( napomena; kratice: s.i.r.-skripta istocne religije k.-katicic , b.k.-biljeske klara , b.m.-

biljeske matisic- potkontinent -- s interneta : www.buddhanet.net i www.wikipedia.org )

1. Najstariji natpisi u Indiji (b.m.)

- 3.st.pr.Kr. Asokini natpisi, kharosti i brahmi ( razv. Se sva suvr. Ind.pisma )

- SJZ – kharošti; Z – girnar blizak paliju, I blizak magadhiju

- Poc.5.st.pr.Kr. Natpis kralja Darija

- - Heliodorov stup u Besnagaru ( na grckom, Vasudeva )

- Rudradaman , 2.st.pr.Kr. – prvi sac. Zapis na korektnom sanskrtu

-

2. Grčki vladari

Main Greco-Bactrian kings and territories

House of Diodotus

Territories of Bactria, Sogdiana, Ferghana, Arachosia:

Diodotus I (reigned c. 250-240 BCE) Coins Diodotus II (reigned c. 240-230 BCE) Son of Diodotus I Coins

The existence of a third Diodotid king, Antiochus Nikator, is uncertain.

Many of the dates, territories, and relationships between Greco-Bactrian kings are tentative and essentially based on numismatic analysis and a few Classical sources. The following list of kings, dates and territories after the reign of Demetrius is derived from the latest and most extensive analysis on the subject, by Osmund Bopearachchi ("Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné", 1991).

House of Euthydemus

Territories of Bactria, Sogdiana, Ferghana, Arachosia:

Euthydemus I (reigned c. 223- c.200 BCE) Overthrew Diodotus II. Coins

The descendants of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus invaded northern India around 190 BCE. Their dynasty was probably thrown out of Bactria after 170 BC by the new king Eucratides, but remained in the Indian domains of the empire at least until the 150s BCE.

Demetrius I (reigned c. 200–180 BCE) Son of Euthydemus I. Greco-Bactrian king, and conqueror of India. Coins

The territory won by Demetrius was separated between western and eastern parts, ruled by several sub-kings and successor kings:

Territory of Bactria

Euthydemus II (c 180 BCE), probably a son of Demetrius. Coins Antimachus I (possibly 180-165 BCE), brother of Demetrius. Defeated by usurper

Eucratides. Coins

Territories of Paropamisadae, Arachosia, Gandhara, Punjab

Pantaleon (190s or 180s BCE) Possibly another brother and co-ruler of Demetrius I. Agathocles (c180-170 BCE) Yet another brother? Coins Apollodotus I (reigned c. 175–160 BCE) A fourth brother? Antimachus II Nikephoros (160-155 BCE) Demetrius II (155-150 BCE) Coins Menander (reigned c. 150–135 BCE). Legendary for the size of his Kingdom, and his

support of the Buddhist faith. It is unclear whether he was related to the other kings, and thus if the dynasty survived further.Coins

Followed by Indo-Greek kings in northern India.

House of Eucratides

Territory of Bactria and Sogdiana

Eucratides I 170-c.145 BCE Coins Plato co-regent c.166 BCE Eucratides II 145-140 BCE Coins Heliocles (r.c. 145-130 BCE).

Heliocles, the last Greek king of Bactria, was invaded by the nomadic tribes of the Yuezhi from the North. Descendants of Eucratides may have ruled on in the Indo-Greek kingdom.

3. Recenzije crne Yajur Vede ( K. 83.str.)

- 5 recenzija Yajur Vede

- Glavne : bijela( sukla) i crna (krsna)

- Crna ( krsna) :

- 1.kathaka 2.kapisthalaka 3.maitrayani 4.taittiriya/apasthamba

- Bijela (sukla) :

- Samo 1-u sac. Granu –vajasaneyi ( jedini tekst yaj.v. u pravom smislu);skole kanva i

madhyandina ; samhita odvoj. Od brahmane kao i u dr. Vedama

- Grane crne Yaj.v. cuvaju prvobitno stanje ( samhita i brahmana zajedno!)

4) Dijelovi Samavede

Recenzije:

Kauthuma (Bengal, Gujarat) – može se uzeti kao podrazdjel grane Ranayaniya, ap tako SV ima dvije glavne recenzije:

Jaiminiya (jug)Ranayaniya (Maharaštra)

-

5. Učitelji u Šatapathabrahmani i Brhadaranyaki ( K., 83.str.)

- Od Upanisada najstarija je Brhadaranyaka- Njome zavrsava Satapatabrahmana ( pripada bijeloj Yajurvedi)- Satapatabrahmana : Uddalaka Aruni objasnjava sinu Svetaketuu ( advaita, suce)- Brhadaranyaka : Yajnyavalkya Vajasaneyi ( Maitreyi i Kathyayani)- Sazeta poruka o atmanu – „sopstvo je razaznatelj svega drugog, vjecno i neunistivo“

6) Koji je smisao žrtve u Vedama?

Očuvanje poretka svijeta (rte) – istina o najdubljim stvarima koju obično svakodnevno iskustvo ne može doseći. Mantra (sredstvo mišljenja) je sila koja djeluje da sve bude onako kako je u najdubljem bitku. Ta istina (rta) daje u svečanoj formulaciji, pomno oblikovanim izrazom (brấhman) onome koji je posjeduje moć nad svijetom koji ga okružuje. Čovjek koji ga posjeduje (brāhmana – svećenik) postaje ravan bogovima. On je sposoban da posreduje između čovjeka i viših sila i da djelovanje bogova uskladi s ljudskim željama.- obvezatne ( nitya ), svecane ( srauta) ved. zrtve

7. Koje su knjige u Rksamhiti posvećene kojim rodovima? ( k.)

- skola sakalaka ; 1028 himni, 10 mandala- autorstvo himni drevnim vidiocima, medju nijima i zene !- 2. Grtsamada, 3.Visvamitra4.Vamadeva5.Atri6.Bharadvaja7.Vasisitha8.Vidjelac

Kanva, njegovi potomci i Angirasi

8) Vedange ili sutre

Pomoćna djela koja služe boljem razumijevanju ved.tekstova i ispravnom baratanju njima. Ti tekstovi nisu objava (šruti) i zato ne ulaze u ved.zbornike ali su nastali i predavali se u

ved.školama i po tome pripadaju ved.knjiž. Posvećene su raznim predmetima i svaki se zove vedanga (udo Veda):

- ŠIKŠA (fonetika)- KALPA (obredni red)- VYAKARANA (gramatika)- NIRUKTA (etimologija)- CHANDAS (metrika)- JYOTIŠA (astronomija)

- sve su to pomoćne ved.znanosti- stil sutra (niti – kratko pravilo)- uče se napamet

9. Što su kalpa sutre i koji su im dijelovi? ( k., 100str.)

- najstarije sutre se po sadrzaju i stilu izravno nadovezuju na brahmane

- kao i brahmanama najvazniji sadrzaj im je bio obredni red (kalpa)

- one su najvazn. dio pomocne vedske knjiz.

- Opisuju: velike i svecane obrede, ognjene zrtve( srauta),kucne zrtve ( grhya)-opisuju

svakodn. Zivot indijaca

10) Koji je vedski element u hinduizmu?

Obredi samskare.

Vedu priznaju sve hinduističke skupine i filoz.sustavi.Uzimala se zdravo za gotovo pa su je manje tumačili i zamijenili kultovi u hramovima i na hodočastilištima. Ograničili je na obiteljski krug. Velike su se žrtve sve manjemprinosile i brahmanske je obrede zamijenila osobna pobožnost koja se izražavala cijećem, kandilima i tamjanom pred božanskim likom. Mladi se hinduizam zasnovao na Upanišadama, no s vremenom se i od njih udaljio. Europa se interesira za očuvanje ved.baštine.

11. Kada su arijci došli? ( k., 41.str)

- arijci _indijski i iranski indoevropljani

- otpril. 1500 provala Arijaca u Indiju

- jedna njihova grana osvojila Iran, druga Indiju

- provalili sa Sz-a i zauzeli porjecje Inda; primitivni stocari (katicic,65.str)

- dosli mozda iz sredisnje Azije

- Prednji istok-najstar. Datirani trag, plocice u Tell el Amarni sa arijskim imenima

12) Na kojem području su nastale Vede?

Vedska je književnost nastala među indijskim Arijcima i to u vrijeme kad su osvajali Indiju i tamo svoje predaje razvili u brahmansku kulturu. Korijeni joj dopiru do u indoeur.davninu. Nove životne prilike u juž.zemlji i utjecaj starosjedilaca odigrali su pri tom također neku ulogu, ali su u ved.knjiž. arijske osnove indij.predaje sačuvane i izražene u najčišćem obliku. Tamo se najjače osjeća prasrodnost ind.kulture ns kulturama drugih indoeur.skupina.

13. Kako se dijele tekstovi, a kako korpus Veda? (K.,67.str.)

- tekstovi : mantre ( obredni tekstovi)- strofe (rc),napjevi ( saman), prozne izreke

( yajus) i brahmane ( teorija obreda) – obredni propisi ( vidhi), tumcenja

pojedinih predmeta ( arthavada), zametci filozofije ( vedanta)

- svaka samhita sa svojim brahmanama cini jednu Vedu; svaka se zove po svojoj zbirci

mantri : Rg, Sama, Yajur i Atharva Veda

14) Kako se dijele bogovi u Vedama?

1. SVJETLI NEBESNICI (DEVA):

Dyauh Pita, Indra, Vayu, Ušas, Surya, Parjanya, Apas, Apamnapat (unuk), Maruti – nebeski konjanici, Nasatye ili Ašvini, Agni

2. TAJANSTVENI ASURE:

Varuna (voda, zrcali istinu, pazi na istinitost riječi), Mitra (ugovor), Aryaman, Bhaga/Amša – pravedan udjel pri podjeli plijena i nasljedstva

- kad čovjek misli da je nametnuo svoju volju oni ga skrovito udaraju

16) Tko su bogovi blizanci u Vedama?

Ašvini, Yama i Yami

17. Koji je najistaknutiji vedski mit? (Indra) K.

- Indra – slika i prilika arijskog ratnika: junacina, pijanica i gradobija (puramdama),

nestrpljiv ljubavnik, razbija svaku prepreku svojim topuzom, duga plava kosa mu vijori

kad potjera svoje svijetle konje,jedar ( glav. Neprijat. Zmija Vrtra-dosl.“brana“)

18) Koji se bog štuje kao bog tri koraka?

Višnu. 3 koraka kojima (sunce) obuhvaca svjetlo i nosi 360 imena kojima ( godina) obuhvaca ciklus vremena. Treci mu je korak na najvisem nebu –ulaz u zagrobni svijet.

19. Koje se spekulativne teme u Vedama javljaju? ( K, 67,s.i.r. str.19)

- sva Vedska knjiz. Usmjerena na obred,i Veliku zrtvu – u najpunijem smislu to je svecenicka literatura

- „znanje“ , nije djelo ljudsko vec bozansko ; utjecaj na bozanske sile i povezivanje s njima

- Natprirodna objava-sruti- Himna RS 10,90 –zrtva kozmickog covjeka (purusa)-kao nacin postanka svih

svjetova- RS 10,129 – razmatranje ontoloskih nacela: suce/nesuce

20) Kako se mijenja religijski nazor u Atharva samhiti?

Ona smiruje, blagosilja, proklinje…

Što se brahmansko svećenstvo više izgrađivalo kao najviša kasta to odlučnije su nastojali ograditi sebe od čisto čarobnjačkog dijela predaje. Sastavljena je dugo poslije RV. Nastala da bi se pomoglo zaštititi brahmanske staleške probitke.

21. Kako su rasporedjene izreke u Yajur Samhiti i Rg Samhiti? (po obredima,

božanstvima) ( K.76.,83. )

- Yajursamhita : mantre su prozne izreke ( yajus) sto ih mrmlja adhvaryu - sadrzi izreke za sve vaznije obrede : -POLUMJESECNE:zrtve mladom i punom mjesecu ( darsapurnamasa;za pretke ( pindapitryajna),-POLUDNEVNE:koje se svakodnevno,ujutro i uvece izlijevaju u oganj ( agnihotra ), CETVEROMJESECNE:o promjeni godisn. Doba ( caturmasya), - GODISNJE:somska ( vajapeya), kraljevska ( rajasuya), konjska ( asvamedha), (upute za izgradnju agnicayane i za zrtvu s prinosom rakije - sautramani)

- Rksamhita : himne posvecene bozanstvima, njima se obracaju ( Indra , Usas, Vayu, Surya, Asvini ili Nasatye, Maruti- nebeski konjanici, ceta olujnih oblaka,Agni-bozanski svecenik )

22) Kada je Buddha živio?

Rođen je 576 BC.

23. Omiljeni Buddhin učenik

Ananda

A cousin of the Buddha, the brother of Devadatta. One of the ten great disciples of the

Buddha. Ananda accompanied the Buddha for more than twenty years and was the Master's

favourite disciple. He attained enlightenment after the demise of the Buddha under the

guidance of Mahakasyapa. He was famed for his excellent memory and recited the Suta-

Pitaka (the discourses contained in the Tipitaka) at the First Buddhist Council. Shortly after

the Buddha's death around 480 BCE, the community of monks -- including Ananda --

convened to recite all the sermons they had heard during the Buddha's forty-five years of

teaching. Each recorded sermon (sutta) therefore begins with the disclaimer, Evam me sutam

— "Thus have I heard." The teachings were passed down within the monastic community

following a well-established oral tradition. By about 100 BCE the Tipitaka was first fixed in

writing in Sri Lanka by Sinhala scribe-monks.

24) Budistički sabori i raskol škola

1. SABOR – RAJAGRIHA (RAJGIR) - nekoliko tjedana nakon B. smrti.

500 učenika koji su postigli oslobođenje utvrdilo pravu nauku (dhamma) i redovničku disciplinu (vinaya), utvrđivanje kanona

2.SABOR – VAIŠALI (VEŠALI) – 100 god.nakon B. smrti

- rasprave o redovničkoj disciplini, osuđeni redovnici koji su primali darove, zajednica još uvijek jedinstvena

3. SABOR – PATNA (PATALIPUTRA) – 116 ili 137 god nakon B. smrti – RASKOL!!!!!!

- sukobila se dva shvaćanja o naravi oslobođenoga (arhat)- jedni su tvrdili da je oslobođeni nadljudsko biće bez mane – STHAVIRAVADA (pali…theravada) „govor starih“- drugi su tvrdili da je oslobođeni samo čovjek – MAHASANGHIKA „koja pripada velikoj zajednici“- i u kasnijem su se razvitku prvi više držali izvorne predaje nego drugi

4.SABOR – PATNA – 236 g.nakon B.smrti, negdje na pola vladavine Ašoke – RAZVOJ FILOZOFIJE!!

- još se prije tog sabora među sthaviravadinima stvorila nova škola VATSIPUTRIYA ili SAMMATTYA – pudgalavada „govor o duši ili osobnosti“ – osoba nije samo prolazni spoj 5 sastavnica (skandha) nego i poseban, nedjeljiv element osobnosti. Time su se udaljili od središnje B. nauke o nepostojanju stalnog Sebe (atman). Njima su se usprotivili drugi učeći da takve osobnosti nema prema pravilno shvaćenoj B.nauci. Oni su tvrdili i to da u ovom svijetu, tvarnom i duhovnom, sve postoji i to kao počela (dharma) koja se različito spajaju i tako stvaraju različite stvarne predmete – SARVASTIVADA „govor da sve jest“. Oni su učili da i prošlost i budućnost postoje u sadašnjosti kao ustrojstvo čestica. Na tom saborusthaviravadini osudili fil.škole, pogotovo ona skupina njih koja se nazivala VIBHAJYAVADA „govor o onome što treba razlikovati“. - Kraljević MAHINDA (MAHENDRA) – sin ili brat Ašokin osnovao prvi samostan na Ceylonu- u Indiji su se iz škole sthaviravada izdvojile nove škole – HAIMAVATA, KAŠYAPIYA, SUVARŠAKA- škola sarvastivada dugo se održala i razvila na SZ Indije i Kašmiru – njene škole:MULASARVASTIVADA „korjeniti govor da sve jest“,MAHIŠAKA/DHARMAUPTAKA,SAUTRANTIKA- od škola u okviru mahasanghike najvažnija je za nas LOKOTTARAVADA „govor oB.kao o biću koje je iznad svijeta“- čovjek i ako je oslobođen (arha) ipak ostaje čovjek sa svim prirodnim i nužnimljud.slabostima- time započeo razvitak važan za mlađi budizam

25. Dijelovi Vinaya pitake, pa dijelovi pod dijelova

isto za Sutta pitaku.

