urban regeneration, a handbook

7/26/2019 Urban Regeneration, A Handbook

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r.

Urban Regeneration

A Handbook

Edited by

PETER ROBERTS AND HUGH SYKES

($SAGE PublicationsLondon *Thousand Oaks * New Delhi


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ISBN 0-7619-6716-8 (hbk)

ISBN 0-7619-6717-6 (pbk) Peter Roberts and Huh S!kes "000 #d$tor$a% arrane&ent'hapters 1 and 1 Peter Roberts "000 hapter " *ndre+ arter "000 hapter , a.$d Noon' /a&es S&$th-anha& and art$n #a%and "000

hapter Pau% /ere! and /ohn Pounder "000 hapter 2 Br$an /a3obs and %$.e utton "000 hapter 6 4re.or Hart and Ian /ohnston "000 hapter 7 B$%% #dar and /ohn 4a!%or "000 hapter 8

*&anda Beres5ord' R$3hard %eet+ood and ark ane! "000hapter 9

Barr! oore and Rod Sp$res "000 hapter 10 a%$a $3he%d "000 hapter 11 /ohn Shutt "000 hapter 1" Pau% re+e "000 hapter 1,

$rst pub%$shed "000Repr$nted "000' "001' "00"' "00,' "00

*part 5ro& an! 5a$r dea%$n 5or the purposes o5 resear3h orpr$.ate stud!' or 3r$t$3$s& or re.$e+' as per&$tted under the

op!r$ht' es$ns and Patents *3t' 1988' th$s pub%$3at$on &a!be re rodu3ed stored or trans&$tted $n an 5or& or b an

nS*# Pub%$3at$ons td1 :%$.er;s 109

British Library Cataloguing in Publication data

* 3ata%oue re3ord 5or th$s book $s a.a$%ab%e 5ro& the

4!peset b! or+!n td=' Ro+%ands ast%e'Ha&psh$rePr$nted and bound $n reat Br$ta$n b!

Contents

Figures, Tables and Boxes

Contributors

Foreword

Preface

List of Abbreiations

Part 1 The Context for Urban Regeneration

! "ntroduction

Peter Roberts and Hugh Sykes

# T$e %olution, &efinition and Pur'ose of (rban egeneration *

Peter Roberts

3 +trateg and Partners$i' in (rban egeneration

Andrew Carter

Part 2 Major Themes and Topics

- %conoic egeneration and Funding

David Noon, James Smith-Canham and Martin England/ P$sical and %nironental As'ects

Paul Jeffrey and John Pounder

+ocial and Counit "ssues

Brian Jacobs and Clive Dutton

1 %'loent, %ducation and Training

Trevor Hart and Ian Johnston

2 ousing

Bill Edgar and John Taylor

Part 3 Key Isses in Managing Urban Regeneration

* egeneration b Land &eelo'ent4 t$e Legal "ssues

Amanda Beresford, Richard Fleetwood and Mark Gaffney

!0 5onitoring and %aluation

Barry Moore and Rod Spires

!! 6rganisation and 5anageent

Dalia Lichfield

Part ! "xperience "#se$here and a %ie$ of the &tre

!# Lessons fro Aerica in t$e !**0s

John Shutt

!3 %uro'ean %x'eriences

Paul Drewe

!- Current C$allenges and Future Pros'ects


"ndex

31

/*

!

2

!0*

!#*

!/3

!11

!1*

#03

#2!

#*/

3!


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Viii Figures, Tables and Boxes

*.# +oe i'ortant PP7s !*2

!0.! An exa'le of ar8et failure #02

!!.! +trategic decisions #-# