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Using Digital Cameras to Assess Motor LearningMel E. Finkenberg , Stu Ryan a , Scott Marzilli a & Trey Martindale ba Division of Health, Leisure, and Exercise Scienceb Division of Technology, Research, and Development , University of West Florida ,Pensacola , FL , 32514Published online: 11 Mar 2013.

To cite this article: Mel E. Finkenberg , Stu Ryan , Scott Marzilli & Trey Martindale (2001) Using Digital Cameras to AssessMotor Learning, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 72:8, 13-16, DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2001.10605793

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2001.10605793

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TECHNOLOGY TIPS

Editor: Mel E. Finkenberg

Using Digital Cameras to AssessMotor LeamingStu Ryan Scott Marzilli Trey Martindale

One major part of education re­form in many states is the inte­

gration of new assessment techniquesand technology into the classroom.While both areas are essential, manyphysical education teachers strugglewith them due to time and financiallimitations. For example, some phy­sical education programs use video­tape feedback to help students bettercomprehend and assess their motor­skill performances (e.g., see Jambor& Weekes, 1995).While videotapehas many benefits, it can be burden­some for both teachers and students(Bergen, 2000). Setting up tripods,finding someone to operate the cam­era, and rolling out a television towatch the footage can take up a lotof time, assuming that you evenhave all of the equipment.

An alternative to videotaping isstill-photography. Photographs havebeen used in numerous settings tohelp enhance motor-skill acquisition.Many golf, tennis, and snowskiingjournals and physical educationbooks rely heavily on photography,taking for granted that the informa­tion it relays will be invaluable toreaders (Singer, 1980); after all, someevidence has indicated that visualfeedback is the most critical to motorlearning (Adams, 1977; Rickli & Smith,1980; Siltanen-Hansen, 1997).

Recent technological advanceshave produced cheap, lightweight,easy-to-use digital cameras that candownload still images to your com­puter. Many schools have invested inone or more such cameras and have

October 2001 • JOPERD • Vol. 72 No.8

found several educational applica­tions for them (e.g., see Bergen, 2000;Clark, Hosticka, & Bedell, 2000; Kriss,1997; Lazarus, 1998).These camerashave in turn enhanced many curricu­lar activities (Clark et al.).

Using digital cameras, teachersand students can quickly take manypictures and print them out in blackand white or color. Images can alsobe observed in a camera's viewfinderand either stored in memory orerased (Lester & Mulroney, 1998).This gives the photographer the flex­ibility to edit on the spot and takejust the right pictures. This conve­nience may allow teachers and stu­dents to use still cameras in the samemanner that videotape is used toimprove and assess motor learning.While a still photo doesn't replicatethe full action of a movement, itcan nevertheless give studentsmuch-needed feedback abouttheir performance.

For example, teachers and stu­dents could take pictures of groupsand individuals executing variousstages of a motor skill. These picturescould then be transferred to an elec­tronic document with pre-designedquestions or with rubrics reflectingthe correct movements. The teachercould print out copies of the docu­ment for the students in the nextclass. Students could then use theseworksheets to assess motor-skill per­formance (their own or that of theirpeers) by analyzing the pictures andanswering questions.Teachers cancreate many such worksheets for

various skills. They may need todo a little technology homeworkfirst, though.

The Digital RevolutionDigital cameras hit the market aboutfive years ago with the idea that wewouldn't have to use film again.These cameras use an electronic sen­sor to capture an image and preserveit on data-storage media such as afloppy disk or your computer's harddrive. Thousands of images can bestored in this manner for later use.As with any standard camera, youget what you pay for when it comesto digital-image quality. Therefore,when purchasing a digital camera,you will need to pay attention to vari­ous terms (see table 1) and to thefeatures offered by each product.

Resolution is the principal deter­minant of image quality, which ismeasured in pixels. The higher thepixel count, the sharper the pictures(and the higher the camera's pricetag). The minimum figure to aim foris 1280 x 960 true optical resolution(that's 1.2 mega pixels). Additionalfeatures like zoom or auto-focuslenses improve the quality as well,but add to the price.

Many cameras suffer from un­friendly user functions. Menus shouldbe intuitive and easy to navigate.Also try to select a camera that hasan optical viewfinder in addition tothe LCD monitor for easy, eye-levelviewing. LCD monitors are notoriousfor washing out in sunlight, requiringyou to hold the camera in an uncom-

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Table 1. Digital·CItI'rI.....nns

CompactFlash-The most common type of memory storage for digitalcameras. It is removable, small, and available in sizes from 4MB up to200MB.