The Vinaya Pitaka consists of the five following books:

(Vibhanga):1. Parajika Pali — Major Offenses2. Pacittiya Pali — Minor Offenses

(Khandaka):3. Mahavagga Pali — Greater Section4. Cullavagga Pali — Shorter Section5. Parivara Pali — Epitome of the Vinaya

The Sutta Pitaka consists chiefly of discourses, delivered by the Buddha himself on various occasions. There are also a few discourses delivered by some of his distinguished disciples such as the Venerable Sariputta, Ananda, Moggallana, etc., included in it. It is like a book of prescriptions, as the sermons embodied therein were expounded to suit the different occasions and the temperaments of various persons. Most of the sermons were intended mainly for the benefit of bhikkhus and they deal with the holy life and with the expositions of the doctrine. There are also several other discourses which deal with both the material and moral progress of his lay followers.

his Pitaka is divided into five Nikayas or collections, viz:

1. Digha Nikaya (Collection of Long Discourses).2. Majjhima Nikaya (Collection of Middle-Length Discourses).3. Samyutta Nikaya (Collection of Kindred Sayings).4. Anguttara Nikaya (Collection of Discourses arranged in accordance with numbers). 5. Khuddaka Nikaya (Smaller Collection).

The fifth is subdivided into fifteen books:

1. Khuddaka Patha (Shorter texts)2. Dhammapada (Way of Truth)3. Udana (Paeans of Joy)4. Iti Vuttaka ("Thus said" Discourses)5. Sutta Nipata (Collected Discourses)6. Vimana Vatthu (Stories of Celestial Mansions)7. Peta Vatthu (Stories of Petas)8. Theragatha (Psalms of the Brethren)9. Therigatha (Psalms of the Sisters)10. Jataka (Birth Stories)11. Niddesa (Expositions)12. Patisambhida Magga (Analytical Knowledge)13. Apadana (Lives of Arahats)14. Buddhavamsa (The History of the Buddha)15. Cariya Pitaka (Modes of Conduct)

26) Što su Dhammapade?

„Riječi nauke“.Dio Suttapitake iz 5og dijela Khuddakanikaye.Zbirka izreka u stihu. 423 strofe od kojih 10-20 čine jednu vaggu (dio). Najpoznatije bud.izreke preuzete iz narodne predaje.Komentar uz Dhamm. Donosi brojne važne priče. Uz svaku strofu D.ima u komentaru priča koja završava tom strofom kao poukom.

27. Mahayanske sutre

Other Names Notes

AmitabhaShorter Amitabha Sutra.Smaller Sukhavati-vyuha Sutra.Sutra of Amida.

One of the three sutras that form the doctrinal basis of the Pureland School - the two others are Meditation Sutra and Longer Amitabha Sutra. It describes the Blessings and Virtues of Amitabha Buddha and his Pureland, and discusses rebirth.

Avatamsaka

Flower Ornament Sutra.Flower Garland Sutra.Flower Adornment Sutra. Gandavyuha Sutra.

Second longest sutra in the Mahayana Canon, (40 chapters). It consists of large important, independent sutras, namely: Gandavyuha Sutra, Dashabhumika Sutra, Amitayurdyhana Sutra. It records the higher teaching of the Buddha to Bodhisattvas and other high spiritual beings.

Brahma Net Brahmajala Sutra.This contains the Ten Major Precepts of Mahayana followers, and the Bodhisattva Precepts.

DiamondVajracchedika Prajnaparamita Sutra.

One of the two most famous scriptures in the Prajnaparamita group of sutras (the other is the Heart Sutra). The Diamond Sutra sets forth the doctrines of Sunyata (emptiness) and Prajna (wisdom).

Heart Prajnaparamita-Hrdaya Sutra.

One of the smallest sutras, and with the Diamond Sutra, one of the most popular of the 40 sutras, in the vast Prajnaparamita literature. Its emphasis is on emptiness.

Heroic Gate Surangama Sutra.

Emphasises the power of Samadhi (meditation) and explains various methods of emptiness meditation. A key text of the Ch'an and Zen traditions.

Jewel Heap Ratnakuta Sutra.

One of the oldest sutras, which belongs to the Vaipulya group of 49 independent sutras.

Summary: The philosophy of the middle is developed, which later becomes the basis for the Madhyamaka teaching of Najarjuna. It contains sutras on transcendental wisdom (Prajnaparamita Sutra) and the Longer Amitabha Sutra.

Lankavatara  

A scriptural basis of the Yogacara and Zen Schools. It teaches subjective idealism based on the Buddha's enlightenment, and doctrines of emptiness and mind only.

Longer AmitabhaLarger Amitabha Sutra.Longer Sukhavativyuha Sutra.Sutra of Infinite Life.

One of the three core Pueland texts. It explains cause and effect, and describes the Pureland.

LotusSaddharma Pundarika Sutra.Lotus of the Good Law.

A major text, of which the Tendai (T'ien T'ai) use as a main scripture. It teaches the identification of the historical Buddha, with the Transcendental Buddha.

Meditation Amitayurdyhana Sutra.

One of the three core texts of the Pureland school. It teaches meditation and visualisation.

Ten Stages ChapterDasabhumika Sutra.Sutra on the Ten Stages.

This sutra is the 26th chapter of Avatamsaka Sutra, and is also an independent sutra. It establishes the ten stages of cultivation that the Bodhisattva must traverse on the path to enlightenment.

Vimalakirti  

This is a philosophic dramatic discourse, in which basic Mahayana principles are presented in the form of a conversation between famous Buddhist figures, and the householder, Vimalakirti.

28) Kojoj školi pripada Buddhin životopis Mahavastu?

Napisan je na sans.i pripada vinayi škole mahasanghika.

29. Kojoj školi pripada sanskrtski kanon Tripitaka?

- The Pali Canon is the complete scripture collection of the Theravada school. As such, it is the only set of scriptures preserved in the language of its composition. It is called the Tipitaka or "Three Baskets" because it includes the Vinaya Pitaka or "Basket of Discipline," the Sutta

Pitaka or "Basket of Discourses," and the Abhidhamma Pitaka or "Basket of Higher Teachings".

- Theravada (Pali: thera "elders" + vada "word, doctrine"), the "Doctrine of the Elders," is the name for the school of Buddhism that draws its scriptural inspiration from the Pali Canon, or Tipitaka, which scholars generally accept as the oldest record of the Buddha's teachings. For many centuries, Theravada has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand; today Theravada Buddhists number over 100 million world-wide. Theravada is sometimes identified as "Hinayana" (the "Lesser Vehicle"), in contradistinction to "Mahayana" (the "Greater Vehicle"), which is usually a synonym for Tibetan Buddhism, Zen, Ch'an, and other expressions of Northern Buddhism.

30) Vasubandhu

Prva teorija:

Brat i učenik Asangin, pripada među velike učitelje mahayane. Sljedbenik škole yogaćara. Brat Asanga ga je obratio na mahayanu. Djela:

Vimšatika (20 strofa)Trimšatika (30 strofa)

To su mnemotehničke strofe u kojima se izlaže nauka yogaćara. Sačuvale su nam se na san.izvorniku i u kineskom i tibetskom prijevodu. Uz prvo je sam V.napisao komentar, a uz drugo Sthiramati. Osim ovih i brojnih dr komentari. Još djela:

Karmasiddhiprakarana (Objašnjenje o dokazima djela), kratka rasprava u prozi, koja nam je sačuvana u kineskom prijevodu.

Napisao i sažete udžbenike u kojima se nabrajaju i definiraju osnovni pojmovi bud.nauke u interpretaciji yogacara – Pancaskandhaprakarana – Tumačenje 5 grana.

Mahayanašatadharmaprakašamukha (Usta što objavljuju 100 osnova mahayane) i mnogi komentari uz djela Maitreyanathina, Asangina i mahayanske sutre. Predaja mu pripisujei opsežnu raspravu Vyakhyayukti (Primjena komentara), tibetski prijevod.

Druga teorija:

Prema biografskoj je predaji Vasubandhu, brat Asangin i učitelj yogacare istovjetan s istoimenim piscem Abhidharmakoše i učiteljem sarvastivade. On je prema tim riječima prvo napisao Abhidharmakošu, a poslije ga je brat Asanga obratio na mahayanu i tada je sastavio gornja djela. U novije je vrijeme Wallner vrlo uvjerljivo odbacio tu predaju kao plod kasnijih kombinacija i našeg je pisca kao Vasua starijeg brata Asangina počeo razlikovati od Vasua mlađeg, pisca Abhidharmakoše. Prvi bi onda bio iz 4og a drugi iz 5og stoljeća. Tekstovna predaja pripisuje V.-u i druga neka djela, ali je teško znati da li ih valja pripisati starijem ili mlađem. To su:

Gathasamgraha (Zbirka strofa) u duhu Dhammapade s vrlo duhovitim komentarom, u tib.prijevodu, te polemički opis Paramarthasaptati (70 strofa o najvišoj istini) u kojem se pobija fil.nauka samkhya, u kin.prijevodu.

31. Razlika izmedu budizma i hinduizma

1. There is no almighty God in Buddhism. There is no one to hand out rewards or punishments on a supposedly Judgement Day.

2. Buddhism is strictly not a religion in the context of being a faith and worship owing allegiance to a supernatural being.

3. No saviour concept in Buddhism. A Buddha is not a saviour who saves others by his personal salvation. Although a Buddhist seeks refuge in the Buddha as his incomparable guide who indicates the path of purity, he makes no servile surrender. A Buddhist does not think that he can gain purity merely by seeking refuge in the Buddha or by mere faith in Him. It is not within the power of a Buddha to wash away the impurities of others

4. A Buddha is not an incarnation of a god/God (as claimed by some Hindu followers). The relationship between a Buddha and his disciples and followers is that of a teacher and student.

5. The liberation of self is the responsibility of one's own self. Buddhism does not call for an unquestionable blind faith by all Buddhist followers. It places heavy emphasis on self-reliance, self discipline and individual striving.

6. Taking refuge in The Triple Gems i.e. the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha; does not mean self-surrender or total reliance on an external force or third party for help or salvation.

7. Dharma (the teachings in Buddhism) exists regardless whether there is a Buddha. Sakyamuni Buddha (as the historical Buddha) discovered and shared the teachings/ universal truths with all sentient beings. He is neither the creator of such teachings nor the prophet of an almighty God to transmit such teachings to others.

8. Especially emphasized in Mahayana Buddhism, all sentient beings have Buddha Nature/ Essence. One can become a Buddha (a supreme enlightened being) in due course if one practises diligently and attains purity of mind (ie absolutely no delusions or afflictions).

9. In Buddhism, the ultimate objective of followers/practitioners is enlightenment and/or liberation from Samsara; rather than to go to a Heaven (or a deva realm in the context of Buddhist cosmology).

10. Karma and Karma Force are cornerstones in Buddhist doctrines. They are expounded very thoroughly in Buddhism. Karma refers to an important metaphysical concept concerned with action and its consequences. This law of karma explains the problem of sufferings, the mystery of the so-called fate and predestination of some religions, and above all the apparent inequality of mankind.

11. Rebirth is another key doctrine in Buddhism and it goes hand in hand with karma. There is a subtle difference between rebirth and reincarnation as expounded in Hinduism. Buddhism rejects the theory of a transmigrating permanent soul, whether created by a god or emanating from a divine essence.

12. Maitri or Metta in Pali (Loving Kindness) and Karuna (Compassion) to all living beings including animals. Buddhism strictly forbids animal sacrifice for whatever reason. Vegetarianism is recommended but not compulsory.

13. The importance of Non-attachment. Buddhism goes beyond doing good and being good. One must not be attached to good deeds or the idea of doing good; otherwise it is just another form of craving.

14. In Buddhism, there is consideration for all sentient beings (versus human beings, as in other religions). Buddhists acknowledge/accept the existence of animals and beings in other realms in Samsara.

15. No holy war concept in Buddhism. Killing is breaking a key moral precept in Buddhism. One is strictly forbidden to kill another person in the name of religion, a religious leader or whatsoever religious pretext or worldly excuse.

16. Suffering is another cornerstone in Buddhism. It is the first of the Four Noble Truths. Sufferings are very well analysed and explained in Buddhism.

17. The idea of sin or original sin has no place in Buddhism. Also, sin should not be equated to suffering.

18. Buddhist teachings expound no beginning and no end to one's existence or life. There is virtually no recognition of a first cause — e.g. how does human existence first come about?

19. The Dharma provides a very detailed explanation of the doctrine of anatman {anatta in Pali} or soullessness , i.e. there is no soul entity (whether in one life of many lives).

20. The Buddha is omniscient but he is not omnipotent. He is capable of innumerable feats but there are three things he cannot do. Also, a Buddha does not claim to be a creator of lives or the Universe.

21. Prajna [Panna in Pali] or Transcendent Wisdom occupies a paramount position in Buddhist teachings. Sakyamuni Buddha expounded Prajna concepts for some 20 years of his ministry. One is taught to balance compassion with prajna i.e.emotion (faith) with rationale (right understanding / truth / logic).

22. The tradition and practice of meditation in Buddhism are relatively important and strong. While all religions teach some forms or variations of stabilising/single-pointedness meditation, only Buddhism emphazises Vipassana (Insight) meditation as a powerful tool to assist one in seeking liberation/enlightenment.

23. The doctrine of Sunyata or Emptiness is unique to Buddhism and its many aspects are well expounded in advanced Buddhist teachings. Briefly, this doctrine asserts the transcendental nature of Ultimate Reality. It declares the phenomenal world to be void of all

limitations of particularization and that all concepts of dualism are abolished.

24. Conditioned Arising [Paticcasamuppada in Pali] or Dependent Origination is another key doctrine in Buddhism. This doctrine explains that all psychological and physical phenomena constituting individual existence are interdependent and mutually condition each other; this at the same time describes what entangles sentient beings in samsara.

25. The concept of Hell(s) in Buddhism is very different from that of other religions. It is not a place for eternal damnation as viewed by 'almighty creator' religions. In Buddhism, it is just one of the six realms in Samsara [i.e. the worst of three undesirable realms]. Also, there are virtually unlimited number of hells in the Buddhist cosmology as there are infinite number of Buddha worlds.

26. The Buddhist cosmology (or universe) is distinctly different from that of other religions which usually recognise only this solar system (Earth) as the centre of the Universe and the only planet with living beings. The Buddhist viewpoint of a Buddha world (also known as Three Thousand-Fold World System) is that of one billion solar systems. Besides, the Mahayana Buddhist doctrines expound that there are other contemporary Buddha worlds like Amitabha's Pure Land and Bhaisajyaguru's world system.

27. Samsara is a fundamental concept in Buddhism and it is simply the 'perpetual cycles of existence' or endless rounds of rebirth among the six realms of existence. This cyclical rebirth pattern will only end when a sentient being attains Nirvana, i.e. virtual exhaustion of karma, habitual traces, defilements and delusions. All other religions preach one heaven, one earth and one hell, but this perspective is very limited compared with Buddhist samsara where heaven is just one of the six realms of existence and it has 28 levels/planes.

32) Zašto je budizam nestao iz Indije?Ne priznaje kaste.Musl.osvajači uništili i posljednje bud.samostane (Nalanda…), 11 st.Nepovoljne klimatske prilike gotovo posve uništile stare rukopise.Nestali spomenici sans.bud.knjiž.Neko vrijeme bio državna religija.Hinduizam ga asimilirao i ponovno nametnuo rigidni društveni sistem.Kraljevi ga više nisu podupirali.

33. Tri izvankanonska buddhistička djela (Milindapanha, Netti, Visuddhimagga)

- Visuddhimagga

A compendium of the Theravada Buddhist philosophy and meditation, the Visuddhimagga, meaning "Path of Purification", was written in Sri Lanka in the early 5th century AD by the great Indian scholar monk Buddhaghosa. An elaboration of the seven purifications taught by the Buddha in the Rathavinita Sutta of the Pali Tipitaka and divided under the headings of virtue, concentration and wisdom, the work is a detailed description of the way to Nirvana. It

has long been and remains today the most authoritative text in Theravada apart from the Tipitaka itself.

- Suttanta pitaka : Khuddaka Nikaya :

(16) Netti

The two small works, Netti, made up of seven chapters, and Pettakopadesa, made up of eight chapters, are different from the other books of the Tipittaka because they are exegetical and methodological in nature.

- Milindapanha

A work composed in Pali that proports to be the record of a dialogue between the Buddhist monk Nagasena and the Greek King Milinda. Milinda asks a series of questions highlighting what seem to be anomalies and contradictions in Buddhist doctrine, to each of which Nagasena gives clear, even ingenious answers. The effectiveness of these answers is enhanced by the numerous similes and analogies that are included within them. Although there is no doubt that the two protagonists of the Milindapanha really existed and that they held discussions with each other, it is not a verbatim record of the discussions as such but a work of literature. Despite this, it may well have captured something of the personalities of the two men. Nagasena comes across as dignified but accessible, confident of his abilities to convince, intellectually alert, learned and witty. Milinda on the other hand, appears to be appears to be interested in Buddhism but by no means prepared to accept its tenets without good reasons. The Milindapanha is the most important book of Theravada Buddhist doctrine outside the Pali Tipitaka and is still widely studied. A translation of it is also included in the Chinese Tipitaka.

34) Tko je vladao za vrijeme Buddhe?

Kralj Bimbisara (Maurya). Prijestolnica Rajagriha (Magadha).

35. Ašoka – što je bio po vjerskom uvjerenju

In his invasion of the neighbouring state of Kalinga, many thousands were killed, wounded or captured. The tremendous loss of lives in this invasion proved a turning point in the life of Ashoka. Disenchanted with war, he decided not to undertake any more military expeditions. He turned to religion instead and soon became a devoted Buddhist.The third council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Emperor Ashoka, the renowned Buddhist monarch of the third century B.C. The conversion of Emperor Ashoka to Buddhism led to lavish royal patronage of Buddhist monks and monasteries. This inevitably led to many non-Buddhists joining the Order not because they were genuinely interested in Buddhism but because it enjoyed royal patronage.

36) Kojim su pismima pisani natpisi i sve o njima

The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty during his

reign from 272 to 231 BCE. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Pakistan and northern India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history. According to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created.

The inscriptions proclaim Ashoka's beliefs in the Buddhist concept of dharma ("righteousness") and his efforts to develop the dharma throughout his kingdom. Although Buddhism and the Buddha are mentioned, the edicts of Ashoka tend to focus on social and moral precepts rather than religious practices. No mention is made of the philosophical dimension of Buddhism, such as the Four Noble Truths or the Eightfold Path. This could possibly be because Ashoka wanted to remain simple in his message to the public, because these notions may have been formalized at a later date, or some combination of the two.

In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as "Beloved of the Gods" and "King Priya-darshi." The identification of King Priya-darshi with Ashoka was confirmed by an inscription discovered in 1915. The inscriptions found in the eastern part of India were written in the Magadhi language, using the Brahmi script. In the western part of India, the language used is closer to Sanskrit, using the Kharoshthi script, and one bilingual edict (Edict 13) was written in Greek and Aramaic.

The inscriptions revolve around a few repetitive themes: Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare program

37.O cemu nam svjedoce njegovi natpisi i gdje je sve slao svoje poslanike? (Egipat i

Sirija)

The third emperor of India's Mauryan dynasty and the first powerful monarch to embrace Buddhism. Asoka was born in about 304 BC and came to the throne in 270 BC after a short power struggle in which at least one of his brothers was killed. In 260 his armies attacked Kalinga (modern Orissa) in an attempt to expand the already huge Mauryan empire. The campaign was militarily successful but it lead to horrific losses of both civilian and military lives and, moved by remorse, Asoka decided to renounce war forever. He converted to Buddhism and launched a campaign to bring about a moral, spiritual and social renewal within his empire. As a part of this renaissance all religions were protected and promoted, especially Buddhism. The Sangha was purified and unified, the third Council was convened and Buddhist missionaries were sent throughout India to Sri Lanka and South-East Asia and to as far west as Cyrene, Egypt, Syria, and Macedonia. Asoka died after a rule of 38 years in the year 232 BC. Asoka's importance is due to his role in spreading Buddhism throughout India and beyond.. About the year 246 B.C., Emperor Ashoka sent his son, Mahinda, as the head of a mission to Sri Lanka. There, he converted the king to Buddhism. Later, Ashoka's daughter, Sanghamitra, brought a shoot of the Bodhi tree in Buddha Gaya to Sri Lanka. She also established an Order of Nuns in Sri Lanka. With the help of royal patronage, Buddhism became the dominant religion of Sri Lanka by the second century B.c.

38) Jainizam

- isključivo indijska pojava- Vardhamana zvan Mahavira/Veliki junak, rođen u Vaišali sjeverno od Patne u

Magadhi, Buddhin suvremenik- isto ga zvali buddha, ali i jina (pobjednik), sljedbenici mu zato jaine- odrastao u vladarskoj kući, oženio se, dobio kćer, no pošao u beskućje sa 30 godina,

pa se uskoro i svukao skroz i nastojao prodrijeti u tajne karmana- uskoro postao tirthankara- bio je divalj i nepomirljiv te strog prema sebi i drugima- on uči da postoji osobna duša i da je treba osloboditi iz samsare tako da se uništi plod

prethodnih djela karman- smatra obrede korisnima- put do oslobođenja vodi kroz 14 stupnjeva- siddhe (savršeni) nakon tjelesne smrti u potpunoj slobodi uživaju beskrajno znanje,

gledanje, snagu i nasladu- jaini su potpuno stalni u svojoj predaji i ništa se do sad nije bitno promijenilo- Mahavira se doživljavao kao obnovitelj stare nauke koju su prije njega učili drugi

tirthankare (njih 23)- svijet nema ni početka ni kraja i kao cjelina je nepromjenjiv- Mahavira je bio posljednji tirthankara i tako se smjenjuju razdoblja u kojima se nauka

propovijeda i ona u kojima ne postoji jainska zajednica- jedino je posljednji prethodnik Mahavire pov osoba – Paršva- kasnije došlo do raskola u zajednici u 1. st. – za vrijeme din. Maurya došlo je u

Magadhi do velike gladi. Tada je na čelu zajednice stajao učitelj Bhadrabahu. On je dio redovnika poveo u Mysore, a preostalima je na čelo stao njegov učenik Sthulabhadra. Izvanjska je razlika nastala u odijevanju – u Magadhi su nosili bijelo na jugu bili goli. Tada je uslijedio i dublji raskol i nastale dvije zajednice – švetambare (obučeni u bijelo) i digambare (goli). Digambare imaju strožu redovničku disciplinu, vjeruju da je jina živio bez hrane, da ni jedna žena ne može postići oslobođenje i ući u nirvanu i ne priznaju autentičnost švetambarskih kanonskih spisa. Ipak i dalje surađuju.

- snažna je jainska zajednica danas u Gujaratu- svoje spise nazivaju Siddhanta (Savršenstvo) ili Agama (Predaja)- digambare ne priznaju kanon- spisi napisani na arši/ardhamagadhi

39. Počeci epske književnosti ( K. 111.str.)(gatha narašamsi, dijaloške himne u vedama (akhya)…)

- dijaloske himne : u Rgvedi ; Oldenberg ih 1.i proucio i nazvao akhyanama ( pripovjetka) ( Pururavas i Urvasi, Yama i Yami, Suryasukta)

- junacka pjesma (gatha narasamsi) smatra se ishodistem kasnije epske knjiz.! - samo Mahabharata i Ramayana se sacuvale od njih

- dvorski pjevaci – suta

- pucki - kusilava

40) Poglavlja Mbh i Ramayane

Mbh1. Name of the first book is Adiparvan, meaning the book of the beginning. 2. Name of the second book is Sabhaparvan, meaning the book of meeting or assembly. 3. Name of the third book is Vanaparava, meaning the book of the forest. 4. Name of the fourth book is Virataparvan, meaning the book of Virata. 5. Name of the fifth book is Udyogaparvan, meaning the book of efforts. 6. Name of the sixth book is Bhishmaparva, meaning the book of Bhishma. 7. Name of the seventh book is Dronaparva, meaning the book of Drona. 8. Name of the eighth book is Karnaparva, meaning the book of Karna. 9. Name of the ninth book is Shalyaparva, meaning the book of Shalya. 10. Name of the tenth book is Saupatikaparvan, telling about the attack by three Kauravas

on Pandavas. 11. Name of the eleventh book is Striparvan, meaning the book of the women. 12. Name of the twelfth book is Shantiparva, meaning the book of the peace. 13. Name of the thirteenth book is Ashvamedhikaparvan, meaning the book of

Ashvamedha. 14. Name of the fourteenth book is Ashramavasikaparvan, meaning book of the Ashram. 15. Name of the sixteenth book is Mausalaparvan, meaning that is the book of the clubs. 16. Name of the seventeenth book is Mahaprasthanikparvan, meaning the book of the

great stay. 17. Name of the eighteenth book is Svargarohanaparvan, meaning book of going to the

heaven. 18. Name of the nineteenth book is Harivamsha.

Ramayana

1. Name of the first book is Balakand, meaning the book of the childhood. 2. Name of the second book is Ayodhyakanda, meaning the book of Ayodhya. 3. Name of the third book is Aranyakanda, meaning the book of the forests. 4. Name of the fourth book is Kishkindhakanda, meaning the book of Kishkindha. 5. Name of the fifth book is Sundarakanda, meaning the book beautiful. 6. Name of the sixth book is Yuddhakanda, meaning the book of the war. 7. Name of the seventh book is Uttarkanda, meaning the last book

41. Kojoj mitskoj lozi pripadaju junaci jedne a kojoj druge? ( wikipedija i K. )

- - mahabharata : potomci Kurua i Pandua

- - Ramayana : Ayodhya ( zemlja Kosala ), otac Dasaratha

42) Tko se bori u Mbh? Koje su prijestolnice? Koji su saveznici Pandava? (detaljno o Mbh!)

Jezgru Mahabharate čini priča o sukobu oko nasljedstva između dviju grana plemena Kuru.

1. knjiga: Knjiga o početku [

Sinovi starijeg brata Dhrtaraštre žele naslijediti kraljevstvo po ocu koji vlada u gradu Hastinapuri na Gangi. Suparnici su im sinovi mlađeg brata Pandua koji je prvi vladao Hastinapurom jer je Dhrtaraštra bio slijep, ali je prvi i umro. Panduove sinove pošalju u daleki dvor gdje su im bratići željeli podmetnuti požar, ali oni izbjegnu klopci. Neko se vrijeme skrivaju, a onda stiču na dvoru kralja susjednog plemena Panćala, Drupade, u gradu Kampilyi uz Gangu, kraljevu kćer na natjecanju za ženu. Njome se — uz neobična objašnjenja ženi sve petero braće. Pošto su oni tako stekli Drupadu za saveznika, Dhrtaraštra odlučuje podijeliti kraljevstvo Kurua između svojih stotinu sinova na čelu s najstarijim, Duryodhanom, koji će ostati u Hastinapuri, i petorice Panduovih sinova na čelu s najstarijim, Yudhišthirom, koji će dobiti područje oko Yamune, nasuprot Hastinapuri na Gangi. Tu Panduovi sinovi izgrade prijestolnicu Indraprasthu. Pomaže im Krišna, bratić Pandava, sinova Panduovih, i Kaurava, sinova Dhrtaraštrinih. On je iz trećeg plemena Yadava ili Vršnija koje je kralj Magadhe Đarasamdha istjerao iz Mathure na Yamuni, nasuprot Kampilyi na Gangi, te su se preselili u Dvaraku na Kathiawaru. U četverouglu spomenutih prijestolnica postoje naslutljivi "geopolitički interesi". Jedan od Pandava, Arđuna, dobiva i Krišninu sestru Subhadru za ženu.

2. knjiga: Knjiga o sabornici

Pošto Yudhišthira primi svečano kraljevsko posvećenje u Indraprasthi, prije kojega su se Pandave morali iskazati ratničkim uspjesima na sve četiri strane svijeta i na poticaj Krišnin svladati Đarasamdhu u dvoboju, pozivaju ih bratići Kaurave u Hastinapuru. Tu im priređuju kockarsko natjecanje pri kojemu Yudhišthira zbog prijevare prokocka kraljevstvo i mora po dogovoru otići s braćom i ženom Draupadi, Draupadinom kćeri, u progonstvo u šumu na dvanaest godina, a trinaestu moraju provesti među ljudima, ali neprepoznati ako ne žele ponoviti progonstvo.

3. knjiga: Knjiga o šumi [

Braća doživljuju neobične pustolovine u šumi, osobito veliki strijelac Arđuna, snažni Bhima i mudri Yudhišthira.

4. knjiga: Knjiga o Virati [

Trinaestu godinu Pandave provode s Draupadi prerušeni služeći kralja Matsya Viratu u njegovoj prijestolnici Upaplavyi. Na isteku godine zaduže kralja junaštvom kojim su mu spasili stada od susjednih Kurua i Trigarta. Time stječu novog saveznika, Viratina se kći udaje za Arđunina sina od Subhadre Abhimunyua.

5. knjiga: Knjiga o pripravama [

Pandave u dogovoru sa saveznicima po isteku trinaeste godine zatraže od Kaurava svoju polovinu kraljevstva — ili bar pet sela. Kao posrednik zastupa ih u Hastinapuri Krišna.

Duryodhana, sada Dhrtaraštrin prijestolonasljednik, odbija, međutim, da im išta ustupi. Obje strane skupljaju saveznike i kreću na bojno polje Kuruhšetru.

6. - 13. knjiga [

6-10. knjiga opisuje tok velike bitke i slave junaka koji su se borili i ginuli. Prve se četiri zovu po zapovjednicima vojske Kaurava: Knjiga o Bhlšmi (6), Knjiga o Droni (7), Knjiga o Karni (8) i Knjiga o Šalyi (9); svi su oni junački pali u borbi, a Pandave su ih, po Krišninim savjetima, mada i sami veliki junaci, redom svladavali lukavstvom uz osjetne moralne dileme, a na kraju je tako i Duryodhanu svladao Bhima. Peta se zove po jezivome pokolju koji je izveo posljednji zapovjednik Kaurova Asvatthaman s jedinom dvojicom svojih preostalih vitezova: Knjiga o noćnome prepadu (10).

Nakon strašnih knjiga o bici slijedi 11. knjiga: Knjiga o ženama, gdje se opisuje naricanje žena i pogrebni obredi za pale junake. Dhrtaraštrina žena Ganhari tuguje nad palima u objema vojskama i proklinje Krišnino pleme, a Panduova udovica Kunti otkriva svojoj djeci da im je silni protivnik Karna bio rođeni brat iz njena predbračnog života.

Jedini je od palih vojskovođa bio još na životu stari Bhišma i ležao je sve vrijeme na bojnome polju sav izboden Arđuninim strijelama jer je snagama svoga značaja, životnih odricanja i duhovne stege stekao vlast nad časom smrti i čekao vrijeme kada će Sunce krenuti put sjevera jer je ono povoljno za oslobođenje od svijeta. U 12. knjizi, Knjizi o smirenju, i 13. knjizi Knjizi o poukama, dolazi do njega s velikim poštovanjem pobjednik Yudhišthira, očajan zbog krvave pobjede i pokolja rođaka, učitelja i prijatelja, te prima od mudroga samrtnika duge pouke o oslobođenju duše, ali i o vladanju i dužnostima kralja u svijetu. Napokon, Bhišma umire i vrše se pogrebni obredi za njega.

14. - 20. knjiga

Bitka Kurukshetra

14. knjiga: Knjiga o konjskoj žrtvi: Yudhišthira se smiruje, posvećuju ga za kralja Hastinapure, a potom po Krišninom savjetu prinosi veliku konjsku žrtvu koja kralja treba očistiti od grijeha i potvrditi njegovu neospornu vlast.

15. knjiga: Knjiga o pustinjačkom stanu: Kralj Dhrtaraštra, kojega su dotad Pandave petnaest godina pazili kao da im je otac jer je izgubio sve svoje sinove, odlučuje napustiti svjetovni život i sa svojim najbližima otići kao pustinjak u šumu da se pripremi za smrt.

16. knjiga: Knjiga o kijačama: Pandave saznaju da se Krišnino pleme zatrlo na nekoj pijanci u tučnjavi kijačama uslijed Gandharine kletve, a braća su se Krišna i Balarama vratili na nebo.

17. knjiga: Knjiga o velikome putu: I Pandave s Draupadi napuštaju kraljevstvo ostavljajući Abhimanyuova sina, a Arđunina unuka Parikšita za nasljednika. Kreću na veliko hodočašće na Himalayu na kojemu svi do Yudhišthire padaju od iznemoglosti, sve dok po posljednjega, Yudhišthiru, ne dođe sam Indra, kralj bogova, s Dharmom, bogom pravde, da ga vode u nebo.

18. knjiga: Knjiga o usponu na nebo: Yudhišthira ne nalazi braću i ženu u nebu nego u paklu gdje ispaštaju za svoje grijehe i lukavstva u ratu, ali kada odlučuje da i on ostaje radije tu uz

njih nego da sam pođe na nebo, dovršava se vrijeme ispaštanja i svi stižu u nebo i preobražavaju se u božanstva.

Time se posljednja knjiga nadovezuje na početne priče u prvoj knjizi gdje se i rođenje Pandava objašnjava božanskim porijeklom Yudhišthire od boga Dharme, Bhime od boga vjetra Vayna, Arđune od gromovnika Indre, a njegove braće Nakule i Sahadeve od bogova blizanaca Ašvina, dok Karna vuče podrijetlo od boga Sunca Surye, a u Bhišmi se utjelovio bog neba Dyaus.

Razvoj

Svakako neće ni sva ta okosnica priče poticati iz iste starine, no ovdje radi kratkoće treba upozoriti makar samo na glavne smjerove u kojima se ep u toku predaje širio.

