use of indigenous soil and water conservation practices ... · use of indigenous soil and water...

Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge

Vol.12 (3), July 2013, pp 454-464

Use of indigenous soil and water conservation practices among farmers in

Sikkim Himalaya

P K Mishra & S C Rai*

Department of Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007

E-mail: [email protected]

Received 10.10.11, revised 13.04.12

This paper analyses indigenous soil and water conservation practices in a watershed of Sikkim Himalaya based on

information collected through a questionnaire survey. Information used in the analysis were obtained through a survey of

150 farmers in 3 ecological zones (low, mid and high), group discussions, key informant interviews, and field observation

conducted during 2009-10. Farmers have adopted several conservation practices passed on to them by their forefathers.

Farmers in all ecological zones have practiced several structural and biological land management practices to conserve soil

and water. Adoption of terrace cultivation, construction of retention walls, bunds, construction and maintenance of

waterways, mixed cropping, crop rotation, mulching, agroforestry, and use of farm yard manure are found significantly

higher in all ecological zones of the watershed. This indicates that the farmers have very high belief in indigenous

techniques of conservation. Findings are discussed in the context of conservation programmes within the watershed. The

findings of this study have important policy implications for sustainable land management in the region.

Keywords: Land management, Structural measures, Biological measures, Watershed, Agroforestry, Sustainable

development, Soil erosion

IPC Int. Cl.8: A01, A01B, A01B 77/00, A01G 31/00, E02B 3/18, E02B 3/00, A01D, A23B, A01N 3/00, E02D 3/10, A01G

9/24, A01G 25/00, A01G 27/00

Land and water are the basic natural resources, which

support life in all forms. Both resources are limited to

meet the increasing demand for food, fuelwood and

timber in the world. Mountain watersheds have

attracted global concern due to the threat of serious

environmental and socio-economic implications

arising from natural resource degradation1. Erosion

of agricultural landscape is a significant socio-

environmental issue within the Himalayan region due

to on-site and off-site damages associated with soil

loss from land-use/cover change2,3

. Displaced soil

contributes to water pollution and reduces future

productivity of land resources that have a significant

environmental and socio-economic consequence for

society4.

The impacts of land degradation consist of two

types: on site and off site. A loss of productivity and

shortfalls in both food and cash crops are the

immediate impacts of land degradation. It is estimated

that 175 million ha of land in India suffers from

various problems of soil erosion and land

degradation5. This is all the more important because

the country looses about 5334 M tones (16.4 t/ha) of

soil annually. Of this, about 29% is carried away by

the rivers into the sea and 10% is deposited in the

reservoirs, resulting in a loss of 1 to 2% of their

storage capacity6. Short-sighted policy-makers and

planners find investments in conservation and

development of mountains less attractive compared to

the adjacent plains, as their comparative advantages

are overlooked. As a result, mountain watersheds are

either undergoing or are vulnerable to degradation,

despite local people’s efforts to prevent such effects7.

Traditional or indigenous technologies are entirely

based on local needs and surroundings, prepared from

locally available resources and from the wisdom and

knowledge handed down from generation to

generation. These are locally managed and

maintained. A few studies have shaded light on hills

farmers’ land management practices7,8,9

, but their

areas of concern have been selected aspects of

management including landslide prevention and repair

measures. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to:

(i) present the findings of a study designed to examine ——————

*Corresponding author

MISHRA & RAI: SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN SIKKIM HIMALAYA

455

how indigenous practices influence adoption of

conservation systems at the farm level, (ii) find out

how hill farmers have changed their land management

practices to control land degradation under the

situation of steadily increasing population pressure on

very small landholdings, and (iii) document to serve

as a basis for programme planners to give such low

cost technologies their due importance. Study findings

are discussed in the context of conservation

programmes within the watershed.

Methodology

This study is based on information obtained

through a questionnaire survey, field observation, and

group discussions. The household survey was

conducted during study period (2009-10). A sample

size of 150 households was obtained from watershed

covering each ecological zone, viz. low, mid, and

high. Simple random sampling method was employed

to select households for the questionnaire survey. At

the outset, the interviewer introduced himself to the

villagers. Villagers were told about the nature of work

and assured that responses were to be used for

research purposes, that their cooperation to this effort

was sought, and confidentiality would be maintained.

Detailed information on the management practices of

each parcel of land owned by the sampled households

were collected using structured questionnaire.

