vedanta school of philosophy

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Vedanta For other uses, see Vedanta (disambiguation). Vedanta (/vædɑːntə/; Hindustani pronunciation: [ʋeːd̪aːn̪t̪], Vedānta) or Uttara Mīmāṃsā is one of the six or- thodox schools of Hindu philosophy. The term veda means “knowledge” and anta means “end”, and origi- nally referred to the Upanishads, a collection of foun- dational texts in Hinduism. [1][note 1] By the 8th century, it came to mean all philosophical traditions concerned with interpreting the three basic texts of Hinduist philos- ophy, namely the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita, [1] and was eventually recognized as dis- tinct from the other five astika schools. Vedanta is the most prominent and philosophically advanced of the or- thodox schools and the term Vedanta may also be used to refer to Indian philosophy more generally. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, [2] of which Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, Achintya-Bheda-Abheda and Dvaita are the best known. [3] 1 Etymology The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta = “Veda-end” = “the appendix to the Vedic hymns”. It is also said that “Vedānta” means “the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas”. [note 2] Vedanta can also be used as a noun to describe one who has mastered all four of the original Vedas. In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vedānta' simply referred to the Upanishads, the most important and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hin- duism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of phi- losophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Vedānta is also called Uttara Mīmāṃsā, or the 'lat- ter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary en- quiry'. Pūrva Mimamsa, usually simply called Mimamsa, deals with explanations of the fire-sacrifices of the Vedic mantras (in the Samhita portion of the Vedas) and Brahmanas, while Vedanta explicates the esoteric teach- ings of the Āraṇyakas (the “forest scriptures”), and the Upanishads, composed from the 9th century BCE until modern times. 2 Three basic texts All sub-schools of the vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting the Prasthanatrayi, literally, three sources, the three canonical texts of Hindu philosophy, especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of: [4] 1. The Upanishads, known as Upadesha prasthana (in- junctive texts), and the Śruti prasthāna (the starting point of revelation) 2. The Brahma Sutras, known as Nyaya prasthana or Yukti prasthana (logical text) 3. The Bhagavad Gita, known as Sadhana prasthana (practical text), and the Smriti prasthāna (the start- ing point of remembered tradition) The Upanishads consist of twelve or thirteen major texts, with total 108 texts. The Bhagavad Gītā is part of the Mahabhārata. The Brahma Sūtras (also known as the Vedānta Sūtras), systematise the doctrines taught in the Upanishads and the Gītā. All major Vedantic teachers, like Shankara, Rāmānuja, and Mādhvāchārya, have composed often extensive com- mentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the Gita. While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic thought, the Bhagavad Gita has played a strong role in Vedantic thought. [5] 3 History Advaita Vedanta existed prior to Shankara, but found its most influential expounder in Shankara. [6] Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the Brahma Sutras (400–450 CE [7] ) almost nothing is known. [7] Very little also is known of the period between the Brah- mansutras and Shankara (first half of the 8th century CE). [7] Only two writings of this period have survived: the Vākyapadīya, written by Bhartṛhari (second half 5th century [8] ), and the Māndūkya-kārikā written by Gaudapada (7th century CE). [7] 3.1 Earliest Vedanta See also: Vedas, Upanishads and Darsanas 1

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Vedanta School of PhilosophyAn Introduction to the Vedanta school of eastern philosophy

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  • Vedanta

    For other uses, see Vedanta (disambiguation).

    Vedanta (/vdnt/; Hindustani pronunciation: [edant],Vednta) or Uttara Mms is one of the six or-thodox schools of Hindu philosophy. The term vedameans knowledge and anta means end, and origi-nally referred to the Upanishads, a collection of foun-dational texts in Hinduism.[1][note 1] By the 8th century,it came to mean all philosophical traditions concernedwith interpreting the three basic texts of Hinduist philos-ophy, namely the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and theBhagavad Gita,[1] and was eventually recognized as dis-tinct from the other ve astika schools. Vedanta is themost prominent and philosophically advanced of the or-thodox schools and the term Vedanta may also be used torefer to Indian philosophy more generally. There are atleast ten schools of Vedanta,[2] of whichAdvaita Vedanta,Vishishtadvaita, Achintya-Bheda-Abheda and Dvaita arethe best known.[3]

    1 Etymology

    The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta= Veda-end = the appendix to the Vedic hymns. It isalso said that Vednta means the purpose or goal [end]of the Vedas.[note 2] Vedanta can also be used as a nounto describe one who has mastered all four of the originalVedas.In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vednta' simply referred tothe Upanishads, the most important and philosophical ofthe Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hin-duism, the word Vednta came to mean the school of phi-losophy that interpreted the Upanishads.Vednta is also called Uttara Mms, or the 'lat-ter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired withPurva Mms, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary en-quiry'. Prva Mimamsa, usually simply called Mimamsa,deals with explanations of the re-sacrices of the Vedicmantras (in the Samhita portion of the Vedas) andBrahmanas, while Vedanta explicates the esoteric teach-ings of the rayakas (the forest scriptures), and theUpanishads, composed from the 9th century BCE untilmodern times.

