a) the fungus combs; (b) the brood chambers; (c) the attic; (d) the upper part of a ridge channel; (e) the lower part of a ridge channel; and (f) the cellar. (After Lüscher 1961.)