Farmers were asked to complete a structured

questionnaire that required about 30 - 40 minutes to

complete. The response rate for each zone was about

80%. Average age of the respondents is 70 yrs. Given

the large sample size, the broad distribution of the

sample throughout the study watershed, the high

response rate, and the sampling technique used to

select the sample, the samples are assumed to be

representative of the farm populations within the each

ecological zone.

Information on soil and water conservation

practices including construction of terraces,

waterways, retention walls, gully control measures,

alley cropping, mulching and application of organic

manures was collected through household survey.

Besides, information on farmers’ experience in land

management, soil fertility and soil erosion was

collected through personal interview and group

discussion. The degree of adoption and diversity of

practices, however, vary from one farm household to

another, depending on their socio-economic condition

and biophysical characteristics of lands. To determine

the overall degree of adoption of soil and water

conservation measures, 16 common soil and water

conservation practices of farmers were selected. Hill

farmers have practiced different types of structural

and biological measures of soil and water

conservation to control erosion and landslide and

applied different types of fertilizers to maintain soil

fertility as summarized in Table 1.

Descriptive statistics were used to examine general

trends within the data set, while one-way analysis of

variance was used to test the research expectations

with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences

9 (SPSS) software. One way ANOVA analysis was

applied to analyses the significance difference of

indigenous SWC practices among different ecological

zones of the watershed. All the analysis was done at

0.05 or 5% level of significance.

Study area The study area Papung-Ben Khola watershed

located in the South district of Sikkim state was

selected for this study. This watershed extends

between 27° 13΄ 34˝ to 27°

16΄ 12˝ N and 88° 22΄ 18˝

to 88°27΄ 15˝ E. It is spread in 27.77 km2 area and

characterized by an elevational range of 326 to

2600 m asl. It comprises of most of the human

habitation zone, vegetation types and cropping

patterns that are common in the state. The watershed

is one of the most populated (10841 persons) areas in

state providing a wide range of cultural-ethnic

diversity and land-use pattern. Agricultural practices

extend from valley bottom to hilltop, with a variety

of cropping systems and management practices.

Fragmented into several parcels, farmlands are being

managed in different ways, to maximize benefits with

the limited amount of resources available to farmers.

The climate is monsoon type with average rainfall

was 3204 mm, and most of the rainfall takes place

during monsoon from June to September. Average

temperature ranges from 3-26°C.

Results and discussion

Structural measures of soil and water conservation

Terraces

Terraces are narrow strips of land carved out across

the hill slopes for cultivation of cereals, including

rice, maize, wheat and millet. Regardless of land type,

most terraces in the watershed were constructed long

back. Some of them were, however, constructed a few

decades ago in response to increasing food demand

INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, VOL. 12, NO. 3, JULY 2013

456

for steadily growing household size. All respondents

in each ecological zone of the watershed responded

that they are practicing terraced farming since long

back (Table 2). There is no significant difference

between ecological zones in terms of percentage of

farmers who have terrace construction (Table 3).

Leveled bench terraces (Fig.1a) are the dominant

structural measures adopted by hill farmers to

stabilize irrigation water required for rice cultivation

in Panikhet and Tarikhet. These terraces have been

maintained without any change in each ecological

zone. Bari terraces in the area have outward-facing

slopes that facilitate quick drainage of water required

for millet, maize and legume crops.

Terrace risers use to be relatively wide in the past

when the population pressure on land resources

was relatively low10

. Farmers have sliced terrace

risers to increase the area under crop production. Even

the tiny fraction of land under risers has been

intensively utilized for legume crops, which was not

the practice until few decades ago7. Similar results

were also recorded in the Papung-Ben Khola

watershed.

During field survey it was observed that about 23%

of the cultivated land is under leveled terrace and

used for paddy and other crops during monsoon

season. Most of the leveled terraces have a height of

2 - 5 m; width 2 - 5 m, and the length varies from

15 - 35 m. The width of the terrace is determined by

the slope (gradient) of the land. In the hill slope, an

average of 20 - 25 terraces exist, but in the lower

altitude a sequence includes not more than 10

terraces because of the larger width of the paddy

fields. Remaining 77% are sloping terraces. All

respondent of the area have agreed that terracing

is necessary, without which the plant nutrients

cannot be conserved and cultivation of crops are

impossible.