    2 Three basic textsAll sub-schools of the vedanta propound their philosophyby interpreting the Prasthanatrayi, literally, three sources,the three canonical texts of Hindu philosophy, especiallyof the Vedanta schools. It consists of:[4]

    1. The Upanishads, known asUpadesha prasthana (in-junctive texts), and the ruti prasthna (the startingpoint of revelation)

    2. The Brahma Sutras, known as Nyaya prasthana orYukti prasthana (logical text)

    3. The Bhagavad Gita, known as Sadhana prasthana(practical text), and the Smriti prasthna (the start-ing point of remembered tradition)

    The Upanishads consist of twelve or thirteen major texts,with total 108 texts. The Bhagavad Gt is part of theMahabhrata. The Brahma Stras (also known as theVednta Stras), systematise the doctrines taught in theUpanishads and the Gt.All major Vedantic teachers, like Shankara, Rmnuja,and Mdhvchrya, have composed often extensive com-mentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras,but also on theGita. While it is not typically thought of asa purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of Samkhya,Yoga, and Upanishadic thought, the Bhagavad Gita hasplayed a strong role in Vedantic thought.[5]

    3 HistoryAdvaita Vedanta existed prior to Shankara, but foundits most inuential expounder in Shankara.[6] Of theVedanta-school before the composition of the BrahmaSutras (400450 CE[7]) almost nothing is known.[7] Verylittle also is known of the period between the Brah-mansutras and Shankara (rst half of the 8th centuryCE).[7] Only two writings of this period have survived:the Vkyapadya, written by Bharthari (second half5th century[8]), and the Mndkya-krik written byGaudapada (7th century CE).[7]

    3.1 Earliest VedantaSee also: Vedas, Upanishads and Darsanas

    1

  • 2 3 HISTORY

    According to Balasubramanian, the Vedantic philosophyis as old as the Vedas, since the basic ideas of the Vedantasystems are derived from the Vedas.[9] During the Vedicperiod (1500600 BCE[9]) the Rishis formulated theirreligio-philosophical and poetical visions, which are fur-ther explored in the Upanishads,[10] the jnna-knda ofthe Vedas.[11] The Upanishads don't contain a rigorousphilosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and for-mulating the supporting arguments.[12] This philosoph-ical inquiry was performed by the darsanas, the variousphilosophical schools.[13]

    Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the Indian contexttexts are only part of a tradition which is preserved in itspurest form in the oral transmission as it has been goingon.[14] The Upanishads form the basic texts, of whichVedanta gives an interpretation.[15]

    3.2 Bhedabheda and BdaryanasBrahma Sutras

    Main article: Brahma Sutras

    The Brahma Sutras of Bdaryana, also called theVedanta Sutra,[11][note 3] are traditionally ascribed toBdaryana,[note 4] and 200 CE.[17] but are best under-stood as a group of sutras composed by multiple au-thors over the course of hundreds of years.[18] They weremost likely compiled in its present form around 400450CE,[19][18] but the great part of the Sutramust have beenin existence much earlier than that.[19]

    The earliest stratum of sutras in the Brahmasutras isconcerned with interpretation of the Upanishads, es-pecially the dierences between the Chandogya Up-anishad, the Brhadanyaka Upanisgad, and the Tait-tiriya Upanishad.[18] Later additions were concernedwith the refutation of rival philosophical schools, espe-cially Samkhya.[18] According to Nakamura and Das-gupta, the Brahmasutras reect a Bhedabheda point ofview,[18] the most inuential school of Vedanta beforeShankara.[18][note 5]

    Bdaryana was not the rst person to systematise theteachings of the Upanishads.[20] He refers to sevenVedantic teachers before him:[20]

    From the way in which Bdaryana citesthe views of others it is obvious that the teach-ings of the Upanishads must have been ana-lyzed and interpreted by quite a few before himand that his systematization of them in 555 su-tras arranged in four chapters must have beenthe last attempt, most probably the best.[20]

    The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open toa variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation ofnumerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts inits own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.[21]

    3.3 Between BrahmaSutras and Shankara

    According to Nakamura, there must have been an enor-mous number of other writings turned out in this period,but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lostand have not come down to us today.[7] In his com-mentaries, Shankara mentions 99 dierent predecessorsof his Sampradaya.[22] In the beginning of his commen-tary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutesthe teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.[web 1] Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the worksof the later schools, which does give insight into the de-velopment of early Vedanta philosophy.[7]

    The names of various important early Vedanta thinkershave been listed in the Siddhitraya by Yamuncrya(c. 1050), the Vedrthasamgraha by Rmnuja (c.10501157), and the Yatndramatadpik by rnivsa-dsa.[7] Combined together,[7] at least fourteen thinkersare known to have existed between the composition ofthe Brahman Sutras and Shankaras lifetime.[7][note 6]

    3.4 Gaudapada and Shankara

    Main article: Advaita Vedanta

    Gaudapada wrote or compiled[23] the Mukya Krik,also known as the Gauapda Krik and as the gamastra.[note 7] Gaudapda took over the Buddhist doc-trines that ultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijapti-mtra)[2] Gaudapada wove [both doctrines] into a phi-losophy of the Mandukaya Upanisad, which was furtherdeveloped by Shankara.[24]

    Adi Shankara (788820), elaborated on Gaudapadaswork, and is considered to be the founder of AdvaitaVedanta.[2] It was Shankara who succeeded in read-ing Gaudapadas mayavada[25][note 8] into BadarayanasBrahma Sutras, and give it a locus classicus",[25] againstthe realistic strain of the Brahma Sutras.[25][note 9][note 10]His interpretation, including works ascribed to him,has become the normative interpretation of AdvaitaVedanta.[27][25]

    Although Shankara is often considered to be the founderof the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Naka-mura, comparison of the known teachings of these earlyVedantins and Shankaras thought shows that most of thecharacteristics of Shankaras thought were advocated bysomeone before ankara.[28] Shankara was the personwho synthesized the Advaita-vda which had previouslyexisted before him.[28] In this synthesis, he was the re-juvenator and defender of ancient learning.[29] He wasan unequalled commentator,[29] due to whose eorts andcontributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominantposition within Indian philosophy.[29]

  • 4.2 Common features 3

    3.5 BhaktiMain articles: Bhakti and Bhakti movement

    Bhedabheda Vedanta schools played an important rolein the rise of bhakti, such as Suddhadvaita, founded byVallabha[30] (14791531 CE), Achintya Bheda Abheda,founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (14861534)[31] andVishishtadvaita founded by Shri Ramanuja (10171137CE).

    3.6 Integration of various schoolsAccording to Nicholson, already between the 12th andthe 16th century,

    ... certain thinkers began to treat as asingle whole the diverse philosophical teach-ings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, andthe schools known retrospectively as the sixsystems (saddarsana) of mainstream Hinduphilosophy.[32][note 11]

    Both the Indian and the European thinkers who devel-oped the term Hinduism in the 19th century were inu-enced by these philosophers[32] especially Vijnanabhiksu,a Bhedabheda Vedantin.[37] Neo-Vedanta too was in-spired by these thinkers.[37]

    4 Vedanta philosophy

    4.1 Basic questionsThe schools of Vednta seek to answer questions aboutthe relation between atman and Brahman, and the relationbetween Brahman and the world.[1]

    The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation theysee between atman and Brahman:[2]

    According to Advaita Vedanta, there is nodierence.[2]

    According to Dvaita the jvtman is totally dierentfrom Brahman. Even though he is similar to brah-man, he is not identical.

    According to Vishishtadvaita, the jvtman is a partof Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.

    Sivananda gives the following explanation:

    Madhva said: Man is the servant of God,and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ra-manuja said: Man is a ray or spark of God,and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy.

    Sankara said: Man is identical with Brahmanor the Eternal Soul, and established his KevalaAdvaita philosophy.[38]

    All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory ofSatkryavda,[web 6] which means that the eect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two dierent viewson the status of the eect, that is, the world. Mostschools of Vedanta,[26][web 6] as well as Samkhya,[web 6]support Parinamavada, the idea that the world is a realtransformation (parinama) of Brahman.[26] According toNicholson, the Brahma Sutras also espouse the realistParinamavada position, which appears to have been theview most common among early Vedantins.[26] In con-trast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedan-tists hold a dierent view, Vivartavada, which says thatthe eect, the world, is merely an unreal (vivarta) trans-formation of its cause, Brahman:

    [A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo atransformation, in fact no real change takesplace. The myriad of beings are essentially un-real, as the only real being is Brahman, thatultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging,and entirely without parts.[26]

    4.2 Common features

    Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic phi-losophy, all these schools share some common features,that can be called the vedantic core:[39]

    Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire uni-verse and is all pervading and eternal, as found inthe PrasthanatrayiThe Upanishads, the BrahmaSutras and the Bhagavad Gita.

    Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion.Actions are useful only for preparing the mind forknowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved,selsh actions and their rewards must be renounced.

    Bondage is subjection to Sasra, the cycle of deathand rebirth.

    Liberation is deliverance from this cycle.

    Traditional Vednta considers scriptural evidence, orshabda pramna, as the most authentic means of knowl-edge, while perception, or pratyaksa, and logical infer-ence, or anumana, are considered to be subordinate (butvalid).[40][41]

    Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, whichmakes Vedanta irreconcileable with Mimamsa.[42]

  • 4 5 SCHOOLS OF VEDANTA

    5 Schools of VedantaThe contents of the Upanishads are often couched inenigmatic language, which has left them open to variousinterpretations. Over a period of time, various schools ofVedanta, with dierent interpretations of the Upanishadsand the Brahma Sutras arose. There are three,[3] four,[46]ve[30] or six[47][note 12] which are prominent:

    Bhedabheda, as early as the 7th century CE,[48] oreven the 4th century[18]

    Svabhavikabhedabheda or Dvaitdvaita,founded by Nimbarka[30] in the 13th century

    Suddhadvaita, founded by Vallabha[30] (14791531 CE)

    Achintya Bheda Abheda, founded byChaitanya Mahaprabhu (14861534)[31]

    Advaita Vedanta, founded by Gaudapada and ShriAdi Shankara around 700 CE

    Vishishtadvaita, also a subschool of bhedabheda,founded by Shri Ramanuja (10171137 CE)

    Dvaita, founded by Shri Madhvacharya (11991278CE)

    Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to writeand develop their ideas as well, although their works arenot widely known outside of smaller circles of followersin India.

    5.1 BhedabhedaBhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means dier-ence and non-dierence,[48] existed as early as the7th century CE,[48] but Bdaryaas Brahma Stra(c. 4th century CE) may also have been writtenfrom a Bhedbheda Vedntic viewpoint.[48] Accord-ing to the Bhedbheda Vednta schools the individ-ual self (jvtman) is both dierent and not dier-ent from Brahman.[48] Bhakti found a place in laterproponents of this school.[48] Major names of thisschool are Bhskara (8th-9th century),[48] Rmnujasteacher Ydavapraka,[48] Nimbrka (13th century) whofounded the Dvaitadvaita school,[48] Vallabha (14791531)[48] who founded Shuddhadvaita,[30] Caitanya(14861534) who founded the Achintya Bheda Abhedaschool,[48][49] and Vijnabhiku (16th century).[48]

    5.1.1 Dvaitdvaita

    Dvaitdvaita was propounded by Nimbrka (13th cen-tury), based upon Bhedbheda, which was taught byBhskara. According to this school, the jvtman is atonce the same and yet dierent from Brahman. The jiva

    relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of viewand advaita from another. In this school, God is visual-ized as Krishna.[50]

    5.1.2 Shuddhdvaita

    Vallabhacharya

    Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabha (14791531CE). This system also identies Bhakti as the only meansof liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows;the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'). The worldis said to be the sport (ll) of Krishna, who is Sat-Chit-Ananda or, eternal bliss mind.[50]

    5.1.3 Achintya-Bheda-Abheda

    Founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu[49] (14861534).Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of in-conceivable one-ness and dierence,[51] in relation tothe power creation and creator, (Krishna), svayam bha-gavan.[52] and also between God and his energies[53]within the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition. InSanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable',[51] bheda trans-lates as 'dierence', and abheda translates as 'one-ness.It can be best understood as integration of strict dual-ist (Dvaita) view of Madhvacharya and qualied monismVishishtadvaita of Ramanujacharya while rejecting abso-lute monism Advaita of Adi Sankara.