1. U junačku su se pjesmu uklapale druge pjesme iz repertoara pjevača kao npr. verzija priče o Rami ili priča o kralju Nali, kojih sudbine pričaju posjetioci Pandavama za dugog boravka u šumi jer podsjećaju na sudbinu Pandava, ali su dobile sretan tok i time donose utjehu. Kada su brahmani preuzeli predaju epa u svoje ruke, proširili su ga mnogobrojnim brahmanskim mitovima i legendama — poput priče o vjernoj ženi Savitri, indijskoj Alkestidi, ili o tome kako su bogovi stvorili Smrt itd. U predaju su se očito uključili i isposnici i pustinjaci koji su u epu ostavili traga mnogobrojnim poučnim izrekama, parabolama, basnama ili poučnim pričama — poput priče o brahmanu Dađaliju i sitnome trgovcu Tuladhari koji veliča nenasilje[2].

1. Ta uklapanja i proširenja sadržaja osobito su onda izmijenila narav epa kada su, na primjer, polazeći od pitanja nasljedstva u epu, koje je jedno od vrlo znatnih pitanja obredno-pravne nauke dharmašastre, razvila oko originalnih paradoksa — na kojima se gradi višeslojno ustrojstvo priče — čitave pravne rasprave koje su Mahabharatu iz implicitne stale pretvarati u eksplicitnu dharmašastru.

Bhišma je sin kuruskoga kralja Šantanua. Da bi mu otac mogao dobiti lijepu Satyavati za ženu, on se odriče nasljedstva u korist djece buduće očeve žene. Poštovanje roditelja i predaka uvjet je prava na nasljedstvo. A Bhišma toliko štuje oca da to pravo gubi. K tome je i prvorođenac, a pravo na nasljedstvo ipak stiču Satyavatini sinovi. Napokon se događa da oba njena sina umru mladi bez potomstva, a Bhišma ostaje na životu, a zavjetom se odrekao kraljevstva, pa čak i obiteljskoga života. Zbog svoga zavjeta ne može pomoći ni dvjema udovicama pokojnoga polubrata Vićitravirye da, prema običaju levirata, pokojnom mužu rode nasljednika. No sad se otkriva da je i Satyavati prije braka sa Šantanuom imala predbračnog sina Vyasu, ali on je strašni isposnik. I sada umjesto velikoga ratnika Bhišme pravo levirata ostvaruje isposnik Vyasa. Time Vićitravirya stječe dva zakonita sina koji su tjelesna djeca Vyasina. Međutim, Dhrtaraštra koji je stariji rodio se slijep, pa nasljedstvo opet preko reda pripada mlađem Panduu, a on zbog neke kletve ne smije prići vlastitim ženama Kunti i Madri. Stoga one moraju prizvati bogove da im pomognu da mu rode zakonitu djecu, petoricu Pandava. Kada dječaci Kaurave i Pandave dorastu do nasljedstva, doista neće biti nesporno tko na nj ima pravo. Ipak, ep često naglašava da je od svih najstariji Yudhištira pa bi po tome pravo bilo njegovo. No kasnije se saznaje da je odbačeni predbračni Kuntin sin Karna, kojega je odgojio kočijaš Adhiratha pa ga svi smatraju nižim po rodu, zapravo bio najstariji od braće, a ona su ga ubila u boju. I kada Pandave napuštaju kraljevstvo, nasljedstvo ostaje na unuku najmlađega Kuntina sina Arđune jer su djeca svih drugih izginula u ratu.

Spominjući te paradokse u Uvodu u ovaj prijevod epa, J. A. B. Buitenen veli da se "veličanstveni nacrt priče čini dijelom zamišljen kao genealoška zagonetka". Stoga nije čudno da Kaurave i Pandave probaju više puta podijeliti kraljevstvo. Prvi put, možda, već kada šalju Pandave u zapaljivi dvor izgrađen za njih. Drugi put kada im dodjeljuju Indraprasthu. Treći put kada raspodjelu kraljevstva prepuštaju kocki. A četvrti put ratnoj sreći kao božjem sudu.

Iz pitanja o zakonitome prijestolonasljedniku razvija se i niz drugih pravnih i ćudorednih pitanja u samoj radnji epa koja nerijetko djeluju kao primjeri pravnih ili ćudorednih dilema. One, međutim, dobivaju snažan pjesnički izraz i postaju slika ljudske sudbine u svijetu. No kada se u 12. i 13. knjizi uvrste opsežne pravne rasprave i Bhišmine pouke Yudhišthiri, one nemaju pjesničkoga izraza ni snage i tu golemi poučni tekstovi posve mijenjaju narav epa u eksplicitnu dharmašastru. Isto vrijedi i za kozmološke, geografske i ostale rasprave koje su Mahabharatu pretvarale u enciklopediju poput poučnih spjevova purana.

1. S druge strane stoji najslavniji poučni dio Mahabharate, Bhagavadgita, uvrštena u 6. knjigu epa (VI. 23-40) okrunjena otkrovenjem vozara Krišne koji se prijatelju i velikom strijelcu Arđuni pokazuje prvo kao veliki učitelj yoge, a napokon i kao sveobuhvatno božanstvo koje stvara sva bića i ponovno ih guta kao plamen vremena, te kojemu se naprosto treba posve predati s povjerenjem i sudjelovati u njegovom biću (bhakti).

Ta "Gospodnja pjesma" daje cijelome zbivanju u epu novi smisao. Sve u njemu dobiva božanski smisao, priča postaje sveta, a ep dobiva ulogu i ugled vjerske knjige ili objave.

Nije Bhagavadgita jedini tekst koji daje epu narav vjerske knjige, ali je najznatniji, i ne stoji sama izdvojeno u njemu, nego je široko uticala na svoj kontekst i svojom perspektivom prožela brojne epizode i pojedinačne odlomke u čitavom epu. Ipak mnogi drugi dijelovi priče ostali su tako stilizirani kao da za tu božansku perspektivu i ne znaju te, na primjer, prikazuju Krišnu kao obična čovjeka s neizbježnim slabostima.

Stoga se može pretpostaviti da ep isprva nije imao takva vjerskoga sadržaja već da ga je dobio kada njegov junački sadržaj više nije imao neposredno zainteresiranih održavatelja, nego se druga vrsta pjevača ili kazivača poslužila omiljenim epom da u njegovu okviru širi i svoje svjetovne ili vjerske predaje.

1. I sama Mahabharata čuva svjesnu uspomenu na svoje širenje kao i stilizirani prikaz svojega razvoja. Ona, naime, sama tvrdi da je djelo mudraca i isposnika Vyase koji u epu više puta savjetuje Yudhišthiru i Pandave ili im pripovijeda priče. Vyasa je naučio sina Šuku i nekoliko učenika svoju pjesmu, a jedan ju je od učenika, Vaišampayana, kazivao zmijskoj žrtvi koju je prinosio. Vyasa tu možda u svojemu liku utjelovljuje službu porodičnoga genealogista i panegirčara ili redaktora književne predaje, a svakako još Vaišampayana pjeva pjesmu o precima Bharatama neposredno zainteresiranu nasljedniku kraljevske loze. No Mahabharata sebe prikazuje kao nečije iznošenje pjesme kako ju je Ugrušravas, sin Šute Lomaharsane, koji ju je čuo od Vaiš na Đaninoj žrtvi, kazivao brahmanima i isposnicima okupljenim na dugome dvanaestogodišnjemu žrtvenome sijelu obredovoditelja Šaunake u šumi Naimiša. Ugrušravas je još uvijek sin Šute, dvorskoga pjevača koji je često bio kraljevski kočijaš i iz očevida opijevao podvige gospodara, ali njegovo slušateljstvo već su brahmani i isposnici, nosioci svjetovnih i duhovnih znanja, obrednih i vjerskih predaja, kakvima se s vremenom, vidjeli smo, proširivao tekst velikoga epa.

U epu se i spominju različite njegove verzije: Đaya "Pjesma o pobjedi" koja je imala svega 8.800 šloka, Bharata "Pjesma o Bharatama" ili "Boj Bharata".

U epu je stilizirano prikazan i način na koji se kazivao u usmenoj predaji. Kazivač bi prvo iznio kratku okosnicu priče. Potom, ako bi ga slušatelji molili da im je potanko ispriča, stao bi je kazivati sa svim podrobnostima. I tada bi ga slušatelji mogli prekidati dodatnim molbama da štogod određenije ili još potanje ispriča. Tako se ep kazivao u razgovoru između kazivača i slušatelja, a prenosio u oblik sažetaka ili tema i tehnike pjevanja ili formula kojom se iz okosnice gradila priča kakva se milila slušateljstvu. Stoga je pjesma lako poprimala različit opseg, a velike svečanosti i dugi obredi na kojima se iznosila mogli su poticati njeno širenje.

43. Odakle je Sita(VIDEHA).? Tko joj je otac? U kojoj se Upanišadi spominje?

(Brhadaranyaka U) Kako je se jos Sita naziva? Odakle je Rama(KOSALA) i kako mu se

zove otac?

- Rama or Ramachandra is a legendary or historical king of ancient India. In Hinduism, he is considered to be the seventh Avatar of Vishnu.Born as the eldest son of Kausalya KOSALAand Dasaratha, king of Kosala, he is the embodiment of the Supreme Brahman and Dharma. Rama is Maryada Purushottama, literally The Perfect Man.

- Sita , VIDEHA(also spelled Seeta) is the wife of Rama, the seventh avatāra of Vishnu, and is esteemed an exemplar of womanly and wifely virtue. According to Hindu belief, Sita was an avatāra of Lakshmi, Vishnu's consort, who chose to reincarnate herself on Earth as Sita and endure an arduous life, to provide humankind an example of good virtues. Sita is one of the principal characters in the Ramayana, a Hindu epic named after her husband Rama.

Legend : Sita was a foundling, discovered in a furrow in a ploughed field, and for that reason is regarded as a daughter of Bhudevi, the earth Goddess. She was found and adopted by Janaka, king of Mithila and his wife Sunayana. Upon her coming of age, a swayamwara was held to select a suitable husband for her, and she was wed to Rama, prince of Ayodhya, an avatara of Vishnu.

Etymology of the name : In common with other major figures of Hindu legend, Sita is known by many names. As the daughter of king Janaka, she is as Janaki; as the princess of Mithila, Mythili or Maithili; as the wife of Raama, she is called Ramaa. Her father Janaka had earned the sobriquet "Videha" due to his ability to transcend body consciousness; Sita is therefore also known as Vaidehi.However, she is of course best known by the name "Sita", which literally means "furrow". The word "furrow" was a poetic term in ancient India, its imagery redolent of fecundity and the many blessings accruent from settled agriculture. The Sita of the Ramayana may have been named after a more ancient Vedic goddess Sita, who is mentioned once in the Rigveda as an earth goddess who blesses the land with good crops.

44) Tko je Kršna u Mbh i sve o njemu.

Krišna (Crni) je lik koji je dominantno prisutan u svoj mlađoj ind.predaji. To je, čini se, uz brahmanski utjecaj najviše pridonijelo da je golemi ep o vradžbi Kaurava i Pandava dobio općeind.važnost i tako nam se sačuvao Krišna, sin Vasudevin, kraljević iz plemena Satvat, Kuntin nećak, bratić Pandava, sinova Panduovih, i Kaurava, sinova Dhrtaraštrinih. On je iz trećeg plemena Yadava ili Vršnija koje je kralj Magadhe Đarasamdha istjerao iz Mathure na Yamuni, nasuprot Kampilyi na Gangi, te su se preselili u Dvaraku na Kathiawaru. Mladost je proveo među govedarima i tako izbjegao progonima kralja kojemu je bila prorečena smrt od ruke jednoga od sinova Krišnine majke Devaki. Zato ga zovu govedar (gopala) ili nalazač goveda (govinda). U borbi s ljudima i nemanima pokazao je neizrecivu snagu i tako otkrivao pravu narav pastirima – on je Višnuova avatara. Svatko tko ga upozna i zavoli ima udjela u blaženstvu njegova veličanstva. U Mbh je Krišna kraljević, junak među junacima, saveznik Pandava i osobit prijatelj Arjunin koji je od sve braće najbolji strijelac. Vjera u njegovo božansko veličanstvo se ne ističe ali je ipak prisutna. Tako je drevni epski zbornik poprimio osnovne predodžbe i teme mlađeg hinduizma.

45. Purane – svih 18. Kojim su stihom pisane?

According to tradition, the Puranas were composed by Vyasa at the end of Dvapara Yuga, though modern scholars date them from the 4th century BC to the 1st millennium AD.( Katicic kaze 6. st ).One su objava za sudre i za zene (za razl. od Vede). – po jeziku i metru epska knjizevnost. – dvorski pjevaci ( sute) nosioci. The bulk of the material contained in the Puranas was established during the reign of the Guptas (320-500 CE), with incremental additions taking place to the texts up to later medieval times. The term purana, which means "belonging to ancient times" or "an ancient tale or legend," appears in the Vedas (e.g. Atharvaveda 11.7.24[ and the Satapatha Brahmana 11.5.6.8. and 13.4.3.13). And the term itihasa purana, "account of ancient times," occurs in the Chandogya Upanishad. and Nirukta. and the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, where the text thus referred to is considered the "fifth Veda."

The Puranas are classified into a Mahā- ("great") and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus. Traditionally they are said to narrate five subjects, called pañcalakṣaṇa ("five distinguishing marks"), which are:

1. Sarga - The creation of the universe.2. Pratisarga - Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution.3. Vamśa - Genealogy of gods and sages.4. Manvañtara - The creation of the human race and the first human beings.5. Vamśānucaritam - Dynastic histories.

Mahapuranas

Traditionally it is said that there are 18 Mahapuranas and 18 Upapuranas. Each Mahapurana lists eighteen canonical puranas, but the contents of each list vary reflecting differences in time and place. Combining the lists, Dimmitt and van Buitenen have collated twenty names:

1. Agni (15,400 verses)2. Bhagavata (18,000 verses). The most celebrated and popular of the Puranas. It is

concerned with Vishnu Bhakti, telling of the exploits and deeds of Vishnu's Avataras. Its tenth canto (its longest) narrates the deeds of Krishna and, probably for the first time in Sanskrit, tells of his exploits as a child, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.

3. Bhavishya (14,500 verses)4. Brahma (24,000 verses)5. Brahmanda (12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite

as prayer)6. Brahmavaivarta (18,000 verses)7. Garuda (19,000 verses)8. Harivamsa (16,000 verses; more often considered itihāsa)9. Kurma (17,000 verses)10. Linga (11,000 verses)11. Markandeya (9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas)12. Matsya (14,000 verses)13. Narada (25,000 verses)14. Padma (55,000 verses)15. Shiva (24,000 verses)16. Skanda (81,100 verses), probably the longest of all, containing parables, legends and

stories, with multiple versions and recensions. Many untraced quotes from a Purana are conveniently attributed to this Purana.

17. Vamana (10,000 verses)18. Varaha (10,000 verses)19. Vayu (24,000 verses)20. Vishnu (23,000 verses)

He under whose supreme control are horses, all chariots, the villages, and cattle;He who gave being to the Sun and Morning, who leads the waters, He, O men, is Indra.

It further states,

Indra is the chief god of the Rigveda (besides Agni). He delights in drinking Soma, and the central Vedic myth is his heroic defeat of Vritra, liberating the rivers, or alternatively, his smashing of the Vala, a stone enclosure where the Panis had imprisoned the cows, and Ushas (dawn). He is the god of war, smashing the stone fortresses of the Dasyu, and invoked by combatants on both sides in the Battle of the Ten Kings.

The Rig-Veda frequently refers to him as Śakra - the mighty-one. In the Vedic period, the number of gods was assumed to be thirty-three and Indra was their lord. (The slightly later Brihad-aranyaka Upanishad enumerates the gods as the eight Vasus, the eleven Rudras, the twelve Adityas, Indra and Prajapati). As lord of the Vasus, Indra was also referred to as Vāsava.

By the age of the Vedanta, Indra became the prototype for all lords and thus a king could be called Mānavendra (Indra or lord of men) and Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, was referred to as Rāghavendra (Indra of the clan of Raghu). Hence the original Indra was also referred to as Devendra (Indra of the Devas). However, Sakra and Vasava were used exclusively for the original Indra. Though, modern texts usually adhere to the name Indra, the traditional Hindu

texts (the Vedas, epics and Puranas) use Indra, Sakra and Vasava interchangeably and with the same frequency.

46)Najstariji oblik brahmanizma

Veliku su žrtvu prinosila 3 svećenika, a kasnije je svaki od njih imao i svoje pomoćnike. HOTR, UDGATR i ADHVARYU. U staro doba kada je obred bio jednostavniji bio je samo HOTR, glavni i vjerojatno jedini svećenik. On je sam izlijevao žrtveni prinos u oganj. To mu kaže i ime, koje znači lijevač. Pri tome je izgovarao obredne strofe. Kasnije mu je ostalo samo ovo posljednje.