Table 1-Brief description of terminologies used in the context of hill farming system and soil and water conservation

Terminologies and measures Description

Hill slope Sloping land between valley floor and ridge

Terrace riser Steep slope between terrace of different altitude

Farm edge Farm boarder

Goth Makeshift livestock shed constructed in the farm terrace

Slicing terrace riser Thinly slicing of the slope between terrace by spade to remove weeds

and grasses

Panikhet Irrigated rice field located in the valley floors and foothills

Tarikhet Rainfed rice field located in the hill slope

Khet Common local term for both panikhet and tarikhet

Packo/Bari Rainfed maize and millet field

Terminologies used in the

context of hill farming

system

Gharbari Homestead used for fruit, maize, wheat, millet and vegetable production

Terrace Narrow strip of land carved out across the hill slopes for the cultivation of

cereals

Terrace bund An embankment at the outer edge of khet terrace made to control water flow

Contour bund An embankment built along the contour line to control soil erosion and siltation

Waterway Small canal at the inner toe of terraces made to convey runoff at a non-erosive

point

Retention wall A reinforced wall constructed to protect terrace riser from being collapsed

Alley cropping Alternate rows of field crops and perennials grown in a contour pattern in

sloping land

Shrub formations in

gullies

Bush formations, including bamboo, in gullies established to control gully

expansion in the hill slopes

Vegetative measures

of landslide control

Establishment of different shrubs and tree species with extensive root systems

for rehabilitation and control of landslides

Mulching The practicing of covering the plowed land by crop residues and leaf litters for

moisture and soil conservation

Farmyard manure Dung mixed with leaf litter and crop residues used for fertilizing land

Green manure Plant species containing soil nutrients

Measures of soil and water

conservation

Compost Decomposed mixture of organic materials, including manure, utilized for

fertilizing land


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Bunds

Terrace bunds are small embankment constructed

at the outer edge of the terraces to control water flow.

Terrace bunds used to be relatively wide in the past

when the population pressure on land resources was

relatively low. Farmers have sliced terrace bunds to

increase the area under crop production. Even the tiny

fraction of land under bund has been intensively

utilized for legume crops, which was not the practice

until a few decades ago7.

Farmers have also constructed contour bunds

across the farm edges. Mostly made from stone, these

bunds control soil erosion and siltation. Besides,

contour bunds prevent stray livestock from sneaking

into farmlands. Contour bunding is the most popular

soil conservation measures in Sikkim Himalaya.

Contour consists of constructing narrow based

trapezoidal bunds on contour into the runoff water

behind them so that all the stored water is absorbed

gradually into the soil profile for the crop use.

Farmers are well aware of erosion problem in the

area. Moreover, they agreed that this measure is

effective to protect the soil loss. About 90% of the

respondents have constructed bunds on their fields

with the other measures including vegetative barriers

in the leveled terrace (Table 2). The farmers of the

watershed are pioneer in bunding and have taken up

bunding work on large scale in the leveled terrace

(paddy) to check the runoff. These bunds on steep

slopes are created by way of excavating parabolic

Table 2-Indigenous soil and water conservation practices in Papung-Ben khola watershed of Sikkim Himalaya

Ecological Zones

Practices Low (n=50)

(%)

Mid (n=50)

(%)

High (n=50)

(%)

Mean

(1) Mechanical measures

Terraces 100 100 100 100

Bunds/contour bunding 90 96 50 78.6

Construction and maintenance of

waterways 85 88 75 82.6

Gully control 65 69 55 63

Diversion channels 50 41 20 37

Stone barriers 91 89 90 90

(2) Biological measures

Alley cropping 27 30 33 30

Mulching 91 90 88 89.66

Minimum tillage 80 75 70 75

Crop rotation 100 100 100 100

Mixed cropping 41 49 45 45

Vegetative barriers 100 100 100 100

Agroforestry 65 70 75 70

(3) Soil fertility management

Farm yard manure 87 78 55 73

Green manure 32 29 23 28

Crop residue and weed burning 100 100 100 100

Table 3-Analysis of variance findings for indigenous soil and water conservation practices in each ecological zone of

Papung-Ben Khola watershed of Sikkim Himalaya

Ecological Zones Mean Std. Dev. F-Test

(Calculated)

F-Test

(Tabulated)

Significance

Level

Result

(p<0.05)

Low 73.60 25.33

Mid 70.57 25.24

High 65.26 27.63

6.86 19.41 0.05 or 5% No significant

variation

One way ANOVA at p<0.05 has revealed that there is no significant difference among indigenous SWC practices in all three ecological

zones (Fdf (12, 2) = 19.41, Fc =6.86).