  • 5.4 Dvaita 5

    5.2 Advaita Vednta

    Shankaracharya

    Advaita Vedanta (IAST Advaita Vednta; Sanskrit: [dait ednt]) was propounded byAdi Shankara (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guruGaudapada, who described Ajativada. It is the[54][55][56]sub-school of the Vednta (literally, end or the goal of theVedas, Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy.[57] In theschool of Vednta, Brahman is the only reality, and theworld, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the solereality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatso-ever. An illusory power of Brahman called My causesthe world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the causeof all suering in the world and only upon true knowl-edge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a per-son tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to theinuence of My, Brahman appears as God (Ishvara),separate from the world and from the individual. In re-ality, there is no dierence between the individual souljvtman (see Atman) and Brahman. Liberation lies inknowing the reality of this non-dierence (i.e. a-dvaita,non-duality). Thus, the path to liberation is nally onlythrough knowledge (jna).[50]

    5.3 Vishishtadvaita

    Vishishtadvaita was propounded by Rmnuja (10171137 CE) and says that the jvtman is a part of Brahman,and hence is similar, but not identical. The main dier-ence from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman

    is asserted to have attributes (Saguna brahman), includingthe individual conscious souls andmatter. Brahman, mat-ter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually in-separable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devo-tion to God visualized as Vishnu to be the path to libera-tion. My is seen as the creative power of God.[50][note 13]

    5.4 Dvaita

    Dvaita was propounded by Madhwchrya (11991278CE). It is also referred to as tatvavd - The Philosophyof Reality. It identies God with Brahman completely,and in turn with Vishnu or his various incarnations likeKrishna, Narasimha, Srinivsa etc. In that sense it is alsoknown as sat-vaishnava philosophy to dierentiate fromthe Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. Itregards Brahman, all individual souls (jvtmans) andmatter as eternal and mutually separate entities. Thisschool also advocates Bhakti as the route to sattvic liber-ation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness) and in-dierence towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell andeternal bondage respectively. Liberation is the state ofattaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded toindividual souls (at the end of their sdhana), based onthe souls inherent and natural disposition towards goodor evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurablepower) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the ecient cause ofthe universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is thematerial cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action isperformed by the Lord energizing every soul from within,awarding the results to the soul but Himself not aectedin the least by the results.[50]

    6 Neo-VedantaMain articles: Neo-Vedanta, Hindu nationalism andHindu reform movements

    Neo-Vedanta is a modern interpretation of Vedanta, witha liberal attitude toward the Vedas.[59] It reconciles du-alism and non-dualism,[60] and rejects the universalillusionism[61] of Shankara, despite its reference for clas-sical Advaita Vedanta:

    Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Au-robindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) havebeen labeled neo-Vedantists, a philosophythat rejects the Advaitins claim that the worldis illusory. Aurobindo, in his The Life Divine,declares that he has moved from Sankarasuniversal illusionism to his own universalrealism (2005: 432), dened as metaphysicalrealism in the European philosophical sense ofthe term.[61]

  • 6 7 COMPARISON TO WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES

    Mohandas Gandhi endorsed the Jain concept ofAnekantavada,[62] the notion that truth and reality areperceived dierently from diverse points of view, andthat no single point of view is the complete truth.[63][64]This concept embraces the perspectives of both Vedntawhich, according to Jainism, recognizes substances butnot process, and Buddhism, which recognizes processbut not substance. Jainism, on the other hand, paysequal attention to both substance (dravya) and process(paryaya).[65]

    Neo-Vedanta developed in the 19th century, in interac-tion with and response to colonialism.[59] With the on-set of the British Raj, the colonialisation of India bythe British, there also started a Hindu renaissance in the19th century, which profoundly changed the understand-ing of Hinduism in both India and the west.[66] Westernorientalist searched for the essence of the Indian re-ligions, discerning this in the Vedas,[67] and meanwhilecreating the notion of Hinduism as a unied body ofreligious praxis[68] and the popular picture of 'mysticalIndia'.[68][66]

    This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by the Hindureformers, together with the ideas of Universalism andPerennialism, the idea that all religions share a commonmystic ground.[69] The Brahmo Samaj, who was sup-ported for a while by the Unitarian Church,[70] played anessential role in the introduction and spread of this newunderstanding of Hinduism.[71] Vedanta came to be re-garded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedantacame to be regarded as then paradigmatic example ofthe mystical nature of the Hindu religion.[72]

    A major proponent in the popularisation of this Univer-salist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedantawas Vivekananda,[73] who played a major role in therevival of Hinduism,[74] and the spread of AdvaitaVedanta to the west via the Ramakrishna Mission. Hisinterpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called Neo-Vedanta.[75] The popular understanding of Hinduismhas been dominated by this neo-Vedanta,[68][note 14] inwhich mysticism,[68] Aryan origins and the unity ofHinduism[76] have been emphasised.[77][78][79][68]