PC card-Refers to a credit card-size device that enhances a computer onceinstalled (e.g., a flash memory card, a network card, a modem, or even ahard drive).

CompactFlash II-A new CompactFlash standard with increased capacity.

Digital zoom-The "electronic brain" within the camera zooms in digitally,usually two to three times closer.

Flashpath-A floppy disk-size shell into which a SmartMedia memory cardis inserted so that images can be transferred directly to the computerthrough its floppy drive.

Floppy-disk adapter-A device that resembles a floppy disk and allowsSmartMedia cards or Sony Memory Stick modules to be read in a standardfloppy-disk drive.

ble a stick of gum and come in sizesfrom 4MB up to 64MB. If you havea camera that is compatible withSmartMedia or CompactFlash, youcan buy a FlashPath adapter, whichresembles a floppy disk. Simplyplace a memory stick, SmartMediacard (up to 64MB), or CompactFlashcard (up to 200MB) in the adapterand insert it in the floppy drive ofyour computer. Easier yet, buy acamera that has a traditional floppydrive so that you can transfer imagesvia disk. It is also possible to bypassthe computer and print photos di­rectly to a printer. Several new print­ers have CompactFlash and Smart­Media card slots and the capabilityto crop, size, and print pictures.

What to Do with the PicturesAfter class is a good time to load pic­tures of students into computer filesdesignated for each class period sothat they are not misplaced. Down­loaded pictures may be edited orthrown away if you feel they don'treflect the phases that are needed

Taking the PictureTeachers wanting to take motor skill­related pictures need to considera few options. It may be difficult orimpractical to take a digital pictureof every student. It is more realisticto try to take pictures of studentsin rows or small groups attemptingthe same skill. Most kids like to seethemselves in pictures, so the more,the merrier. For example, you cantake a picture of four or five studentsworking on the various phases ofkicking. Taking a picture of severalstudents in a row demonstrating thesame phase may be desirable. Indi­vidual pictures are fine, but makesure that the student is doing theskill correctly so that other studentsanalyzing the picture won't makefun of the student for doing it incor­rectly. Let students know that noteveryone of them will have theirpicture taken; reassure them thattheir peers are good representationsof their own skill level and that youwill try to make sure their pictureis taken next time.

cables to a computer port, and theimages are downloaded. Serial andparallel cables are pretty slow, whileUSB is very fast. SCSI and PCMCIAinterfaces are also faster than paral­lel or serial connections. Many cam­eras use memory sticks that resem-

Megapixel-One million pixels. Pixels, short for "picture elements," are thesmallest units that make up a digital image. The higher the pixel count of animage, the better its resolution.

Memory-card reader-Allows images recorded on digital-camera memorycards to be rapidly transferred to a computer. The memory card (containinga folder of images) shows up as an external drive on the computer's desktop,and the entire folder can be copied over to the hard drive in seconds.

Memory Stick-Sony's memory card (holds up to 64MB).

Movie clip-A sequence of motion captured in AVI, MOV, or MPEGformat. Some digital cameras can capture short movie sequences (less than30 seconds long); some can also record sound.

Optical zoom-The actual lens elements inside the camera move to achievethe desired effect.

PCMCIA-The card slots on laptop computers that allow one to use PCcards. Most commonly used for rapid transfer of data from a CompactFlashor SmartMedia memory card to the host computer.

SCSI-A high-speed input/output bus used mainly in Macintosh computersbut also popular in many high-end PCs.

SmartMedia-Also known as SSFDC (Solid State Floppy Disk Card). Apostage stamp-size memory card used by some digital camera manufacturersas an alternative to CompactFlash cards. Presently capable of storing up to64MB of digital image information.

USB (Universal Serial Bus)-A computer port to which peripherals canbe connected; when hooked up to a USB-equipped digital camera, allowsrapid transfer of digital images.

fortable position to use them.Photos can be transferred to your

computer through several types ofconnections. Serial, parallel, andUSB cables are the standard way todo it. After taking pictures, the digitalcamera is connected by one of these

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Name: _

Kicking Assessment WorksheetAfter looking at the pictures, circle examples for eachquestion under the pictures.

· .•• llllIit~. ~;-....._.Find and circle feet planted next to ball and toespointed to target.

Find and circle toes pointed to ground.

Find and circle contaCting,ballwith shoelaceS.. ..... . :-, ',,;

Find and circle knees over the ball.

"::roSenC"<~c

~..L- ~:1

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r------------------------------,Table 2. Sample Digital-Camera Projects

Physical education newsletter-Teachers and students can take picturesof activities and special events and insert them into a newsletter-styledocument that they create.

Learning progression-Take pictures of students performing activities atvarious stages throughout a unit or school year for later analysis.

Bulletin boards-Post pictures of skills, activities. or students of the week.

Good-behavior pictures-Post examples of students demonstrating Iappropriate behavior.

Physical education web site-Post pictures on-line to show off your~students and program.

_.. ~.__• -+ "---

may need improvement, then addideas for correcting the problems:'Teachers looking for great questionsand worksheet ideas can find a pleth­ora of information in the "Assess­ment Ideas" section of the PE Centralweb site (www.pecentral.org).

Once a worksheet has been cre­ated electronically, you will need toprint out one black-and-white copyand then have photocopies made forthe students. At any time during aunit, students can take the worksheethome, or you can save them for arainy-day activity. Parents will enjoyseeing proof of the learning that istaking place in your program. Keepin mind, though, that school andcounty policies may need to be takeninto consideration when pictures ofstudents are used in assignments.

SummaryWith today's movement toward ac­countability in education, physicaleducators, like all other teachers, areconstantly being asked, "What areyour students learning?" Fortunately,many new technological resourcesare providing teachers with variousnew assessment options. Usingdigital cameras to take skill-relatedpictures of your students is onesuch promising option. Teachers areencouraged to use this technologyfor any kind of skill assessment andfor other student projects (see table2 for a list of ideas). Additional infor­mation on the use of digital camerasin education can be found on severalweb sites (table 3).

phrases or cues with movements inthe pictures in order to demonstratetheir understanding of the skill. Youcan also add comprehension itemssuch as: "By looking at the picture,explain how your kicking techniqueis similar to or different from that ofother students:' An application ques­tion could read, "If you were theteacher looking at the pictures, howwould you suggest ways to improveyour kicking or that of one of yourpeers?" A similar evaluation itemcould read, "Looking at the pictures,try to find some examples of skills(your own or someone else's) that

for students to assess themselvesor their classmates. There are severalsoftware programs that can help youcreate worksheets and templates andedit images. Microsoft Word or Pub­lisher can handle the basic tasks, buta more design-specific program likePhotoPrinter, PhotoSuite, or Photo­shop will offer more editing options.

At this point, you can cut andpaste the formatted pictures into apre-designed electronic worksheet(figure 1). Pictures will probably needto be cropped and shaped to fit theworksheet. The sheet should containitems that require students to match

Station work-Take pictures that can serve as examples of activities, to beposted at skill stations.

Roll book-Take pictures of all students at the beginning of the school yearI with their names attached) for easy recall.

Student portfolios-Teachers and students take pictures throughout theyear for physical education portfolios.

Posters-Students can develop theme posters of themselves or others usingdigital pictures.

------_._--_._---------Table 3. Web Sites

Digital Cameras Enhance EducationIwww.ozemail.com.au/-cumulus/digcam.html

Digital Cameras(http://inst.augie.edu/-hanavan/media/digitalcameras.htm )

Enhancing Learning Through Imaging(www.kodak.com/US/en/digital/edu/education.shtmll

Kodak Digital Learning CenterI www.kodak.corn/Ud/en/digital/dlc )

Short CoursesI www.shortcourses.com)

---_._-- - --- ------

ReferencesAdams, J. A. (1977). Effects of visual

and proprioceptive feedback onmotor learning. Journal of MotorBehavior, 9(1), 11-22.

Bergen, D. (2000). Linking technologyand teaching practice. ChildhoodEducation, 76(4), 252-253.

Clark, K., Hosticka, A., & Bedell, J.(2000). Digital cameras in theclassroom. Proceedings of the So­ciety for Information Technology&Teacher Education InternationalConference, USA, 1-3,1169-1174.

Continues on page 18

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AssessmentThe final component of this methodscourse is the final exam. It is uniquein that it is an authentic assessmentof not only the knowledge gainedduring the course but also the teach­ing skills, strategies, game ideas,and class-management techniqueslearned during lectures and practic­ed during field experiences. The finalexam requires undergraduates toteach an entire physical educationlesson or some portion of a lesson inan actual public elementary school.Their teaching is videotaped, andthey are later provided with an assess­ment instrument to record variousteacher and student behaviors (feed­back, transition, movement, etc.) asthey watch their video and reflect ontheir teaching. All of the statementson the assessment instrument con­cern topics and knowledge that theyhave learned and discussed through­out the semester. The instrument it­self uses a Likert scale: the studentsrespond to a series of statementsby circling the number that theyfeel most closely addresses whatthey did or observed. For example:

Specific feedback was provided to

individuals about their performance.

NA (not applicable)

1 (unacceptable)

2 (met minimum standards)

3 (good)

4 (excellent)

One of our partnership teachersthen views the video and assessesthe given undergraduate's teachingusing the same instrument. Again,in collaborating with these teachersover the years, we have developeda great deal of respect for what theydo, for the services they provide toour undergraduates, and for theirwillingness to be informed profes­sionals who are looking out for thefuture of our discipline.

The final process in this examis the university professor's assess­ment of the teaching episode. Theundergraduate, partnership teacher,and university professor then meet

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to discuss, share ideas, and pro­vide feedback.

The final exam serves as a learn­ing tool. It is evaluated based onhow well the undergraduates areable to reflect on their teaching, noton whether their videotaped lessons"bombed." We all know that eventhe best-made lesson plans do notalways work; the key to effectiveteaching is being able to recognizewhy. Was it because my transitionswere too slow? Were my instructionsunclear? Did my organization of theclass create too much waiting time?Our undergraduates need to be ableto reflect on their lessons, discusswhat they saw, and generate an­swers for questions such as these inorder to do well on the final exam.

Using an authentic assessmentfor a final exam can be very time­consuming. The public school teacherand university professor can viewthe videotape together to shorten theprocess, or they can sit down withthe undergraduate and analyze ittogether-writing their own com­ments quietly and then sharing theirthoughts. The biggest concern withthe entire process is probably the co­operation and compromise requiredof all parties involved. Both the pro­fessor and the public school teachersmust want to be involved in a courselike this for it to be successful.

ConclusionWith serious commitment to colla­boration between K-12 schools anduniversities, students in teacher­preparation programs can gain im­measurable experience. In a methodscourse such as the one describedhere, students are exposed to teach­ing in the "real world" before theirtrue internship semester. This givesthem the opportunity to decidewhether they really want to be teach­ers, before spending a full four tofive years majoring in education onlyto realize-as happens to some­that they don't really even like kids!

Our undergraduates consistentlyavow that they learn a great dealmore because of the many differentcomponents of this course. Although

it produces some scheduling prob­lems for the university professor, thiscourse appears to be quite effectivein preparing students to teach physi­cal education in elementary school;in other words, it is worth the hassle.

-Lisa M. Griffin, assistant professor,Department of Health, Physical Educa­tion, Recreation, and Dance, Univer­sity of North Carolina at Wilmington,Wilmington, NC 28403.

ITechnology TipsContinued from page 76

Jambor, E. A., &Weekes, E. M.(1995). Videotape feedback: Makeit more effective. Journal of Phy­sical Education, Recreation &Dance, 66(2). 48-50.

Kriss, J. (1997). Digital photography:What you can do with it. Media& Methods, 34(1),20-22.

Lazarus, B. D. (1998). Say cheese!Using personal photographs asprompts. Teaching ExceptionalChildren, 30(6),4-7.

Lester, S., & Mulroney, E. (1998).The joy of digital cameras. Media& Methods, 35(1). 10.

Mohnsen, B. (2001). Using instruc­tional software to meet nationalphysical education standards.Journal of Physical Education,Recreation & Dance, 72(3). 19-22.

Rickli, R., & Smith, G. (1980). Video­tape feedback effects on tennisserving form. Perceptual andMotor Skills, 50(3). 895-901.

Siltanen-Hansen, G. L. (1997). Theeffects of visual feedback duringcourt reporting motor skills acqui­sition. Dissertation Abstracts Inter­national Section A: Humanities &Social Sciences, 57(11-A). 4710.

Singer, R. (1980). Media and motorlearning. Motor Skills: Theory intoPractice, 4(2). 95-102.

-Stu Ryan and Scott Marzilli areassistant professors in the Divisionof Health, Leisure, and Exercise Sci­ence, and Trey Martindale is an assis­tant professor in the Division ofTech­nology, Research, and Development,at the University ofWest Florida,Pensacola, FL, 32514.

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