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channels (0.30 m top and 0.15 m deep) on contours

and keeping the dugout soil in form of a bund at the

lower edge of the channel. The widths of the

bunds are usually 0.15 m and these bunds are

extensively used to store water in the leveled terrace

(paddy fields), for effective measures in arresting

soil erosion. These bunds are also used for

planting various types of pulses as double cropping

system.

Construction and maintenance of waterways

Waterways have been an integral part of the

terraced farming system in the mountains of Nepal

and other Himalayan region11

. The main purpose of

waterways in land management system is to

convey run-off at a non-erosive point12

(Fig. 1b).

Uncontrolled surface run-off moving down slopes

across hill slopes destroys terrace risers and removes

soils from the farmlands, eventually decreasing crop

yields and increasing the cost of terrace maintenance7.

To cope with the problem, farmers of the watershed

have constructed waterways (Table 2) and there is no

significant variations between ecological zones in

terms of percentage of farmers who have constructed

them (Table 3).

According to their location, waterways in the area

can be categorized into different types. Inter-terrace

waterways are constructed across the inner toe of bari

terraces. A narrow waterway is constructed across

terraces for the diversion of surface runoff, which is

channeled through waterways and drained into either

gullies or grasses. This type of practice is found in

the middle zone of the watershed. Inter-terrace

waterways are constructed to prevent land from

getting oversaturated, because this adversely affects

the yield of some crops. Such waterways are also

utilized to uniformly distribute water in farm plots

during the dry seasons. Farm edge waterways are

constructed about 10 to 15 m above the farm border.

Waterways, especially in high-erosion-prone areas

have been paved with stones to prevent gully

formation.

Gully control

Gullies are relatively permanent steep-sided water-

courses with momentary flows during rainstorms12

.

According to respondents, gully formation was high

when forests on hill slopes were cleared for expansion

of farm. Once gullies were formed, they started

expanding both vertically and laterally, eventually

engulfing adjacent farmlands. Farmers started making

contributions to the gully control through planting

bamboos trees, and making stone walls to stabilize the

land through joint efforts. About 67% of the

respondents had participated in gully control

measures (Table 2). Farmers planted bamboo species

to control gully erosion. Establishing bamboo species,

including Bambussa balloca, Dendrocalamus

hamiltonii, Bambussa spp. and Arundinaria raccum in

deep gullies and along stream banks is an age old

practice adopted to minimize soil erosion, river bank

erosion and gully expansion. These species propagate

rapidly and have fibrous root system with excellent

soil-binding capacity. Leaves of these species are

used as fodder, stem as thatching and handicraft

materials, and branches as fencing materials7.

Bamboos species planted in gullies at the valley

bottom occasionally block surface runoff and flood

farmlands. To protect soil from this, farmers have

filled gaps between bamboo clumps with stone walls.

Diversion channels (Irrigation system)

The construction of diversion channels is a

traditional practice in the watershed and practiced by

all farmers. The objective is to drain the water to

leveled terrace (paddy field) from nearby situated

Fig. 1—(a) Terraces: an age old soil and water conservation

measures; (b) Construction and maintenance of waterways


459

natural drainage ways, during high intensity rainfall

events. The diversion channels are constructed on

places from where water can easily enter the field.

These diversion ditches are made collectively by all

farmers who have irrigated land. About 37% of the

farmers were responded that they spent their labour

and capital in preparation and maintenance of

diversion channels. Traditional diversion channels

have a channel slope of 5 - 40%. Most diversion

channels are maintained by the farmers before the

onset of monsoon, some farmers try to improve the

channels’ stability with sods, especially in sections

with steeper slopes. The size of a diversion channels

depends on the soil type and the expected maximum

amount of runoff water. In practice most channels are

width (0.45 m) and not very deep (0.45 m), the width

and depth of these channels varies following

topography.

About 23% farmers practice grassed waterway

diversion channels replacing normal channels to

conserve soil along the channels where soil particles

are loose and erosion rate is high. It was observed that

these terraced paddy fields get water from these

diversion channels connection rivers, rivulets, jhoras,

dharas and simsar, which are charged by rainwater.