    These notions also served well for the Hindu nationalists,who further popularised this notion of Advaita Vedantaas the pinnacle of Indian religions.[80] It provided an op-portunity for the construction of a nationalist ideologythat could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonialoppression.[81]

    7 Comparison to Western philoso-phies

    Similarities between Vedanta and Western philosophi-cal traditions have been discussed by many authorities.Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world,

    since the late 18th century an exchange of ideas hasbeen taking place between the western world and Asia,which also inuenced western religiosity.[82] In 1785 ap-peared the rst western translation of a Sanskrit-text.[83]It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture andlanguages.[84] The rst translation of Upanishads ap-peared in two parts in 1801 and 1802,[84] which inu-encedArthur Schopenhauer, who called them the conso-lation of my life.[85][note 15] Schopenhauer drew explicitparallels between his philosophy, as set out in 'TheWorldas Will and Representation',[86] and that of the Vedantaphilosophy ascribed to Vasya in the work of Sir WilliamJones.[87] Early translations also appeared in other Euro-pean languages.[88]

    In 20th century, comparisons between Advaita, west-ern philosophy, and science took a high ight. BrianDavid Josephson, Welsh physicist, and Nobel Prize lau-reate says:[89]

    The Vedanta and the Sankhya hold the keyto the laws of the mind and thought processwhich are co-related to the Quantum Field, i.e.the operation and distribution of particles atatomic and molecular levels.

    7.1 SpinozaMaxMller, in his lectures, noted the striking similaritiesbetween Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying

    [T]he Brahman, as conceived in the Upan-ishads and dened by Sankara, is clearly thesame as Spinozas 'Substantia'.[90]

    Helena Blavatsky, a founder of the Theosophical Society,also compared Spinozas religious thought to Vedanta,writing in an unnished essay

    As to Spinozas Deitynatura naturansconceived in his attributes simply and alone;and the same Deityas natura naturata or asconceived in the endless series of modica-tions or correlations, the direct outowing re-sults from the properties of these attributes, itis the Vedantic Deity pure and simple.[91]

    The 19th-century German Sanskritist Theodore Gold-stcker was one of the early gures to notice the similari-ties between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta andthose of the Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza,writing that Spinozas thought was

    ... so exact a representation of the ideasof the Vedanta, that we might have suspectedits founder to have borrowed the fundamen-tal principles of his system from the Hindus,

  • 7did his biography not satisfy us that he waswholly unacquainted with their doctrines [...]comparing the fundamental ideas of both weshould have no diculty in proving that, hadSpinoza been a Hindu, his system would in allprobability mark a last phase of the Vedantaphilosophy.[92][93]

    8 See also Monistic idealism List of teachers of Vedanta Self-consciousness (Vedanta)

    9 Notes[1] Considered to be the last appendix or nal layer of the

    Vedic canon

    [2] Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History ofReligions at the Union Theological Seminary, wrotein Random House's The American College Dictionary(1966): It [Vednta] is concerned with the end of theVedas, both chronologically and teleologically.

    [3] The Vednta-stra are known by a variety of names,including (1) Brahma-stra, (2) rraka, (3) Vysa-stra, (4) Bdaryaa-stra, (5) Uttara-mms and (6)Vednta-darana.[16]

    [4] Estimates of the date of Bdaryanas lifetime dier be-tween 200 BCE

    [5] Nicholson: Numerous Indologists, including Suren-dranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, andMysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as themost inuential school of Vedanta before Sankara.[18]

    [6] Bharthari (c. 450500), Upavarsa (c. 450500), Bod-hyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmnandin) (c. 500550),Dravida (c. 550), Bhartprapaca (c. 550), abarasvmin(c. 550), Bhartmitra (c. 550600), rivatsnka (c. 600),Sundarapndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600700),Gaudapada (c. 640690), Govinda (c. 670720), Man-danamira (c. 670750).[7]

    [7] Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrinebetween the four chapters.[23]

    [8] The term mayavada is still being used, in a critical way,by the Hare Krshnas. See [web 2] [web 3] [web 4] [web 5]

    [9] Nicholson: The Brahmasutras themselves espouse the re-alist Parinamavada position, which appears to have beenthe view most common among early Vedantins.[26]

    [10] B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow dicult he himself found thetask of making the Sutras yield a Monism of his concep-tion, is proved by the articiality and parenthetical irrel-evance of his comments in many places, where he seeks

    to go against the spirit and letter of the Sutras and theirnatural drift of arguments and dialectic [...] he was ght-ing with all his might and ingenuity against a long line ofrealistic commentaries.[25]

    [11] The tendency of a blurring of philosophical distinctionshas also been noted by Burley.[33] Lorenzen locates theorigins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction be-tween Muslims and Hindus,[34] and a process of mutualself-denition with a contrasting Muslim other,[35] whichstarted well before 1800.[36]

    [12] Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the Shaiva Sid-dhanta philosophy.[3]

    [13] Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita was propounded by SriSrinivasa Deekshitulu (950 A.D.). It is primarily re-lated to Vaikhanasa School of thought (based on Tait-tiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras.It is strictly followed by the original priests of the cel-ebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day.It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkalaforms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman,the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This schoolpropounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana'(knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to lib-eration. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman isLord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnumust be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tiru-mala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the imple-mentation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.[58]

    [14] Also called neo-Hinduism[68]

    [15] And called his poodle Atman.[85]

    10 References[1] Raju 1992, p. 176-177.

    [2] Raju 1992, p. 177.

    [3] Sivananda 1993, p. 217.

    [4] Vepa, Kosla. The Dhaarmik Traditions. Indic StudiesFoundation.