47. Podjela brahmanizma ( s.i.r.)

-1. vedizam ( prva pol.2.tis. – sruti )

-2. puranski brahmanizam ( sred.1.tis.pr.kr – smrti)

-3. tantricki brahmanizam (7.st.-1-a st.2-og tisucljeca)

- 4.mladi brahmanizam ( hinduizam ; bhakti) od prvih st. 2. tis. Do 18 st. ( islam utjece od

11.st)

-5. neohinduizam ( 19. i 20.st.;susret s krscanstvom)

48) Objasni riječ bràhman i brahmàn

Bràhman,n – lit. rast, ekspanzija, evolucija, razvoj, rast duha ili duše, od BRIH – rasti

- pobožan govor, izljev srca u čašćenju bogova, molitva, sveta riječ, Veda, sveti tekst, magični tekst ili mantra- brahmane u Vedama - sveto OM- sveto znanje, posvećen život- Brahma ili impersonalna duša, univerzalna duša, izvor sveg stvorenog, Apsolut- ljudi koji prenose sveto znanje, brahmanska kasta, ne individualni brahman Brahmàn,m – onaj koji moli, religiozan čovjek, onaj koji ima sveto znanje, jedan od 4 glavna svećenika ili RITVIJA (druga 3 su hotri, adhvaryu i udgatri)- magičar- brahma ili impersonalni duh manifestiran kao kreator i kao prvi od trijade osobnih bogova

49. Višnuitske i šivaitske tantre (s.i.r.)

- tantra ( od korij. Tan- natezati ) znaci „ tkalacki stan, osnova pri tkanju“ i „okvir,

obrazac, sustav, nauka“

- tantricki brahmanizam- ranosrednjovj, sinteza brahmanizma;najveci procvat izm. 7

st.pr.kr. i 2. tis.

- U vusnuizmu se zovu SAMHITA, u sivizmu- AGAMA, u saktizmu- TANTRA

- Tantr. Tekstovi najmladi sanskrtski sv.tekstovi

- Bave se 4 –im podrucjima:

- 1. đnana – znanje za oslobodenje duse

- 2. yoga- vjezba tijela i duha

- 3. kriya –propisi i obredi (ugl. za gradnju hrama, kipove..)

- 4. ćarya- životne duznosti, kucne i hramske duznosti- stovanja

- visnuisticke tantre SAMHITA

- Sljedbe : vaikhanasa i pancaratra ( „petonocni“-obred zrtve covjeka)

- Tri dragulja pancaratre : 1. sattvata samhita, 2.pauskara samhita, 3.djayakhya samhita

- sivisticke tantre AGAMA

- najpoznat. Sljedba pasupate ili lakulise / pasupatasutre , osnivac Lakulin iz Gujarata

- sljedbe kapalike i kalamukhe – krv i seks na spaljivalistima!

50) Koje su tantre u užem smislu?

Usko povezane s puranama, vjerski tekstovi mlađeg hinduizma posve oslobođeni stare brahmanske nauke. Tekstovi se dijele prema sektama, priznaju ved.objavu – objava dobrih i starih vremena koja ljudima više ne kazuje mnogo jer joj nisu dorasli. Stihovi na nemarnome sans. Sadržaj:

1) JNANA – filozofski pogledi – monizam (advaita)+mantra+čarobni crteži (yantra) – vedanta, samkhya

2) YOGA – duhovno usredotočenje – stjecanje moći

3) KRIYA – djelovanje- upute za izvedbu kumira i posvetu hramova

4) CARYA – ponašanje – pravila o obredima i svetkovinama

- tekstovi višnuita – samhita (zbirka) šaivista – agama (predaja) šakti - tantra - TO SU TANTRE U UŽEM SMISLU!!! dok se to ime upotrebljava

u širem smislu kao naziv čitave knjiž.vrste

TANTRE U UŽEM SMISLU:

Sir JOHN WOODROFFE (pionir)…pod pseudonimom ARTHUR AVALON objavio izdanja. Ima 64 tantre ili 64 u svakom od 3 dijela svijeta. Knjiž.vrsta koja je nastala u Bengalu, proširila se do Asama i Nepala, dalje do Kašmira i juga. Utjecaj i na bud.knjiž. Tantre sastavljene kao dijalozi Šive i Parvati. U jednima ona pita kao učenik, a on odgovara i poučava je – agama (predaja). U drugima on pita, a ona poučava – nigama (pouka). Tantre su božanska objava, sveti tekstovi hind.sekte ŠAKTA – poštovaoci ženskih božanstava, božanske moći (šakti), zamišljene kao božice i žene boga kojemu pripada. Sva su ta razna žen.božanstva samo razni vidovi jedne vel.božice (mahadevi), vel.majke (mahamata). Zovu je Durga (nepristupačna), Kali (crna), Canda (žestoka), Paramešvari (najviša vladarica), Devi (božica). Ona je majka svijeta (jaganmata). Tepajući joj govore Uma (mama). Zapravo je to odraz matrijarhata. Poštovaoci bili strogi isposnici, ali se također odaju jelu, piću, ljubavnim radostima – 5 M – madya (pijanstvo), mamsa (meso), matsya (riba), mudra (poslastica od pržena žita), maithuna (obljuba). Tajna moć slogova aim, klim, brim i crteži. Potekla iz praarijskih kultova ali je i proizvod teološke špekulacije i društvena je osnova u višim slojevima (bengalska aristokracija 12-16.st.). Tekst – Mahanirvanatantre.

51. Vyuhe (s.i.r., str. 48)

- „ rasporedi, oblici „ bozanstva - spominje se u sekti pancaratra

- 4 su vyuhe ( oblika Visnua-Vasudeve), njima se dodaju svakom po 3 drugotne vyuhe

( vyuhantara) kojih ima 12, + po 3 gospodara znanja ( vidyesvare)-sva ta 24 oblika Visnua

prikazana su npr. U Kesava hramovima –hoysale ( Somnathpur, Belur)

52) Općenito o kavyi – alamkare; rase; bhave

In the artistic sense, kavya refers to a highly artificial Sanskrit literary style used by Indian court poets in the early centuries of AD. This style employs figures of speech, metaphors, similes and hyberboles to create a certain emotional effect similar to the sonnets of Elizabethan England. Kavya found it uses in short lyrical works, court epics, narratives and drama.

Kavya's creation is attributed to Asvaghosa (80?-150? AD), a philosoper and poet who is also considered the father of Sanskrit drama.

Alamkare – ukrasi, ono po čemu je kavya kavya, izražajna pjesnička sredstva.

Rasa – svrha natye; sok koji pjesnik cijedi iz osjećajne situacije; estetsko iskustvo, raspoloženje kao cilj. Ona se ostvaruje niz sprege:

1. vibhava – uzroci emocija (pjev kukavice, mjesec…)

2. anubhava – posljedice emocija koje glumac izražava (pogled, smješak…)

3. vyabhicaribhava – 33 prolazne I nestalne emocije (strah, radost, zabrinutost, umor, rastresenost…)

- vibhave i anubhave glumom upućuju na sthayibhave (stalne emocije) koje se mogu pokazati samo pomoću vibhava i anubhava

- do rase vodi 49 bhava:

- 33 vyabhicaribhave

- 8 sattvikabhava (uzetost, znojenje, naježenost, plač, drhtanje…)

- 8 sthayibhava

Sthayibhava: Rasa:

Ljubav (rati) šrngara

Veselje (hasa) hasya

Žalost (šoka) karuna

Bijes (krodha) raudra

Junaštvo (utsaha) vira

Strah (bhaya) bhayanaka

Gađenje (jugupsa) bibhatsa

Zadivljenost (vismaya) adbhuta

- šantarasa = 9. rasa, mir, spokoj, 8.st.

53. Najstarije djelo kavye (Ašvaghoša) (b.k.)

- Asvaghosa- 2. st.; Kusane- 1-i autor za kojega se zna !- Budisticki svjetonazor- Inspiracija : Buddhacarita, Saundarananda- Nađeni fragmenti 3-ju drama ; istočni Turkmenistan :- 1.S ariputraprakarana - 9 fragmentarnih činova- Radnja : Sariputra i prijatelj ; preobraćenje na budizam, nije prava prakarana

( prakarana – svjetovna urbana drama, 5-10 a., utpadya, brahma, vita,vesya, vidusaka) ; na kraju filozof. Razgovor Buddhe i ucenika

- Sanskrt, samo vidusaka prakrt

- 2. --------------------- Fragmenti alegorijske drame - Likovi : Kirti-slava, Buddhi- mudrost- 3. ---------------------- Fragmenti : junak Somadatta i ljubavnica- Vazno jer je u njoj sacuvan rani oblik prakrta sauraseni

54) Teorije alamkare, rase i dhvani + teoretičari

Dandin – Kavyadarša (Zrcalo klasičnog stila), 7.st. (poredbe-upama, metafore-rupaka, skriveni prigovor-akšepa, hiperboličko pretjerivanje-atišayokti, dvosmislenost-šleša; ukrasi riječi sastoje se u ponavljanju pojedinih slogova ili nizova slogova-yamaka; vijugav, izvještačen govor-vakrokti)

Bharata – Natyašastra

Dhanamjaya – Dašarupa , 10.st.

Abhinavagupta, 10.st., skriveno značenje teksta – dhvani, napisao komentar Natyašastre - Abhinavabharati

Vidyanatha – Prataparudriya/Prataparudrayašobhušana, 14.st.

Višvanathakaviraja – Sahityadarpana, 14st.

55. Ukrasi smisla, ukrasi riječi ( biljeske –kavya sravya)

- poetika – alamkarasastra - Kavyadarsa, Dandin, 7.st. ( knjiz. Tekst od tijela i ukrasa )- arthaalamkara – ukrasi znacenja, smisla ( usporedbe, hiperbole,metafore)- sabdaalamkara – ukrasi zvuka, rijeci ( aliteracija, asonanca )

56) Vrste drame/rupake

1. nataka – epska drama, ljubavno-herojsko-mitološka drama; 5-10 činova, ne smije biti predugačka, temelji se na poznatom događaju (prakhyata), junak je kralj – djela i ljubav(natika – podvrsta, najčešće se temelji na Brhatkathi)

2. prakarana – svjetovna urbana drama, radnja izmišljena (utpadya), 5-10 činova

3. samavakara – 3 čina, bogovi, asure, može imati 12 likova, radnja se odvija na nebu, poznata

4. ihamrga – 4 čina, borba božanskih muškaraca oko bož. Žena, dijelom poznata dijelom izmišljena radnja (mišra)

5. dima – DIM – raniti, dramatsko prikazivanje opsade, čarolije, spektakl, natprirodna bića

6. vyayoga – radnja iz epa, gotovo nema ž. likova, 1 čin, radnja poznata, junak slavna osoba

7. utsrštikanka – 1 čin, izaziva sažalne osjećaje, junaci obični ljudi

8. prahasana – komedija

9. bhana – satir. Monolog, 1 lik, akašabhašita – govorenje u zrak

10. vithi – 1 čin, 1 ili 2 glumca, dijalog

57. Tipični likovi u dramama ( b.k.)

- junak ( nayaka, netr), katkada protujunak ( pratinayaka), junakinja

( nayika),pithamarda ( podmukli kraljev savjetnik ), vita ( otmjeni lukavac), vidusaka (

lakrdijas- neobrazovan brahman, brbljav, svadljiv, naceren)

58) Prakrti u drami

Tekst drama sastavljen je na više jezika i njihova razdioba zavisi od osoba koje govore. Obrazovani se muškarci služe sanskrtom. Katkada njime govore i kraljice, redovnice, kurtizane, dakle, natprosječno obrazovane žene. Njime se govori i o svim velikim i poštovanja dostojnim predmetima. Njime govore i alegorijske ženske osobe.

Žene, djeca i neobrazovani muškarci govore raznim prakrtima.

Šauraseni (katkada se umjesto njega koristi i maharaštri) – jezik junakinje, njenih prijateljica i sluškinja. Njime govore i muškarci srednjeg položaja, pa čak i vidušaka (neobrazovani brahman, grbavac niska radta, najvažniji smješni lik klasične drame).

Magadhi – neobrazovani muškarci niska položaja.

Paišaći – ljudi sasvim niskog položaja.

Ardhamagadhi - dvorani i kraljevići u nekim komadima ga govore.

(U rukopisnim se tekstovima često daje sanskrtski prijevod prakrtskih mjesta – chaya)

59. Stariji dramatičari; zreli dramatičari (b.k.)

1. Asvaghosa

2. Sudraka ¾ st. Pr. Kalidase – Padmaprabhrtaka ( bhana),-Vinavasavadatta ( nataka),-

Mrcchakatika(prakarana)

3. Bhasa

4. Kalidasa

5. Syamilaka –5.st Padataditaka ( bhana)

6.Visakhadatta –4/5st. Mudraraksasa ( nataka,7, spominje Maurye)

7. Harsa – 6/7st. Nagaananda ( nataka,5), Priyadarsika ( natika,4), Ratnavali( natika,4)

8. Bhattanarayana – 7. st. Venisamhara ( nataka,6)

9. Bhavabhuti ( 7/8 st.)- Malatimadhava ( prak.10), -Mahaviracarita (nataka 5-7) –

Uttararamacarita ( nat.7)

60) Tko su dramatičari prije Kalidase?

Ašvaghoša (bud.pisac) – Šariputraprakarana – govori o obraćenju najpoz. Budh. Učenika

Bhasa (2. ili 3.st) – Pancaratra, Madhyamavyayoga, Dutavakya, Dutaghatotkaca, Karnabhara, Urubhanga, Balacarita, Pratimanataka, Abhišekanataka, Svapnavasavadatta, Pratijnayauganhdarayana, Avimaraka, Daridracatudatta

Šudraka (3.st.) - Mrcchakatika

Višakhadatta (5.st.) – Mudrarakšasa

61. Kalidasa i njegova djela - epovi i drame !

(From Wikipedia)

Kālidāsa () was a Sanskrit poet and dramatist, his title Kavikulaguru (Preceptor of All Poets) bearing testimony to his stature. Known to be an ardent worshipper of Shiva, he wrote his plays and poetry largely based around Hindu mythology and philosophy. His name means, literally, "Kali's servant".

Dating

The exact dates of Kalidasa's life are disputed. These range from the 1st century BCE to the 5th Century CE.

Kalidasa's play Mālavikāgnimitra has as its hero the second Sunga king Agnimitra. This king is known to have ruled around 170 BC. So Kalidasa had to be after him. The Aihole Prashasti of 634 AD, compares the skill of its composer to Kalidasa's. This then becomes the latest date for Kalidasa. In addition, the Indian tradition associates the poet with the court of a king

Vikramaditya. Historians generally associate Kalidasa with reigns of Gupta kings Chandragupta Vikramāditya, and his successor, Kumaragupta in the 4th century AD. Chandragupta II is known to have assumed the title of Vikramaditya and reigned over the zenith of the Gupta golden-age. It must be noted that Kalidasa does not mention any king as his patron or any dynasty other than the Sungas in his works. The fact that he named his play about Pururavas and Urvashi as Vikramuurvashiiya, replacing Pururava by Vikrama in the name and calling Pururava by that name in the play , is treated as an indirect tribute to his patron. The name of his epic Kumārasambhavam is considered a pun on the name of Kumaragupta. Kumara is another name of Kartikeya, a son of Shiva and a god of war, and his birth is tied to the birth of the Gupta king. In addition, Kalidasa's mention of Huns in Raghuvamsha is taken as veiled reference to Skandagupta's victory over them. The campaign of Raghu in the same epic is supposed to be modelled on Samudragupta's campaign. He is supposed to have composed his Meghadūta at Ramagiri, identified as Ramtek near Nagpur in Maharashtra .It is known that Prabhavatigupta, Chandragupta II's daughter was married to the Vakataka king who had his capital nearby. These clues have led historians to assign Kalidasa to the Gupta age.

However, dissent has been raised by scholars on this association based on the following issues:

Kalidasa does not mention any Guptas ever. There have been many Vikramadityas and he could have been in the court of any of

these including a legendary one from the 1st century BC. The campaign sections of Raghuvamsha used cannot be very reliable. It is not correct

to assume that the tribes mentioned there were not known prior to Gupta campaigns. Kalidasa's works have not been free from interpolations and such campaign sections are notorious for being tampered with as seen in case of the campaigns in the Mahabharata.

Kalidasa was a votary of Shiva and composing an epic poem celebrating the birth of Shiva's son would be a natural expression of devotion. Kumara was a popular name of the war god and it might be a coincidence that it matches the name of a Gupta king.

There seems to be no reason why Kalidasa should use Agnimitra as a hero as he was far removed from his time and not famous either. In fact, his only claim to greatness is being the hero of Kalidasa's play, otherwise he is just a name in dynastic lists in all ancient works. Kalidasa also seems to be aware of certain historical peculiarities like the fact that Agnimitra's father Pushyamitra still called himself a commander though he had become the king after usurping the throne from the Mauryas.

The dissenting scholars generally favour placing Kalidasa nearer to the age of the Sungas and the age of the legendary king Vikramaditya, that is to about 100 BC.

Life

The Kalidas Smarak at Ramtek

Not much is known about Kalidasa's personal life and background, but there are several myths and legends about it. He was from the Shree-Gaud Brahman community and from his works he comes across as a very educated scholar.

The legends also have a more romantic story to tell. He was known for his beauty and innocence. A local princess Vidyotama, who vowed to marry only a man who defeated her in debate, outwitted all the scholars in the kingdom. These insulted scholars managed to present the dim-witted Kalidasa as a learned man and even got her married to him. But when the truth was discovered she was ashamed of his uneducated ignorance and coarseness. Kalidas left his home in pursuit of knowledge and to become worthy of his intellectual wife. A devoted worshipper of the goddess Kali, Kalidasa is said to have called upon the goddess for help and was rewarded with a sudden and extraordinary gift of wit and wealth. When he returned , his wife asked, "Asti Kashchit Wagvisheshah" (translated: Is there any speciality in your language ? ). Kalidasa refused to continue to be the princess' husband because she has taken the place of his guru, being the one directing him to the path of knowledge. As a tribute to her utterance, he starts his various books using different parts of the above statement: "ASTHYutharasyam dishi" in Kumarasambhavam, "KASCHIT kaantha" in Meghasandesham and "VAGArthviva samprukthou" in Raghuvamsham.

The province of origin of Kalidasa is the subject of much debate. His loving description of the Himalayas in Kumarasambhavam have made some scholars place his birth in that region. However, Kalidasa lavishes much love on Ujjain in Meghaduta and is not tired of singing praises of the city, hinting that he may have been a resident of it.

Legend has it that he was murdered by a courtesan in Sri Lanka during the reign of Kumaradasa. But this king reigned in the 6th century AD and hence this seems to be improbable.

Plays

Three famous plays written by Kalidasa are Mālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikā and Agnimitra), Vikramorvaśīya (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi) and Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Sakuntala). The last is the most famous, and was the first to be translated into English and German.

Mālavikāgnimitram, his first work, tells the story of King Agnimitra, who falls in love with the picture of an exiled servant girl named Mālavikā. When the queen discovers her husband's passion for this girl, she becomes infuriated and has Mālavikā imprisoned, but as fate would have it, Mālavikā is in fact a true-born princess, thus legitimizing the affair.

Kalidasa's second play, generally considered his masterpiece, is the Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala) which tells the story of another king, Dushyanta, who falls in love with another girl of lowly birth, the lovely Shakuntala. This time, the couple is happily married and things seem to be going smoothly until Fate intervenes. When the king is called back to court by some pressing business, his new bride unintentionally offends a saint who puts a curse on her, erasing the young girl entirely from the king's memory. Softening, however, the saint concedes that the king's memory will return when Shakuntala returns to him the ring he gave her. This seems easy enough--that is, until the girl loses the ring while bathing. And to make matters worse, she soon discovers that she is pregnant with the king's child. But true love is destined to win the day, and when a fisherman finds the ring, the king's memory returns and all is well. Shakuntala is remarkable not only for its beautiful love poetry, but also for its abundant humor which marks the play from beginning to end.

The last of Kalidasa's surviving plays, Vikramōrvaśīyam, is more mystical than the earlier plays. This time, the king (Pururavas) falls in love with a celestial nymph named Urvashi. After writing her mortal suitor a love letter on a birch leaf, Urvashi returns to the heavens to perform in a celestial play. However, she is so smitten that she misses her cue and pronounces her lover's name during the performance. As a punishment for ruining the play, Urvashi is banished from heaven, but cursed to return the moment her human lover lays eyes on the child that she will bear him. After a series of mishaps, including Urvashi's temporary transformation into a vine, the curse is eventually lifted, and the lovers are allowed to remain together on Earth. Vikramōrvaśīyam is filled with poetic beauty and a fanciful humor. Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream is similar to Vikramōrvaśīyam.

Poetry

In addition to his plays, Kalidasa wrote two surviving epic poems Raghuvamsha (Dynasty of Raghu) and Kumarasambhava (Birth of Kumar Kartikeya), as well as the lyrical Meghaduta (Cloud Messenger) and Ritusamhāra (The Exposition on the Seasons).

Meghadūta (literally "cloud messenger") is a lyric poem written by Kālidāsa, considered to be one of the greatest Sanskrit poets.

A short poem of only 111 stanzas, it is one of Kālidāsa's most famous works. It recounts how a yak ṣ a , or attendant of Kubera (the God of Wealth) after being exiled for a year to central India for some unknown transgression, convinces a passing cloud to take a message to his wife on Mount Kailāsa in the Himālaya mountains. The yakṣa accomplishes this by describing the many beautiful sights the cloud will see on its northward course to the city of Alakā, where his wife awaits his return.

In 1813, the poem was first translated into English by Horace Hayman Wilson.

An excerpt is quoted in Canadian director Deepa Mehta's film, Water.

Other Works Attributed To Kalidasa

Kalidasa has also been credited with many minor poems and hymns. But these are generally treated by scholars as works of other poets writing under the name of Kalidasa.

In addition to being a great poet Kalidas is beileved to be a good astrologer too. "Uttara Kaalaamritam " a work on astrology is attributed to him and it is said that as a result of his worship of goddess Kali, the predictions given in this book are absolutely correct.

Commentaries

While many commentaries on the works of Kalidasa exist in various Indian and non-Indian languages, the most famous and often studied one is the Sanjeevani by Kolachalli Mallinatha Suri (15th century CE) (usually referred to as Mallinatha), written during the reign of the Vijayanagara king Deva Raya II.

62) O kojoj je dinastiji tko pisao u dramama- (Šunga u Kalidasinoj Malavikagnimitri i Nanda u Višakhadattinoj Mudrarakšasi)

63. Bhasa

As the date for Kālidāsa varies from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE, Bhāsa is dated between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE. Based on the language used, his date is also supposed to be around 5th century BC. The plays of Bhāsa had been lost for centuries. He fame was known only from mention in other works like the famous text on poetics Kavyamimamsa written during 880-920 AD by Rajashekhara a famous poet, dramatist and critic. In the Kavyamimamsa, he attributes the play Svapna-vasavadatta (Swapnavāsavadatta) to Bhāsa.

Discovery of his plays

In 1912, the late Mahamahopadhyaya Ganapati Sastri came upon 13 Sanskrit plays in Trivandrum that were used in the Koodiyattam plays. Unlike other classical plays, none of them mentioned the author, but one was the Svapna-vasavadatta. Comparing the style of writing and techniques employed in these plays and based on the knowledge that Svapna-vasavadatta was Bhāsa's work, all of them were credited to him. Some scholars have disputed Bhāsa's authorship of all the plays but over the years the plays have generally come to be ascribed to Bhāsa.

The plays of Bhāsa

Bhāsa does not follow all the dictates of the Natya Shastra. This has been taken as a proof of their antiquity as post-Kālidāsa, no play that did not adhere to the Natya Shastra's rules has been found. Bhāsa allows scenes that contain signs of physical violence to be shown on stage in plays like Uru-Bhanga.This is strictly frowned upon by Natya Shastra.

The Uru-Bhanga and Karna-bhara are the only known tragic Sanskrit plays in ancient India. Though branded the villain of the Mahabharata, Duryodhana is the actual hero in Uru-Bhanga shown repenting his past as he lies with his thighs crushed awaiting death. His relations with his family are shown with great pathos. The epic contains no reference to such repentance. The Karna-bhara ends with the premonitions of the sad end of Karna, another epic character from Mahabharata. Early plays in India, inspired by Natya Shastra, strictly considered sad endings inappropriate.

The plays are generally short compared to later playwrights and most of them draw the theme from the Indian epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana.Though he is firmly on the side of the heroes of the epic, Bhāsa treats their opponents with great sympathy. He takes a lot of liberties with the story to achieve this. In the Pratima-nataka, Kaikeyi who is responsible for the tragic events in the Ramayana is shown as enduring the calumny of all so that a far noble end is achieved.

The plays based on Ramayana are

Pratima-nataka: The statues

Abhisheka-natka: The coronation

Six plays are based on the Mahabharata:

Panch-ratra: The five-nights

Madhyama-vyayoga: The middle one

Duta-Ghattotkacha: Ghattotkacha as envoy

Duta-Vakya : The envoy's message

Uru-bhanga: The broken thigh

Karna-bhara: Karna's burden

Harivamsa or Bala-charita: Hari's dynasty or the tale of Childhood

The Duta-Vakya and Bala-charita are perhaps the only Sanskrit plays by a famous playwright with Krishna as the central character.

His other plays are not epic based. Avimaraka is a fairy tale. The unfinished Daridra-Charudatta (Charudatta in poverty) tells the story of the courtesan Vasantasena and is interesting for the same story was developed by Shudraka into the more famous Mricha-kataika.

His most famous play Swapna-vasavadatta (Swapnavāsavadatta)(Vasavadatta in the dream) and Pratijna-Yaugandharayana (the vow of Yaugandharayana) are based on the legends that had grown around the King Udayana, a contemporary of the Buddha. The first tells the story of how the king lost his kingdom and regained it with the help of his loyal minister Yaugandharayana and the latter of how he married the princess Vasavadatta.

64) Haršine drame

Harsha or Harshavardhana (590–647) was an Indian emperor who ruled Northern India for over forty years. He was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan and younger brother of Rajyavardhan, a king of Thanesar. At the height of his power his kingdom spanned the Punjab, Bengal, Orissa and the entire Indo-Gangetic plain north of the Narmada River.

After the downfall of the Gupta Empire in the middle of the sixth century C.E., North India reverted back to small republics and small monarchical states. Harsha united the small republics from Punjab to Central India, and they, at an assembly, crowned Harsha king in April 606 AD when he was merely 16 years old.[1]

Harsha was a noted author on his own merit. He wrote three Sanskrit plays – Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika.

65. Brhatkatha i njene razrade ! (b.k. kavya)

- Gunadya

- Cca 100 g.pr.n.e. ; oblikovana izm. 4. i 5. st. ; posvecena Kuberi ; PAISACI; ep u prozi

- Okvirna prica : Siva koji zabavlja Parvati pricajuci o dogodovstinama Naravahanadatte ( njeg.

Otac kralj Udayana)

verzije:

- nepalska : Brhatkathaslokasamgraha ,Buddhasvamin, najst. 8. st. ; samo ½ radnje

- kasmirska :- Brhatkathamanjari ,Ksemendra 1037. – skracena verz. Brhat.

- Kathasaritsagara Somadeva 1081 – sazetak; puno umetnutih prica ( Pancatantra,

Vetalapancavimsatika, Simhasanadvatrimsika,Sukasaptati ) artha i kama

66. Kineski hodočasnici koji su pisali o Indiji.

Bogati izvori o Indiji nalaze se u analima kineskih dinastija, posebnim djelima o Indiji, buddhističkim enciklopedijama, životopisima kineskih buddhista i zbornicima o stranim zemljama. Najvažnije vijesti ipak stižu od hodočasnika. Prvi je Fa-Hien, koji je 399. preko Središnje Azije doputovao u Indiju, obišao Ceylon i Javu i 414. vratio se u Kinu. Pisao o buddhističkim kraljevstvima u 40 poglavlja u kojima piše uglavnom o stanju vjere u tim kraljevinama.

Drugi je hodočasnik, Hiuen-Tsiang, stigao pješice preko Središnje Azije 629. godine. 645. vraća se u Kinu. Njegov životopis sastavila 2 njegova učenika, a on napisao „O zapadnim zemljama“- bogatije opažanjima od Fa-Hienovog djela.

671. I-Tsing otputovao je Indiju brodom, a po povratku se dugo zadržao u Indoneziji. Napisao je 2 djela : „O istaknutim učiteljima koji su pošli u zapadne zemlje da traže izvore nauke“ i „ O unutrašnjem zakonu koji nam je poslan s južnog mora“. (Katičić 40.str)

67. Što je po vjerskom shvaćanju bio Kalidasa i što svjedoči o tome?

Bio je šivait, a o tome svjedoči ep Kumarasambhava.

Što su bile Šunge?

Ortodoksni brahmani

Što je bio Candragupta I Maurya?

Jainist.

68. Koji je kralj bio na čelu saveza kraljevstava protiv Muhamed od Ghura? Čiji je on

bio kralj? Koje su bile dvije bitke?

Muhamed od Ghura bio je vladar turske dinastije (iz Afganistana) koji od 1175.-1206.

osvaja sjevernu Indiju sve do Bengala. Vođa saveza kraljevstava (Cahamane, Candelle i

Gahadavale) bio je Prthviraj (kralj Cahamana u Rajasthanu) . Savez najprije pobjeđuje kod

Taraina (blizu Thanesara) 1191., ali već iduće godina Prthviraj umire u bitci na istom

mjestu. (iz „The wonder that was India“ 75.str; Katičić 42. str.-pomalo se razlikuju podaci)

69. Bitka kod Panipata, gdje, kada, tko

1526. Bitka kod Panipata u kojoj je turski osvajač Babur pobijedio delhijskog sultana

Ibrahima. Kraj Delhijskog sultanata.

70. Delhijski sultanat

1191. Muhamed od Ghura pobjeđuje savez indijskih kraljeva. 1206. Muhamed biva

ubijen, a njegov rob Qutb-ud-din postaje prvim sultanom Delhija. Time se osniva delhijski

sultanat.

1206-1290. Delhijskim sultanatom vlada dinastija robova.

1290.-1320. delhijskim sultanatom vlada dinastija Khildži.

1320.-1388. dinastija Tughluk

1388.-1450. razdoblje nemira (1414.-1450. Sajjid dinastija)

1450.-1526. dinastija Lodi

1526. bitkom kod Panipata, kraj sultanata. Do 1857. sjevernom Indijom vlada mogulska

dinastija koju je osnovao Babur. (Katičić 42.str.)

Rob sultana Muhammada iz Ghure vodio je uspješne vojne pohode i osnovao je 1206. godine Delhijski sultanat, koji će dugo vrijeme predstavljati najjaču muslimansku državu. Poslije osvajanja Perzije, Bliskog istoka i na kraju Bagdada, glavnog grada Abasovskog kalifata od strane Mongola, u prvoj polovici 13. stoljeća u Indiju su pobjegli brojni pravnici i duhovni

vođe iz Bagdada, Širaza i Buhare, kojih je nedostajalo u Delhijskom sultanatu, a koji su se tamo osjećali sigurnije. Za njima su došli i trgovci koji su svoj obrt mogli obavljati mnogo sigurnije nego na teritoriju pod vladom Mongola. Ubrzo je stara perzijska kultura zavladala sultanatom i dominirala među društvenom elitom. Važan čimbenik društva bila je njegova višenacionalnost i multikonfesionalizam. Muslimani koji su činili manji dio populacije, vladali su društvom u kojem je većina stanovništva pripadala hinduističkom vjeroispovijedanju. No to nije sprečavalo povezivanje tih zajednica različitim načinima, pa i međusobnim brakovima pripadnika različitih vjera (osim muslimana i hinduista bilo je tu još budista, džinista, parsa i kršćana). Početkom 14. stoljeća na vlast je došao Ghijasuddin Tughlak, koji je pripadao višem sloju društva, a porijeklom je bio nomad iz turkmenistanskih plemena. Kao sposoban vojni zapovjednik i organizator obrane sultanata protiv tada još uvijek aktivnih Mongola, obranio je državu i ugušio pobune u nemirnim provincijama i došao na čelo države okolo 1315. godine. No nažalost 1325. godine poginuo je nesretnim slučajem kada mu je na glavu pao krov paviljona koji je za njega dao izgraditi njegov sin Muhammad. Smrću oca Muhammad dolazi na tron. Muhammad je imao veoma kompliciranu psihu. Često je mijenjao raspoloženja, čemu su se morali prilagođavati njegovi podanici. Premda je bio veoma obrazovan, često je radio nelogične stvari. Zahvaljujući tome neki pojedinci su se pod njegovom vlašću veoma obogatili. Za njegove vlasti Delhijski sultanat dosegao je svoj vrhunac i vladao je ili kontrolirao veći dio indijskog poluotoka. Okružio se brojnim dvorjanima, učenjacima, duhovnim učiteljima, joginima, astrolozima i liječnicima. Svojim bližnjima nije vjerovao.

71. Surdas, Tulsidas – kada su živjeli i što su napisali?

Surdas was a Hindu poet, sant and musician of India. He is said to have been blind from birth. He is traditionally believed to have lived from 1483 to 1573, and to have lived in Vrindavan, near Mathura. While his poetry is loved by all who know it, there are at least two very different explanations of its origins. To some, the poet is believed to have been a disciple of the philosopher Vallabhacharya, and is believed to have composed one hundred thousand verses; the Lord Krishna is said to have completed the composition of another twenty-five thousand in his name. In this version of his life and works, it is believed that his collected poems, known as the "Sursagar" or "Ocean of Sur", were largely lost, leaving some 5000 surviving poems in current editions.