Stone barriers

Construction of stone barriers in watershed is an

age old practice. Large stones from the field are

removed and deposited downstream. Most of these

traditional stone barriers are 0.60 - 1.5 m high, and

terraces have been formed upstream. However, most

farmers clean their fields from stones or by making

boundary bunds as a soil conservation measure. As it

is an age old practice, still farmers replicate similar

but smaller stone on their own field with the main

objective to clean the field by removing the bigger

stones. Survey result showed that about 90% of the

respondents practice stone barriers in their field and it

is the widely adopted soil and water conservation

(SWC) practice in the area, mainly because of their

visual impact as a sediment trap, and the

accumulation of water in the soil around these

practices. Stone barriers are most successful on fields

with slopes until 15%.

Biological measures

Farmers in the watershed are also practicing several

types of biological measures of land management

(Table 2). These practices evolved from the past have

contributed to control land degradation at relatively low

cost. They also played an important complementary role

in supporting farm household economies by providing

fuelwood, fodder, and food13,14

.

Alley cropping

Until a few decades ago, trees and shrubs used to

be grown mostly in private pasture land together with

fodder trees. With the dwindling forest fodder supply

caused by deforestation and restrictions on free access

to forests, farmers started planting fodder trees and

shrub on the edges of terrace risers, including

palatable fodder species like Artocarpus lakoocha,

Ficus hookerii, Ficus hirta, Ficus nemorales, and

Ficus sp. Large tree species were gradually replaced

by nitrogen fixing and high fodder-yielding shrub

species, including Bahuhinia variegata, Leucaneia

leucocephala and Morus indica, as crop yield under

the shade of tall trees gradually declined. Farmers

found farm edges, foot trails, gullies, and terrace

risers at higher elevations suitable for tall species. In

the absence of an effective extension service, alley

cropping was being practiced by 30% of the

households of the watershed (Table 2).

Mulching

Spreading of organic residues instead of mixing

(stubble mulching) them can help in the reduction of

soil and water loss to a considerable extent15

. Farmers

considered mulching an effective means of moisture

conservation in farmlands, which are vulnerable to a

lot of moisture loss during the winter and early spring

seasons. To prevent this, farmers with a relatively

large household size and small land holding cover the

plowed land with crop residues, leaves and twigs.

Mulching is also practiced to prevent seedbeds from

getting exposed to the sun and rain and to protect

seedlings from hailstones. About 90% of the farmers

in the watershed were practicing mulching (Table 2).

The leaves of Siris (Albizza odoratissima) trees are

used for this purpose. These leaves after

decomposition help to enhance the fertility of soil.

Generally, 4 tons/ha of mulching considerably

reduces the soil loss and runoff from the field.

Notably, no significant variation was found among

the three ecological zones in terms of percentage of

farmers practicing mulching (Table 3).

Minimum tillage

In minimum tillage, farmers plough their land only

once during land preparation, which is followed by

seed showing. Rest of the agricultural activities is

similar to that of conventional practice. Minimum


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tillage cannot be adopted in isolation. It is a basic

management tool16

. Conservation tillage is defined as

any tillage system that leaves at least 30% of the soil

surface covered with crop residues after planting17

.

The information about maize production in minimum

tillage is based on the farmers’ field experiment18

.

This maintains continuous ground cover during the

year reducing erosion. It is observed by the farmers

that amount of soil loss is less in minimum tillage

plots in comparison with the ploughed plots. Some

farmers still consider leaving crop residue on the

field shows poor husbandry skills but minimum

tillage techniques are becoming more widely known

and accepted.

Crop rotation

Crop rotations are important land management

practices in the area. Crop rotation involves

incorporation of legumes with cereals in a sequence to

take advantage of different feeding zones, both for

nutrients and water, and to offset disadvantage of

mono-cropping in controlling insect, pest and

diseases, etc. Crop rotations are practiced by all the

farmers of the watershed (Table 2). Crop rotation on a

recently harvested potato field makes residual

nutrients available for the other crops. Moreover, crop

rotations help combating plagues and avoid soil

mining. In the study area, most common crop rotation

is potato-maize-paddy. Farmers in the watershed have

developed systematic management and conservation

alternatives of mixtures of crops with multipurpose

agroforestry tree species that create appropriate

environment to some high value crops and inter-

cropping of many other local varieties.

Mixed cropping

Mixed cropping is a traditional and very old

practice in the watershed. Advantage of this type of

cropping are good crop cover, feeding of crops from

different soil layers and under rainfed conditions an

assurance to farmer against total failure. The use of

agroforestry is frequently observed in traditional

mixed cropping systems in the watershed. About 45%

of farmers use mixed cropping to diversify production

and assure yielding of at least one of the crops

(Table 2). The main crop (maize) is grown as usual,

and the vegetables (principally beans or cabbage) is

scattered in smaller quantities over the whole field. In

some cases intercropping is applied, with several

small rows of the secondary crop (ginger) in between

the furrows of the main crop. The main purpose of

mixing different crops is the protection of the main

crop (maize and beans) against pests and diseases

(Fig. 2a). The intensity of cropping varies from farm

to farm and from household to household due to

differences in socio-economic conditions, particularly

inputs and products, dependence on land and tenurial

system, etc.