    [5] Pasricha, Ashu (2008). Encyclopaedia of EminentThinkers: The Political Thought of C. Rajagopalachari,Volume 15. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.p. 95. ISBN 9788180694950.

    [6] The seven great untenables: Sapta-vidh anupapatti. ByJohn A Grimes. Introduction, p.7. Motilal Banarsidass1990

    [7] Nakamura 2004, p. 3.

    [8] Nakamura 2004, p. 426.

    [9] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxix.

    [10] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxixxxx.

    [11] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxxii.

  • 8 10 REFERENCES

    [12] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxx.

    [13] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxxxxxi.

    [14] deutsch 2004, p. 95.

    [15] Deutsch 2004, p. 95-96.

    [16] Goswmi, S.D. (1976), Readings in Vedic Literature: TheTradition Speaks for Itself, , pp. 240 pages, ISBN 0-912776-88-9

    [17] Pandey 2000, p. 4.

    [18] Nicholson 2010, p. 26.

    [19] Nakamura 1990, p. 436.

    [20] Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxxiii.

    [21] Nicholson 2010, p. 26-27.

    [22] Roodurmum 2002.

    [23] Nakamura 2004, p. 308.

    [24] Raju 1992, p. 177-178.

    [25] Sharma 2000, p. 64.

    [26] Nicholson 2010, p. 27.

    [27] Nakamura 2004.

    [28] Nakamura 2004, p. 678.

    [29] Nakamura 2004, p. 679.

    [30] Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, Univer-sity of Washington, Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis ofDiverse Schools

    [31] Sivananda 1993, p. 248.

    [32] Nicholson 2010, p. 2.

    [33] Burley 2007, p. 34.

    [34] Lorenzen 2006, p. 24-33.

    [35] Lorenzen 2006, p. 27.

    [36] Lorenzen 2006, p. 26-27.

    [37] Nicholson 2010.

    [38] Sivananda, p. 217.

    [39] Sheridan 1985, p. 136.

    [40] Puligandla 1997.

    [41] Raju 1992.

    [42] Raju 1992, p. 175-176.

    [43] Sheridan, Daniel (1986). The Advaitic Theism of the Bh-gavata Pura. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 139. Re-trieved 2012-12-12.

    [44] Sivananda 1993.

    [45] Gerald Surya, Review of A Critique of A. C. Bhak-tivedanta by K. P. Sinha

    [46] Raju 1992, p. 175-200.

    [47] Sivananda 1993, p. 216.

    [48] Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, BhedbhedaVednta

    [49] Sivananda 1993, p. 247.

    [50] Vedanta on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia

    [51] Gupta 2007, p. 47-52.

    [52] Kaviraja year unknown.

    [53] Prabhupada 1972.

    [54] Consciousness in Advaita Vednta By William M. In-dich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.

    [55] Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism. Class.uidaho.edu.Retrieved 2011-06-10.

    [56] The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Ma-harashtra, By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, StateUniversity of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.

    [57] Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, ByEliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN0-88706-662-3

    [58] Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam byUbhaya VedantaPravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sari-raka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri VikhanasTrust, Tirumala 2004

    [59] King 2001.

    [60] Sooklal 1993.

    [61] Gier 2013, p. 268-269.

    [62] Panicker 2006, p. 190-191.

    [63] Dundas 2004, p. 123136.

    [64] Koller 2004, p. 400407.

    [65] Burch 1964, p. 6893.

    [66] King 2002.

    [67] King & 2002 118.

    [68] King 1999.

    [69] King 2002, p. =119-120.

    [70] Jones 2006, p. 114.

    [71] King 2002, p. 123.

    [72] King 2002, p. 128.

    [73] King 2002, p. 135-142.

    [74] Dense 1999, p. 191.

  • 11.1 Published sources 9

    [75] Mukerji 1983.

    [76] King 1999, p. 171.

    [77] Muesse 2011, p. 3-4.

    [78] Doniger 2010, p. 18.

    [79] Jouhki 2006, p. 10-11.

    [80] King 2002, p. 129-130.

    [81] King 2002, p. 133.

    [82] McMahan 2008.

    [83] Renard 2010, p. 176.

    [84] Renard 2010, p. 177.

    [85] Renard 2010, p. 178.

    [86] Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Represen-tation. Translated from the German by EFJ Payne. DoverPublications, vol. 1, chap. 1

    [87] Jones, Sir William. On the Philosophy of the Asiatics. SirWilliam Jones. Asiatic Researches, vol. 4, p. 164

    [88] Renard 2010, p. 183-184.

    [89] Synthesis of Science and Spirituality

    [90] Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy. F. MaxMuller. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p123

    [91] H.P Blavatskys Collected Writings, Volume 13, pages308-310. Quest Books

    [92] Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Gold-stucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p32.

    [93] The Westminster Review, Volumes 78-79, Baldwin,Cradock, and Joy, 1862. p1862

    11 Sources

    11.1 Published sources Balasubramanian, R. (2000), Introduction. In: Chat-

    topadhyana (gen.ed.), History of Science, Philoso-phy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume IIPart 2: Advaita Vedanta, Delhi: Centre for Stud-ies in Civilizations

    Burch, George Bosworth (1964), Seven-ValuedLogic in Jain Philosophy, International Philosoph-ical Quarterly (Bronx, NY) IV (1): 6893, ISSN0019-0365

    Burley, Mikel (2007), Classical Samkhya and Yoga:An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Taylor &Francis

    Dense, Christian D. Von (1999), Philosophers andReligious Leaders, Greenwood Publishing Group

    Deutsch, Eliot; Dalvi, Rohit (2004), The EssentialVedanta: A New Source Book of Advaita Vedanta,World Wisdom, Inc.