Gosvāmī Tulsīdās (1532-1623;) was an Awadhi poet and philosopher. He was born in Rajapur, India in Banda District, Uttar Pradesh, during the reign of Akbar. Tulsidas wrote twelve books and is considered the greatest and most famous of Hindi poets. He is regarded as an incarnation of Valmiki, the author of Ramayana written in Sanskrit. He wrote Rāmacaritamānasa ("The Lake of the Deeds of Rama"), an epic devoted to Lord Rama. This Awadhi version of Ramayana, like many translations of the original Sanskrit Ramayana, is read and worshipped with great reverence in many Hindu homes in northern India. It is an inspiring book that contains sweet couplets in beautiful rhyme called 'chaupai'. Vinaya Patrika is another important book written by Tulsidas. He is considered one of the northern Indian Sants.

72. Gramatičari

Čini se da se gramatika prva od svih nauka izdvojila od vedskog studija i počela proučavati i podučavati u posebnim stručnim školama. Najveći indijski gramatičar je Pānini (vjerojatno5.st p.n.e.) „Aštādhyāya“. Kātyayāna je drugi. Napisao je primjedbe (varttika)

uz Pāninijevo djelo. Treći je veliki gramatičar Patañjali (vjerojatno 2.st p.n.e.) napisao djelo pod naslovom „Mahābhāšya“ (Veliko tumačenje), komentar uz varttike.

U Somadevinoj Kathasaritsagari, spominje se da se Kātyayāna zove Vararuci. Ono što se sigurno zna jest da je Vararuci napisao „Prākrtaprakāša“(Sjaj prakrta). Najbolji komentar uz Paninijevo djelo je Kašikavrtti (Benareski komentar), koje su sastavili Jayāditya i Vāmana (vjerojatno 7.st). U 7.st živio je gramatičar i filozof Bhartrhari koji je napisao „Vākyapadiya“ ( O govoru i rečenicama). (Katičić 315.-321.)

73. Najveći ind. gramatičar i njegovo djelo. Koliko ima gramatičkih formula?

Pānini. „Aštādhyāya“ (Osam odsjeka) sastavljeno u stilu sūtra. Vjerojatno djelovao u.5.st. p.n.e. Ima 2000 sūtra u kojima su opisana 4000 pravila.

74. Njegova dva komentatora.Jayāditya i Vāmana „Kašikavrti“. ( svi su se doticali Pāninija ali samo za ove piše

da su baš napisali komentar)

75. Suvremenija povijest - neovisnost Indije

The first step toward Indian independence and western-style democracy was taken with the appointment of Indian councillors to advise the British viceroy,[24] and with the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members the councillors' participation was subsequently widened in legislative councils.[25] Beginning in 1920, Indian leaders such as Mohandas Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress into a mass movement to campaign against the British Raj. Revolutionary activities against the British rule also took place is some parts of India. The movement eventually succeeded in bringing a unified democratic nation-state to the people of the Indian subcontinent, by means of parliamentary action and non-violent resistance and non-cooperation. Independence came at great cost. While Gandhi was leading a largely Hindu movement, Mohammed Ali Jinnah was fronting a Muslim one through a group called the Muslim League. Jinnah advocated the division of India into two separate states: Muslim and Hindu, and he was able to achieve his goal. When the British left, they created the separate states of Pakistan and Bangladesh (known at that time as East Pakistan), and violence erupted when stranded Muslims and Hindu minorities in the areas fled in opposite directions. Within a few weeks, half a million people had died in the course of the greatest migration of human beings in the world's history.

The History of the Republic of India began on August 15, 1947 when India became an independent Dominion within the British Commonwealth. Concurrently the Muslim northwest and east of British India was separated into the Dominion of Pakistan. Lord Louis Mountbatten, and later Chakravarti Rajagopalachari served in the office of the Governor General of India, the constitutional head of state. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of India and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel became the Deputy Prime Minister of India and its Minister of Home Affairs. Independent India's first years were marked with turbulent events — a massive exchange of population with Pakistan, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 and the integration of over 500 princely states to form a united nation An estimated 3.5 million[1][2][3][4][5] Hindus and Sikhs living in West Punjab, NWFP, Baluchistan, East Bengal and Sind migrated to India in fear of domination and suppression in Muslim Pakistan. Communal violence killed an estimated 1 million Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs, and gravely destabilized both Dominions along their Punjab and Bengal boundaries, and the cities of

Calcutta, Delhi and Lahore. The violence was stopped by early September owing to the cooperative efforts of both Indian and Pakistani leaders, and especially due the efforts of Mohandas Gandhi, the leader of the Indian freedom struggle, who undertook a fast-unto-death in Calcutta and later in Delhi to calm people and emphasize peace despite the threat to his life. Both Governments constructed large relief camps for incoming and leaving refugees, and the Indian Army was mobilized to provide humanitarian assistance on a massive scale. The assassination of Mahatma Gandhi on January 30, 1948 was a major setback to the young nation. Gandhi was murdered by Nathuram Vinayak Godse.

Prime Minister Nehru and Sardar Patel invited Liaquat Ali Khan for talks in Delhi. Khan and Nehru also signed a Pact a trade agreement, and committed to resolving bilateral disputes through peaceful means. Steadily, hundreds of thousands of Hindus returned to East Pakistan, but the thaw in relations did not last long, primarily owing to the Kashmir dispute.

The Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution of India, drafted by a committee headed by B. R. Ambedkar, on November 26, 1949. India became a federal, democratic republic after its Constitution came into effect on January 26, 1950. Rajendra Prasad became the first President of India.

Jawaharlal Nehru died on May 27, 1964. Lal Bahadur Shastri succeeded him as Prime Minister. In 1965 in the Second Kashmir War India and Pakistan again went to war, but without any definitive outcome or alteration of the Kashmir boundary. The Tashkent Agreement was signed under the mediation of the Soviet government, but Shastri died on the night after the signing ceremony. A leadership election resulted in the elevation of Indira Gandhi, Nehru's daughter who had been serving as Minister for Information and Broadcasting, as the third Prime Minister. In 1971, Indira Gandhi and her Congress (R) were returned to power with a massively increased majority. The nationalization of banks was carried out, and many other socialist economic and industrial policies enacted. India intervened in Bangladesh Liberation War a civil war taking place in Pakistan's Bengali half, after millions of refugees had fled the persecution of the Pakistani army. The clash resulted in the independence of East Pakistan, which became known as Bangladesh, and Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's elevation to immense popularity. On October 31, 1984, the Prime Minister's own Sikh bodyguards killed her, and communal violence erupted in Delhi and parts of Punjab, causing the deaths of thousands of people along with terrible pillage, arson and rape. Government investigation has failed to date to discover the causes and punish the perpetrators, but public opinion blamed Congress leaders for directing attacks on Sikhs in Delhi. The Congress party chose Rajiv Gandhi, Indira's older son as the next Prime Minister. Rajiv had been elected to Parliament only in 1982, and at 40, was the youngest national political leader and Prime Minister ever. Rajiv led the Congress party to its largest majority in history (over 450 seats out of 545 possible), reaping a sympathy vote over his mother's assassination. Današnji predsjednik vlade-Manmohan Singh (2004.) (wikipedia)

76. Ram Mohan Roy

Ram Mohan Roy (May 22, 1772 – September 27, 1833) was the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, one of the first Indian socio-religious reform movements. His remarkable influence was apparent in the fields of politics, public administration and education as well as religion. He is most known for his efforts to abolish the practice of sati, a Hindu funeral custom in which the widow sacrifices herself on her husband’s funeral pyre.

In 1828, prior to his departure to England, Rammohan founded, with Dwarkanath Tagore, the Brahmo Samaj, which came to be an important spiritual and reformist religious movement that has given birth to a number of stalwarts of the Bengali social and intellectual reforms. For

these contributions to society, Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as one of the most important figures in the Bengal Renaissance. (wikipedia)

77. Dinastije na juguThe Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 from

Badami, Karnataka and again from 970 to 1190 from Kalyani, Karnataka. The Pallavas of Kanchi were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories, Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiya of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and a southern branch of the Kalachuri divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century. Later during the middle period, the Chola kingdom emerged in northern Tamil Nadu, and the Chera kingdom in Kerala. By 1343 A.D., all these kingdoms had ceased to exist giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire. Southern Indian kingdoms of the time expanded their influence as far as Indonesia, controlling vast overseas empires in Southeast Asia. The ports of southern India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished till about the beginning of the 14th century when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rule (the Bahmani Kingdom) and the clashing of the two systems, caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign culture that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar Empire eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi Sultanates who had managed to establish themselves in the north, centered around the city of Delhi by that time..(wikipedia, “The wonder that was India”-74-78)

78. Filozofi – Šankara, Ramanuja, Madhva

Uttaramīmāmsā (kasnije tumačenje), brahmamīmāmsā ili šārīrakamīāmsā filozofski je smjer koji se bazira na interpretaciji upanišadskih tekstova. Zato se još i zove filozofija vedānte. Glavni joj je sadržaj spoznaja istovjetnosti ātmana i brahmana. Osnovni tekst je Vedāntasūtra (ili Uttaramīmāmsā , brahmamīmāmsā ili šārīrakamīāmsā sūtra) koji je sastavio učitelj Bādarāyana (vjerojatno 9.st.n.e.). Drugi tekst je Gaudapādīyakārikāh. Te mnemotehničke stihove sastavio je Gaudapāda (oko 700.g n.e). Njegov učenik bio je Govinda, učitelj Šankarin.

Šankara (kraj 8.- poč. 9.st)-ADVAITA Rođen je u šivaitskoj brahmanskoj obitelji, vjerojatno u gradu Kāladi na malabarskoj obali.Bio je dakle dravidski južnjak, kao i Nāgārjuna, drugi velikan indijske filozofije (mahāyānski buddhizam, vjerojatno 2.st. n.e). Umro je relativno mlad (32 g.) u Kedāranāthi na padinama Himālaye. Glavno mi je djelo komentar uz Vedāntasūtru, “Šārīrakasūtra” ili “Brahmasūtrabhāšya”. Autorstvo svih ostalih djela je upitno, no vjerojatno su njegovi i komentari uz upanišade i Bhagavadgītu. Manje je sigurno i njegovo autorstvo za dogmatsku raspravu Vivekacūdāmani, dijalog u prozi i stihovima Upadešasahasrī (Tisuću pouka), priručnik Atmabodha (Buđenje ātmana) i komentar uz Gaudapādīyakārikāh.

Predstavnik je vedantinskog monizma (advaita). Po toj je nauci brahman, nadosobni apsolut. On je jedini bitak (sat) i istovjetan je sa unutrašnjim sebe (ātman) živih bića. Svijet je samo obmana (māyā) i naše je prirodno doživljavanje upravo neznanje (avidya). Izbavljenje (mokša) sastoji se u tome da se spozna istovjetnost brahmana i ātmana. Izvor znanja je vedska objava (šruti). Šankara se žestoko borio protiv buddhizma. (više Katičić 338-343.str.)

Madhva (Uttaramīmāmsā)- DVAITA poznat i kao Anandatīrtha. Živio je 1197.-1276. Napisao je komentare uz deset starih upanišada, Bhagavadgītu, Vedāntasūtru, Bhāgavatapurānu i priličan broj samostalnih djela. Glavno je među njima Tattvasamkhyāna (Tumačenje istine). On je u vedantinsku filozofiju uveo dualističku nauku i tako je Šankarinoj advaita odlučno suprotstavio svoju dvaita.

Rāmānuja (Uttaramīmāmsā)-VIŠIŠTĀDVAITA uz Šankaru najvažniji učitelj vedantinskog smjera bio je višnuit. Živio je u posljednjoj četvrtini 11.st i prvoj polovici 12. Poticao je iz južne Indije (Kancipur). Učitelj Yādavaprakāši podučavao ga je advaiti, ali ga ta nauka nije zadovoljavala. Velik utjecaj na njega imao je Yāmuna, on ga je naslijedio kao filozofski učitelj (ācārya) južnoindijskih višnuita. Na samrti mu je Yāmuna dao zadatak da napiše nov komentar uz Vedāntasūtru, on je to I napravio pod naslovom” Šribhāšya” (Komentar u čast sreće). Razlika između njega i Šankare je ta što Šankara traži izbavljenje u čistoj spoznaji, pobijanju neznanja, a Rāmānuja uza spoznaju traži i predanu ljubav prema osobnom božanstvu (bhakti).Rāmānuja je prihvatio bhedābhedavādu, ali je još više naglasio zbiljkost raznolikosti u svijetu. Ipak se nije načelno odrekao monizma. Njegova je nauka poznata kao višištādvaita (kvalificirani monizam). Po toj nauci nije samo brahman zbiljski, nego i raznolikost u kojoj se pojavljuje. Druga djela: Gītabhāshya (komentar uz Bhagavadgītu), Vedāntasāra (Srž vedānte) Vedāntadīpa ( Svjetiljka vedānte) . (više Katičić 341.)

79. Religije koje su donesene u Indiju

Kršćanstvo –Sv. Toma (vjerojatno kao misionar iz palestine, oko 1.st p.K)- prema legendi. Prve potvrđene aktivnosti kršćana potjeću iz 6.st. Djelo o svom putovanju „Christian Topography“ – Cosmas Indicopleustes (aleksandrijski svećenik). Svjedoči o postojanju crkava na Malabāru i Ceylonu u rukama perzijskih svećenika.Nestorijanci su bili aktivni misionari, pa su vjerojatno oni zaslužni za utemeljenje kršćanstva u Indiji. Jezuiti u 16./17.st-dio sirijske crkve prihvaćaju autorite Rima, ostali ostaju vjerni Antiohu)

Židovi -također mala zajednica na Malabāru. Podaci iz 10.st (dinastija Cera). Iako postoji legenda o zajednici u Kochinu u 1.st n.e.

Pārsī- Zoroastrizam, za vrijeme Ahemenida i Sasanida vjerojatno je da se zoroastrizam prakticirao i utjecao na hinduizam i buddhizam.Uglavnom sjevero-zapadna Indija. Prema parsijskoj tradiciji nastanili su najprije područje Kāthiāwāra i Thānā (blizu Bombaya) u 8.st.

Muslimani –Još prije Muhammadova osvajanja, Arapi su posjetili Indiju. Prve muslimanske zajednice datiraju iz 8.st, uglavnom u priobalnim gradovima. Najpoznatija Māppilā zajednica u Malabāru.

80. Tko je donio kršćanstvo u Indiju?

Sv. Toma (vjerojatno kao misionar iz palestine, oko 1.st p.K)- prema legendi. Prve potvrđene aktivnosti kršćana potjeću iz 6.st. Djelo o svom putovanju „Christian Topography“ napisao je Cosmas Indicopleustes (aleksandrijski svećenik). Svjedoči o postojanju crkava na Malabāru i Ceylonu u rukama perzijskih svećenika.Nestorijanci su bili aktivni misionari, pa su vjerojatno oni zaslužni za utemeljenje kršćanstva u Indiji. Jezuiti djeluju u 16./17.st- dio sirijske crkve tada prihvaća autorite Rima, ostali ostaju vjerni Antiohu).

81. Što je sikhizam i kada je nastao?

Sikhism is a religion that begun with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive human gurus. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. Sikhism comes from the word Sikh, which in turn comes from the Sanskrit root śi ṣ ya meaning "disciple" or "learner", or śikṣa meaning "instruction” Sikhism is the fifth-largest religion in the world, and is generally considered the fifth largest organized religion, depending on how one defines an "organized religion".

The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū—represented using the sacred symbol of ēk ōa ṅ kār . Sikhism advocates the pursuit of salvation through disciplined, personal meditation on the name and message of God. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture—the Gurū Granth Sāhib—which includes the selected works of many authors from diverse socioeconomic and religious backgrounds. The text was decreed by Gobind Singh, the tenth guru, as the final guru of the Khalsa Panth. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 23 million across the world. However, most Sikhs live in the state of Punjab in India; prior to partition, millions of Sikhs lived in what is now the Punjab province of Pakistan.

# Name Date of Birth Guruship on Date of Death Age

1 Nanak Dev 15 April 1469 20 August 1507 22 September 1539 69

2 Angad Dev 31 March 1504 7 September 1539 29 March 1552 48

3 Amar Das 5 May 1479 26 March 1552 1 September 1574 95

4 Ram Das 24 September 1534 1 September 1574 1 September 1581 46

5 Arjan Dev 15 April 1563 1 September 1581 30 May 1606 43

6Har Gobind 19 June 1595 25 May 1606 28 February 1644 48

7 Har Rai 16 January 1630 3 March 1644 6 October 1661 31

8Har Krishan 7 July 1656 6 October 1661 30 March 1664 7

9Teg Bahadur 1 April 1621 20 March 1665 11 November 1675 54

10Gobind Singh 22 December 1666 11 November 1675 7 October 1708 41

The traditions and philosophy of Sikhism were established by ten specific gurus from 1507 to 1708. Each guru added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous, resulting in the creation of the Sikh religion. Guru Amar Das's successor and son-in-law Ram Das founded the city of Amritsar, which is home of the Harimandir Sahib and regarded widely as the holiest city for all Sikhs. Guru Arjun Dev was responsible for compiling the Sikh scriptures. Guru Arjun Dev was captured by Mughal authorities who were suspicious and hostile to the religious order he was developing. His persecution and death inspired his successors to promote a military and political organisation of Sikh communities to defend themselves against the attacks of Mughal forces.