Vegetative barriers

Vegetative barriers are well known practice in the

watershed and adopted by all the farmers (Table 2).

However, vegetative-barriers as a runoff control

measure to stabilize steep cultivated hillsides, have

been intensively studied. It was found that planting on

contour is the best soil and water conservation

measure. Contour cultivation and contour plantings

are the basic agronomical practices, which are

adopted by the farmers of the watershed on the slopy

land. These are non-monetary practices and have been

proved to be ideal for soil and water conservation.

Vegetative barriers are very important for protection

of the soil and it helps enhancing the soil in two ways.

Firstly, the plants act as barrier to the run-off, which

helps in retaining the nutritive value of the soil.

Secondly, the roots of the plant remains add organic

matter to the soil, thus improving the soil structure. It

was also found during the field observation that

associated vegetative-barriers on the contour,

consisting of grasses and trees on dry field (bari) and

pulses on wet field (khet) are most successful and best

adopted by all farmers.

Among species most commonly planted on bunds

and field boundaries are fodder trees such as

Artocarpus lakoocha (badahar), Ficus roxburghii

(nevaro), Ficus nemoralis, (khaneu), F. clavata

(Khaneu lutey), Fnemoralis Wall (Dudhilo), Ficus

roxburghii (Nebara), Schima wallichii (Chilaunay),

Engelhardtia spicata (Mahua) and Melia azaderach

(Bakaino). Apart from this, other are fruit trees such

as papaya and orange, crops such as beans, pulses,

and natural grasses such as Thysanolaena maxima

(Amlisho), Pennisetum agrostis (Napier). In the

watershed area Amlisho (broom grass) (Fig. 2b) was

found very suitable and economically beneficial when

planted at the horizontal distance of 4.5 - 6.0 m, so

that the entire landscape is stabilized and moisture is

retained, thereby improving moisture regime. It is

used widely in the watershed because of its

multipurpose use. Broom grass leaf is used as fodder

to feed the livestock, hard stem for fuel, supporting


461

the vegetables in mixed cropping, and most important

its flower part, is used for making brooms which

fetches good price in the market. A good plant of

Amlisho produces approximately 5 kg of flower per

year and the market prices is Rs.30/- kg. This way a

plant is generating Rs 150/- to the farmers. It was

found in the group discussion with the farmers that to

cover one hectare of bunds and other suitable places

where Amlisho can play a vital role in soil and water

conservation. Clone and cutting method is used for

planting the bushes.

Agroforestry

The multi-functionality of the agroforestry systems

has been realized in the watershed over the last many

decades. Large cardamom based agroforestry system

is observed to accelerate the nutrient cycling,

increases the soil fertility and productivity, reduces

soil erosion, conserves biodiversity, and also

conserves water and soil. Large-Cardamom based Agroforestry system

Traditional cultivation of the large cardamom

(Amomum subulatum) in Sikkim is one example of

harnessing the local mountain niche (Fig. 3). Large

cardamom, a native plant of Sikkim, is a perennial

low-volume, high value, non-perishable cash crop

grown beneath the forest cover on marginal and

barren lands and can be grown between 600-2000 m

asl. It helps watershed in two ways: (i) by converting

abundant marginal and barren lands in more

productive lands and harnessing local niche, and

(ii) by maintaining and improving the ecosystem and

the environment of the region through promoting soil

conservation and soil fertility19

. The standing biomass

in the cardamom system is about 2.5 times higher

than in the maize-potato system, thereby providing

more biomass resources for farm family utilization.

The agronomic yield is very low in the cardamom

system, as much as 21 times less than in the maize-

potato system, indicating that cardamom are a low-

volume, high value cash crop. Soil fertility levels

influence plant productivity considerably. Therefore,

soil health is critical, especially in the mountains

where erosion problems are quite conspicuous. The

soil nutrient levels, especially organic carbon and

total nitrogen, in the cardamom agroforestry system

are comparatively higher than in the maize-potato

dominated system19

.

The large cardamom is cultivated either under

mixed tree species or under Alnus nepalensis cover.