    Doniger, Wendy (2010), TheHindus: An AlternativeHistory, Oxford University Press

    Dundas, Paul (2004), Tara Sethia, ed., Ahims,Aneknta, and Jaininsm, Delhi: Motilal BanarsidassPubl, ISBN 81-208-2036-3

    Gier, Nicholas F. (2012). Overreaching to bedierent: A critique of Rajiv Malhotras Be-ing Dierent. International Journal of HinduStudies (Springer Netherlands) 16 (3): 259285. doi:10.1007/s11407-012-9127-x. ISSN 1022-4556.

    Gupta, Ravi M. (2007), Caitanya Vaisnava Vedantaof Jiva Gosvamis Catursutri tika, Routledge, ISBN0-415-40548-3

    Jones, Constance; Ryan, James D. (2006), Encyclo-pedia of Hinduism, Infobase Publishing

    Jouhki, Jukka (2006), Orientalism and India(PDF), J@RGONIA 8/2006

    Kaviraja, K.G. (n.d.), Sri Caitanya-caritamrita.Bengali text, translation, and commentary by ACBhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, BhaktivedantaBook Trust

    King, Richard (1999), Orientalism and Religion:Post-Colonial Theory, India and The Mystic East,Routledge

    King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion:Post-Colonial Theory, India and The Mystic East,Taylor & Francis e-Library

    Koller, John (2004), (ed.) Tara Sethia, ed., Ahims,Aneknta, and Jaininsm, Delhi: Motilal BanarsidassPubl, ISBN 81-208-2036-3

    Lorenzen, David N. (2006), Who Invented Hin-duism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press

    Muesse, Mark W. (2011), The Hindu Traditions: AConcise Introduction, Fortress Press

    Mukerji, Mdhava Bithika (1983), Neo-Vedantaand Modernity, Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan

    Nakamura, Hajime (1990), A History of EarlyVedanta Philosophy. Part One, Delhi: Motilal Ba-narsidass Publishers Private Limited

    Nakamura, Hajime (2004), A History of EarlyVedanta Philosophy. Part Two, Delhi: Motilal Ba-narsidass Publishers Private Limited

    Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism:Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual His-tory, Columbia University Press

  • 10 12 FURTHER READING

    Pandey, S. L. (2000), Pre-Sankara Advaita. In:Chattopadhyana (gen.ed.), History of Science, Phi-losophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume IIPart 2: Advaita Vedanta, Delhi: Centre for Studiesin Civilizations

    Panicker, P.L. John (2006), Gandhi on Pluralismand Communalism, ISPCK

    Prabhupada, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami (1972),Bhagavad-gita as it is, Bhaktivedanta Book TrustLos Angeles, California

    Puligandla, Ramakrishna (1997), Fundamentals ofIndian Philosophy, New Delhi: D. K. Printworld (P)Ltd.

    Raju, P. T. (1992), The Philosophical Traditions ofIndia, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers PrivateLimited

    Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. De directebevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip

    Roodurmum, Pulasth Soobah (2002), Bhmat andVivaraa Schools of Advaita Vednta: A CriticalApproach, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass PublishersPrivate Limited

    Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000), History of theDvaita School of Vednta and Its Literature: Fromthe Earliest Beginnings to Our Own Times, MotilalBanarsidass Publishers

    Sivananda, Swami (1993), All About Hinduism, TheDivine Life Society

    Sooklal, Anil (1993), The Neo-Vedanta Philoso-phy of Swami Vivekananda (PDF), Nidan, 5, 1993

    11.2 Web-sources[1] advaita-deanta.org, Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya

    [2] Swami B.V. Giri, Gaudya Touchstone, Mayavada andBuddhism Are They One and the Same?

    [3] harekrishnatemple.com, Mayavada Philosophy

    [4] harekrsna.com, The Mayavada School

    [5] Gaura Gopala Dasa, The Self-Defeating Philosophy ofMayavada

    [6] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, BhedbhedaVednta

    12 Further reading Vedanta Treatise: The Eternities by Swami

    Parthasarathy

    The System of Vedanta by Paul Deussen. 1912.Reprint 2007.

    The Eye of Shiva. New York, William Morrow &Co. 1981. Amaury de Reincourt

    Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition byHuston Smith

    Theology After Vedanta by Francis X. Clooney Sankara and Indian Philosophy, by Natalia Isayeva A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy by Hajime

    Nkmura Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies and Vedanta

    Sutras of Nryana Guru by Karl Potter and Siba-jiban Bhattachrya

    Isherwood, Bowles, Vedanta, Wicca, and Me by LeeProsser. 2001. ISBN 0-595-20284-5

    The Upanishads by Sri Aurobindo . Sri AurobindoAshram, Pondicherry. 1972.

    Choice Upanishads by Swami Parthasarathy Vedanta: A Simple Introduction by Pravrajika Vra-

    japrana

    Swami Bhoomnanda Tirtha NarayanashramaTapovanam

    Three Upanisads of The Vedanta by J. L. Bansal Nomenclature of the Vedas by Swamini Atmapraj-