82. Tko su bili pisci klasičnih romana?

Prozna pripovjedačka djela u najstrožem klasičnom stilu. Najznačajniji Dandin (7.st), vjeruje se da je istovjetan s poetičarem istog imena. Za roman Dašakumāracarita (Pustolovine 10 kraljevića) vjerojatno je preuzeo temu iz Brhatkathe. Roman nije sačuvan u cjelosti. U novije vrijeme otkriven rukopis pripovjedačkog djela Avantisundarīkathā (djelo sadrži dio Dašakumaracarite i Banine Kādambarī). Ako je to Dandinovo djelo mijenjaju se pretpostavke o Baninu i njegovom vremenskom odnosu.

Subandhu je drugi veliki pisac romana. Djelo mu je Vāsavadattā. Živio je vjerojatno na prijelazu 6. u 7. st. Majstor vijugava govora (vakrokti).

Bana (7.st), živio na dvoru Harshe. Djela Harshacarita i Kādambarī. Sadržaj se djela Kādambarī zasniva na jednoj priči iz Somadevine Kathāsaritsāgare, a djelo je dovršio njegov sin Bhūšanabhatta. (Katičić 309.-310.)

83. Koji je grad bio središte mahayanskog buddhizma

Nālandā (Bihār, blizina Patne) – samostan, osnovan za vrijeme Gupta, ostao je najpozantiji centar učenjaka. O njemu piše Hsuan Tsang u 7.st, opisujući ga kao mjesto iznimne intelektualne aktivnosti. Djelatnost zabilježena od 5.-12.st

84. U kojem su stoljeću živjeli Kabīr i Gūru Nānak?

Prijelaz 15./16.st. Kabīr (1440.-1518.), Gūru Nānak (1469.-1533.)

85. Nirgun i sagun pjesnici

Bhakti poetry had two schools - the Nirguna school (the believers of a formless God or an abstract name) and the Saguna school (the believers of a God with attributes and worshippers of Vishnu's incarnations). Kabir and Guru Nanak belong to the Nirguna school, and their philosophy was greatly influenced by the Advaita Vedanta philosophy of Adi Sankaracharya. They believed in the concept of Nirgun Nirakaar Bramh or the Shapeless Formless One. The Saguna school was represented by mainly Vaishnava poets like Surdas, Tulsidas , Mirabai and was a logical extension of the Dvaita and Vishishta Advaita Philosophy propounded by the likes of Madhavacharya etc. This school was chiefly Vaishnava in orientation as in seen in the main compositions like extoling Rama and Krishna.

This was also the age of tremendous integration between the Hindu and the Islamic elements in the Arts with the advent of many Muslim Bhakti poets like Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana who was a court poet to Mughal emperor Akbar and was a great devotee of Krishna. The Nirgun School of Bhakti Poetry was also tremendously secular in nature and its propounders like Kabir and Guru Nanak had a large number of followers irrespective of caste or religion.

86. O Magadhi, prijestolnicama i vladarima.

U 6.st p.K. nastale su 4 kraljevine (Kosala, Magadha, Vatsa, Avanti). With its capital at Rajagriha (modern Rajgir). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is mentioned in Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, and heavily mentioned in Buddhist and Jaina texts. The first reference to the Magadha occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and the Mujavats as a despised people. Two of India's major religions started from Magadha; Gautama Buddha in the 6th or 5th century BCE was the founder of Buddhism, which later spread to East Asia and South-East Asia, while Mahavira founded Jainism. Two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, along with others, originated from Magadha.

Magadha Dynasties o 3.1 Brihadratha dynasty o 3.2 Pradyota dynasty o 3.3 Shishunaga dynasty o 3.4 Nanda dynasty o 3.5 Maurya dynasty o 3.6 Shunga dynasty o 3.7 Kanva dynasty o 3.8 Gupta dynasty

Brihadratha dynasty

According to the Puranas,the Magadha Empire was established by the Brihadratha Dynasty, who was the sixth in line from Emperor Kuru of the Bharata dynasty through his eldest son Sudhanush.The first prominent Emperor of the Magadhan branch of Bharathas was Emperor

Brihadratha.His son Jarasandha appears in popular legend and is slain by Bhima in the Mahabharatha.Vayu Purana mentions that the Brihadrathas ruled for 1000 years.

Pradyota dynasty

The Brihadrathas were succeeded by the Pradyotas who according to the Vayu Purana ruled for 138 years. One of Pradyota tradition was that son would kill his father to become the successor. During this time, it is reported that there was high crimes in Magadha. The people rose up and elected Shishunaga to become the new king, who destroyed the power of the Pradyotas and created the Shishunaga dynasty.

Shishunaga dynasty

According to tradition, the Shishunaga dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 BCE, whose capital was Rajagriha (Bimbisara), later Pataliputra (Ajatašatru), near the present day Patna. This dynasty lasted till 424 BCE, when it was overthrown by the Nanda dynasty. This period saw the development of two of India's major religions that started from Magadha. Gautama Buddha in the 6th or 5th century BCE was the founder of Buddhism, which later spread to East Asia and South-East Asia, while Mahavira founded Jainism.

Nanda dynasty

The Nanda dynasty was established by an illegitimate son of the king Mahanandin of the previous Shishunaga dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda died at the age of 88, ruling the bulk of this 100-year dynasty. The Nandas were followed by the Maurya dynasty.

Maurya dynasty

In 321 BCE, exiled general Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dynasty after overthrowing the reigning Nanda king Dhana Nanda to establish the Maurya Empire. During this time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. Capitalising on the destabilization of northern India by the Persian and Greek incursions, the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta would not only conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, but also push its boundaries into Persia and Central Asia, conquering the Gandhara region. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who expanded the kingdom over most of present day India, barring the extreme south and east.

The only region that was not under the Mauryan's were present day Tamil Nadu and Kerala (which was a Tamil kingdom then). There are references in one of the oldest Tamil Sangam literature, Purananuru, that a Mauryan army was driven out by a unified Tamil army under the leadership of Ilanchetchenni, a Chola King. This unified Tamil force is supposed to be broken by King Kharavela, a Kalinga ruler, as per one of his inscriptions.

The kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka The Great who initially sought to expand his kingdom. In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion of Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of non-violence or ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and from Ashoka's

time, approximate dating of dynasties becomes possible. The Mauryan dynasty under Ashoka was responsible for the proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and South-East Asia, fundamentally altering the history and development of Asia as a whole. Ashoka the Great has been described as one of the greatest rulers the world has seen.

Shunga dynasty

The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 BCE, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was assassinated by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended the throne.

Kanva dynasty

The Kanva dynasty replaced the Shunga dynasty, and ruled in the eastern part of India from 71 BCE to 26 BCE. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. In 30 BC, the southern power swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas and the province of Eastern Malwa was absorbed within the dominions of the conqueror. Following the collapse of the Kanva dynasty, the Satavahana dynasty of the Andhra kindgom replaced the Magandhan kingdom as the most powerful Indian state.

Gupta dynasty

Gupta dynasty ruled from around 240 to 550 CE. The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India. The time of the Gupta Empire was an Indian "Golden Age" in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy.

87. Tko je sve prodirao u Indiju i kada?

Oko 1500.p.K. Arijci

327.-325.p.K. Aleksandrov pohod

175.p.K Grci iz helenističke Baktrije

78.-320. n.e. sjevernom Indijom vladaju iranski nomadski narodi iz Središnje Azije –

Šake i Kušane

500.-528.n.e. hunski osvajači

647.-1175. Muslimani (uglavnom srednjoazijskiTurci) s Iranskog visočja prodiru u

sjevernu Indiju, i učvršćuju se u pojedinim djelovima.

712. Arapi osvajaju južnu dolinu Inda

997.-1030 Mahmud od Ghazne

1175.-1206. Mahmud od Ghura

1221. Džingis Kan dolazi do Inda

1398.-1399. Timur provaljuje u Indiju

1510. Portugalci u Goi

1526. Babur- moghulska dinastija

1600. Englesko Istočnoindijsko trgovačko udruženje

1602. Nizozemci

1616. Danci

1664. Francuzi

88. Grci koji su pisali o Indiji

Ptolomej (geografija), Strabon( geograf, prijelaz ere), Herodot (5.st p.K), Megasthenes (4./3.st p.K., pod kraljem Seleuk Nikator), Nearh (Aleksandrov admiral)…(Katičić 39.-40)

89. Za vrijeme koje dinastije su izgrađeni hramovi u Ellori? Kako se zove najpoznatiji?

Izgrađeni između 5.-8.st. Najpoznatiji hram Kailāsanātha, izgrađen po naredbi Krišne I (dinastija Rāštrakūta).

90. Odakle je Buddha a odakle Jina?

Buddha-iz plemena Šakya (današnji jug Nepala), prijestolnice Kapilavastu. (Rođen u gaju Lumbini). Propovjedao u Kosali i Magadhi.

Jina- rođen u gradu Vaišali, sjeverno od Patne u Magadhi.

91. Kako se zovu višnuističke a kako šivaističke tantre?(Katičić 140.str)

Višnuističke- samhitā (zbirka); pripadaju sekti pancaratra i ima ih 108, ali ih je po naslovu poznato preko 215.

Šivaističke- āgama (predaja)- po predaji ima ih 28, plus198 upāgama

92. Tko u 17.st vlada Indijom?

1526.-1857. , znači i 17.st, sjevernom Indijom vlada mogulska dinastija, koju je osnovao Babur. Mughal rule under Jahangir (1605–27) and Shah Jahan (1628–58) was noted for political stability, brisk economic activity, beautiful paintings, and monumental buildings. Naslijedio ga je Aurangzeb, koji vlada do 1707.

Na jugu kraj 17.st Maratha Empire.

93. Dok je Harša vladao sjev.Indijom tko je vladao srednjom i južnom?

King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death. From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Pratiharas of Malwa and later Kannauj; the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the

Deccan. The Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750. The Pallavas of Kanchi were their contemporaries further to the south.

94. Poredaj Maurye, poredaj Gupte.

Maurya: Chandragupta Maurya 320-300 BC Bindusara 300-273 BC Asoka 273-232 BC Kunala and Dasaratha 232-225 Samprati Saliska Devadharama Satamdhanu Brihadratha 194-187 BC

Gupta: Sri-Gupta I (c. 240-290)

Ghatotkacha (290-305)

Chandra Gupta I (305-335), founder of the Gupta Empire, which is often regarded as the golden age of Indian culture

Samudra Gupta (335-370)

Rama Gupta (370-375)

Chandra Gupta II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya) (375-415), son of Samudra Gupta, the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith under his reign, the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien describes Indian culture during his reign

Kumara Gupta I (415-455)

Skanda Gupta (455-467)

Kumara Gupta II (467-477)

Buddha Gupta (477-496)

Chandra Gupta III (496-500)

Vainya Gupta (500-515)

Narasimha Gupta (515-530)

Kumara Gupta III (530-540)

Vishnu Gupta (c. 540-550

95.Tamilska književnost – osnove

Periodizacija po Zvelebilu:

1. PREDBHAKTI- bardsko, klasično pjesništvo (150.p.K- 250.n.e upitno)

2. BHAKTI- 600.-900.

3. POSTBHAKTI 900.-1200.-rano srednjevjekovno

-1200.-1750. –kasno srednjevjekovno

4. PREDMODERNO RAZDOBLJE 1750.-1900.

1. PREDBHAKTI -Sangam literature refers to a body of classical Tamil literature created between the years 200 BCE and 300 CE. This collection contains 2381 poems written by 473 poets, some 102 of whom are anonymous authors. The period during which these poems were written is commonly referred to as the 'Sangam' age, referring to the prevalent Sangam legends claiming literary academies lasting thousands of years, giving the name to the corpus of literature. Sangam literature is primarily secular dealing with everyday themes in a South Indian context. The poems belonging to the Sangam literature was composed by Tamil poets, both men and women, from various professions and classes of society. These poems were later collected into various anthologies. Sangam Poems falls into two categories: the 'inner field' (Akam ), and the 'outer field'(Puram )as described even in the first available Tamil grammar, the Tolkappiyam (još jedna gramatika “Akatiyar”).The 'inner field' topics refer to personal or human aspects, such as love and sexual relationships, and are dealt with in a metaphorical and abstract manner (npr. Tinai-krajolik = krajolik vezan uz erotske situacije)The 'outer field' topics discuss all other aspects of human experience such as heroism, valour, ethics, benevolence, philanthropy, social life, and customs. Temelji bardskog pjesništva: Ettutu(o)kai i Pattuppatu. Metar je akaval.Poetika akam-puram ima 3 elementa: mjesto i vrijeme ( 5 krajolika), prirodni elementi (propisani odnosi prirode i čovjeka), ljudski elementi.

Postklasično razdoblje: 2 epa – Šilapadikāram (autor Ilango Adigal) i Manimekhalai (Cattahur).The three hundred years after the Sangam age witnessed an increase in the mutual interaction of Sanskrit and Tamil. A number of words and concepts in the subjects of ethic, philosophy and religion were mutually borrowed and exchanged. Around 300 CE, the Tamil land was under the influence of a group of people known as the Kalabhras. Kalabrahs were Buddhist and a number of Buddhist authors fourished during this period. Jainism and Buddhism saw rapid growth. These authors perhaps reflecting the austere nature of their faiths, created works mainly on morality and ethics. A number of Jain and Buddhist poets contributed in the creation of these didactic works as well as grammar and lexicography. The collection the minor eighteen anthology was of this period. The best known of these works on ethics is the Tirukkural by Thiruvalluvar. Kural as it is popularly known, uses the Venpa meter and is a comprehensive manual of ethics, polity and love. It contains 1,330 distichs divided into chapter of ten distichs each: the first thirty-eight on ethics, the next seventy on

polity and the remainder on love. Other famous works of this period are Kalavali, Nalatiyar, Inna Narpathu and Iniyavai Narpathu.

2. BHAKTI - After the fall of the Kalabhras around 600 CE saw a reaction from the thus far suppressed Hindus. There was a widespread Hindu revival during which a huge body of Saiva and Vaishnava literature was created. Many Saiva Nayanmars (63 sveca) and Vaishnava Alvars provided a great stimulus to the growth of popular devotional literature. Najpoznatija biografija šivaističkih svetaca je Cekkilār “ Periyapurānam”. “Tirumurai”- sveta knjiga, kanonska zbirka, 12 djelova. Sambandar san 384 hymns. Together these form the first six books of the Saiva canon, collected by Nambi Andar Nambi in the tenth century. Sundarar wrote Tiruttondartokai which gives the list of sixty-two Nayanmars. Manikkavacakar (šiv.autor), who lived around the eight century CE was a minister in the Pandya court. His Tiruvacakam consisting of 51 hymns is noted for its passionate devotion. Andal (“Tirupavai” contributed nearly 650 hymns to the Vaishnava canon. Andal symbolised purity love for the God and wrote her hymns addressing Vishnu as a lover. The hymn of Andal which starts with Vaaranam Aayiram (One Thousand Elephants) tells of her dream wedding to Vishnu and is sung even today at Tamil Vaishnava weddings Narrative epics. Drugi višnuistički autor je Natamuni (9.-10.st.)

3. POSTBHAKTI- novi književni oblici KOVAI-antologija stihova jednog pjesnika; vraćaju se akam motivi. PĀRATAM- razne prerade Mhbh. KAMPAN (10. ili 12. st.- autor prerade Ramayane);

KASNOSREDNJOVJEKOVLJE – uglavnom obrade, 3 tipa obrade: prijevodi, purāne koje slave život svetaca, sthalapurāna (o igri Šive i Pārvatī).

PREDMODERNO – poznat Chuppiramaniya Ayyar (19.st.).Nacionalni pjesnik, uloga u modernizaciji jezika. Počeo pisati šakti poeziju, utjecaj Andal.

20.st.- Yogi-važan mistički pjesnik, film.glazba, pisao o siromasima. ..1959. okupljanje oko časopisa “Eluttu”(pisanje), odbacivanje starih konvencija. Proza-Urai

96. Koja je hindska a koja tamilska Ramayana

Hind. Ramacaritamanas- Tulsidas i tam. Ramavatara- Kamban.

97. U vrijeme buddhizma koja su tri velika kraljevstva u Indiji, koje je najmoćnije.

Kosala, Magadha (najmoćnija ; neki vladari Bimbisara i Ajatašatru), Videha.

98. Koji je Gupta uspio izvojevati pobjedu protiv Huna ali ne konačnu?

Narasimha Gupta (6.st.) uspio pobijediti Mihirakulu u dolini Gange.IPAK! i Skanda Gupta je

nakon očeve smrti u ratu s Hunima, ponovno osvojio neka svoja područja.