The agronomic yield of the large cardamom is about

2.2 times higher beneath the Alnus tree than beneath

mixed tree species. According to the data,

65.34 kg/N/ha/yr was fixed in the cardamom

agroforestry system19

. Nitrogen and phosphorus

Fig. 2—(a) Mixed cropping: maize with ginger; (b) Broom grass:

as a vegetative barrier in agriculture field

Fig 3—Large-cardamom: an age old cash crop based agroforestry

system


462

concentrations of different tissues of N2-fixing Alnus

are higher than those of mixed tree species20

.

Mandarin Orange based Agroforestry system

Mandarin orange is a major tree crop while

intercropping of maize, pulses, ginger, buckwheat,

fingermillet, pulses, oilseeds, taro and yam are also

practiced. Mandarin orange and ginger are potential

cash crops after large cardamom. Albizzia is widely

grown with other agroforestry trees in mandarin-

based farming. Mandarin orange is a high value,

comparatively less labour intensive cash crop.

Diversity of crops and other associate tree species are

maintained in the system for other subsistence

requirements and benefits. The on-farm agroforestry

species such as Erythrina indica, Ficus spp. Alnus

nepalensis, Albizia spp., Artocarpus lacoocha,

Thysanolema maxima, Dendrocalamus spp. etc. are

agro-ecologically adapted and socially accepted

keystone species for their role in conserving and

enhancing biodiversity in the mountain watersheds.

Alnus and Albizzia have been a boon to the region for

their role in nitrogen fixation, ecological adaptability,

natural regeneration and restoration of degraded

landslide areas, and accelerated nutrient cycling in the

cultivated systems. Soil fertility management

Besides adoption of structural and biological

measures, farmers of the watershed apply different

types of organic, green manures and crop residue and

weed burning practices to improve land productivity.

Farm Yard Manure

Farm Yard Manure (FYM), comprising mainly

manure and livestock bedding, is the major source of

fertilizer in the area. Livestock beds, consisting of

waste fodder, tree leaves, and crop weeds, and manure

are cleared twice a day to keep the goth clean. These

materials are normally dumped in front of goth in a

3-4 foot-deep pit and remain exposed to the sun, rain

and wind for several weeks until their transfer to the

field. The amount of FYM applied to all types of land

is significantly high in the low and mid ecological

zone. Overall, farmlands in the watershed receive

FYM at the rate of 12400 kg/ha/yr. In all ecological

zones; priority is given to gharbari followed by bari

for application of FYM. Though it is a major source

of fertilizer, the supply of FYM is steadily declining

in the watershed as farmers have reduced their

livestock herd size to cope with shortage of labour

and gradually shrinking grazing-lands and

landholdings7.

Green manures

Applying green manure species, namely Adhatoda

vasica, Euphorbia roylena, Artemissia vulgaris spp,

etc. to vegetable and paddy seedbeds has been a

traditional practice of small percentage of farm

households in the area (Table 2). Mostly found in the

wild, these plant species contain more than double

amounts of NPK compared to FYM21, 22

. Some of

these species are also considered useful for

controlling weeds and pests. Despites their awareness

of the usefulness of green manure, farmers has not

been able to apply it intensively because of the

scarcity caused by lack of conservation and

promotional efforts. In response to the dwindling

availability of green manure, farmers are using leaves

of Sachima wallichi and Castanopsis spp. Especially

for paddy cultivation. These species, according to

farmers, have low nutrient content and helps prevent

soil from becoming acidic. In some instances weeds

grown in the fields are also being utilized as green

manure, specifically for millet.

Crop residue and Weed burning

Burning crop residue and weeds is a traditional

method of fertilizing particularly in bari land. During

the dry summer season, farmers collect maize and

millet stubble, leftover paddy straw, dried weeds, and

woody plants grown in bari terrace. The collected

biomass is burned when sign of rainfall appears, so as

to allow the ash to get mixed well with the soil after

the rain as well as to control the fire from spreading

into other farm plots. Farmers spread the ash all over

the farm plot to enhance soil fertility and to control

some pests. Similar practices are being reported in

other parts of the Hindu-Kush Himalayan region7.

Evaluation of indigenous practices

Indigenous soil and water conservation practices

are widely used by the farmers of the watershed.

However, the validation study during the field visit

and research findings revealed that most of them are

technically effective and at the same time easily

replicated by farmers. Table 4 illustrates an overview

of all SWC practices that were used by the farmers.