    nananda Saraswati

  • 11

    13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses13.1 Text

    Vedanta Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanta?oldid=666298296 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bdesham, Alex756, Kaysov, Hashar,Reddi, Jay, KRS, Imc, Fibonacci, Carlossuarez46, Shantavira, Robbot, Goethean, O. Pen Sauce, Chancemill, Sam Spade, Dilbert, Rur-sus, Jondel, Sunray, Crculver, Barbara Shack, Rudolf 1922, Tom harrison, Bkonrad, Hoho~enwiki, Mboverload, LordSimonofShrop-shire, Jossi, Karol Langner, Master Of Ninja, Johnwalton, CALR, Chaipau, Agnistus, Dbachmann, El C, QuartierLatin1968, Cmdrjame-son, Oop, Rahuldewan, Raj2004, Anthony Appleyard, Wiki-uk, Diego Moya, ABCD, Vedantm, Maqs, Angr, Hanumandas, Mel Etitis,Ganeshk, Ma Baker, Sumedha, Dangerous-Boy, M Alan Kazlev, Graham87, BD2412, FreplySpang, Mana Excalibur, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi,TheRingess, Manasgarg, Afterwriting, Gozar, Aidoor, Paul foord, Chobot, DaGizza, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RobotE, Khirad, Pigman, The-Mandarin, Srini81, Akma, Zwobot, Siyavash, Rdsingh, Fencingchamp, Rudrasharman, Langdell~enwiki, RDF, SMcCandlish, BorgQueen,Mistvan, RG2, Sethie, Attilios, SmackBot, Lestrade, Martinp, Georgeryp, Eskimbot, Alosel, BiT, Srkris, Magicalsaumy, Rmosler2100,Chris the speller, John Reaves, Mladilozof, Vivekk, PrasanthRamkumar, Aoclery, Sammishra, Itchjones, RandomP, Gschadow, Leaord,Takowl, Kukini, Vijaykum, Kurubagowda, Sreekanthv, Armyrie9, Mathias-S, A. Parrot, MarcAurel, Interlingua, Skinsmoke, Binupotti,Nehrams2020, Iridescent, Khushal pharma, JoeBot, Bsskchaitanya, Buddhaboy108, Dev rishi, CmdrObot, Bharatadesam, Lighthead, Greg-bard, Cydebot, Pratikbose, Casmurthy, Babub, Mattisse, O Govinda, Vidyasankar, Philippe, Anirudh777, Strifey, Vidyapati dasa, Jj137,Itistoday, Kb3lja, Schengalath, JAnDbot, Deective, Barek, MER-C, Matthew Fennell, Frankie816, PhilKnight, Magioladitis, VoABot II,SDas, RoryStory, Presearch, HeBhagawan, Howiemac, Edward321, Rickard Vogelberg, Kkrystian, Anarchia, Kiore, CommonsDelinker,Nigholith, Ian.thomson, 1000Faces, Ajnichol, Zerokitsune, Madhava 1947, Ashok Prabhu, MartinBotIII, Redtigerxyz, Skant, RashmiPa-tel, Carlvincent, Buddhipriya, Davin, Robert1947, HrishiAmur, Ultra1bob, SieBot, Made Adiputra~enwiki, Steven Zhang, Fratrep, RandyKryn, WikipedianMarlith, ClueBot, Truthseeker21, M^A^L, Simon D M, Jotterbot, Nvvchar, SchreiberBike, Vedantausa, Tseno Maxi-mov, Enimerotita, Editor2020, Wikidas, Crowsnest, Indopug, DumZiBoT, Life of Riley, Mitsube, Cminard, HenryFaber, Voltigeur, Ad-dbot, Shawnmichael79, Gbito, Princesspark, LemmeyBOT, Lightbot, Rmuthukrishnan, Gaurav Tikyani, Tat Tvam Asi, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Arunpsmn, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Ramakrishnadeekshit, AnomieBOT, Mpistunova, Keithbob, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Xqbot,Tall-timothy, DSisyphBot, Jburlinson, Tomwsulcer, Zenotopia~enwiki, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Lleehein, DefenseSupport-Party, Little Flower Eagle, Gene5ive, FrescoBot, Naraharikarthik, Adam9389, Sdebbad, Aditya soni, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, Sky-erise, MastiBot, Reconsider the static, Leggette, Merqri, Tofutwitch11, Wikielwikingo, Ryerrams, TjBot, Hajatvrc, Myaoon, EmausBot,John of Reading, Vedanta108, GoingBatty, TuHan-Bot, TeleComNasSprVen, Shearonink, Kkm010, Sap.prabhu, PBS-AWB, Anir1uph,Soumit ban, Samuel de mazarin, Telugujoshi, Sabyasachi Mishra, Manytexts, ClueBot NG, Narayana.raghavendra, Vidwansuman, HelpfulPixie Bot, Titodutta, BG19bot, MKar, AvocatoBot, Anastomoses, LhunGrub, Joshua Jonathan, Mirjam Amalthea, SatyamMithya, Bat-tyBot, Amitrochates, Justincheng12345-bot, Deeprootdeeproot, ChrisGualtieri, Hayagreevadasa, Dustin Dewynne, Rockin It Loud, Stal-lion444, Makecat-bot, Thedeadlypenguin, Kanthams, Thardik, Hiteshrndl, Scholaroh, Zodiacastro, Ashishtripat, Lakun.patra, Filedelink-erbot, BRSingha, Party3322, Vnibin, KasparBot, Knife-in-the-drawer, Pardeep kumar jonu, Hayrettin Van Aken and Anonymous: 273

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    13.3 Content license Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

    EtymologyThree basic textsHistoryEarliest VedantaBhedabheda and Bdaryanas Brahma SutrasBetween BrahmaSutras and ShankaraGaudapada and ShankaraBhaktiIntegration of various schools

    Vedanta philosophyBasic questionsCommon features

    Schools of VedantaBhedabhedaDvaitdvaitaShuddhdvaitaAchintya-Bheda-Abheda

    Advaita VedntaVishishtadvaitaDvaita

    Neo-VedantaComparison to Western philosophiesSpinoza

    See alsoNotesReferencesSourcesPublished sourcesWeb-sources

    Further readingText and image sources, contributors, and licensesTextImagesContent license