The present practices were judged by the following

criterion: (i) effectiveness, (ii) replicability, and (iii)

ranking. Table 4 also reveals that most of the SWC

practices receive an overall positive conclusion.


463

However, even these practices have to overcome

certain limitations before successful results and

widespread adoption can be achieved. All the

“neutral” judged practices have limitations that are

more serious. Certain farmers only will adopt these

practices, and more participatory research and

(technical) assistance is required for their widespread

adoption. In any case, as argued none of the above

practices alone can improve agricultural production

and SWC. Only adopting mechanical measures are

not very effective without the biological measures and

soil fertility management. FYM use, in combination

with vegetative barriers, agroforestry, terracing,

diversion channels and adequate mixed cropping

systems, are the first suggested step towards

establishing more productive and sustainable

agricultural lands in the watershed. Meanwhile, the

other discussed practices should be further

investigated and validated. Besides the above

mentioned practices, future research must also focus

on new SWC alternatives. Given that, blending

traditional and modern technologies is important23

.

Being a hilly area, ecological conditions in the

study area vary even with a short distance. There are

several types of soils that vary in physical and chemical

properties, depending on parent materials, altitude and

slope gradient. Farmers are not aware of chemical

properties of soils but they are well aware of the

productive value and problems associated with all

types of soils, and have adopted appropriate

conservation measures to control the degradation of

problem soil. Farmers have established vegetative

barriers, and constructed waterways, retention walls to

control soil erosion. Experiences from agro-ecology

and traditional agricultural management and

knowledge systems can definitely enrich the current

available stock of SWC practices. However,

operationalizing local knowledge is still in its infancy24

.

Conclusion Erosion of soil is a significant socio-environmental

issue within the Sikkim Himalayan region. While

soil erosion can create serious on-site problems, a

large proportion of the negative environmental

consequences of soil erosion are associated with off-

site damages. Land being the major source of the food

supply, majority of the farmers in the study watershed

has pursued efforts to enhance land productivity,

conserve soil and water, and increase soil fertility to

cope with shrinking landholdings caused by the

population growth and family fragmentation. In this

regard, they have improved terraces, intensified

Table 4—Evaluation of available SWC practices in the watershed

Judgement Criteria* Practices Effectiveness Replicability Main Strengths Conclusion

Terraces + + Prevent soil erosion +

Bunds/contour bunding + +/0 Prevent soil erosion and nutrient loss +

Construction and maintenance

of waterways

+ + Irrigation, diversion of

surface runoff

+

Gully control + Availability of plant species

and stones

+

Diversion channels 0 0 Adequate channel slope 0

Stone barriers 0 0 High availability of stones 0

Alley cropping 0 Utilization of each parcel of land 0

Mulching + +/0 High availability of mulching material +

Minimum tillage 0 0 Protects soil erosion and moisture

retention

0

Crop rotation + + Soil fertility +

Mixed cropping + + Good crop cover and diversified

production

+

Vegetative barriers + + Runoff control and provides fodder and

fuel-wood

+

Agroforestry + + N2 fixing and runoff control +

Spring-shed development (Natural springs) + + Ground water recharge, major source

of drinking water

+

Farm yard manure(FYM) + + Availability of dung and organic material +

Green manure + + High availability of plant species +

* With: + = Positive; 0 = Neutral; - =Negative


464

agroforestry practices and participated in gully

control, and waterway construction activities. They

also practices alley cropping and mulching to improve

land productivity. The study watershed is very strong

in traditional soil and water conservation practices.

Most of the indigenous practices are readily available

and can be promoted without major restrictions, viz.

terrace, contour bunding, agroforestry, vegetative

barriers, diversion channels, stone barriers, mixed

cropping, crop rotation and FYM/green manure. All

these practices are based on indigenous knowledge.

The findings of this study justify that farmers devise

alternative technologies for increasing land

productivity, as they are exposed to the risk of food

scarcity due to shrinking per capita land holdings. The

significance findings of this study have important

policy implications for sustainable land management

in the area. Any future land management initiative

should aim at enabling watershed settlers to adopt

practices conducive to increase income as well as to

enhance land conservation.

Acknowledgement Authors are thankful to the Head, Department of

Geography, Delhi School of Economics, University of

Delhi for providing facilities. Authors are also

thankful to the farmers of Temi-Tarku, Damthang,

Deo, and Raigaon villages of Papung-Ben Khola

watershed for their support and information during

field survey.

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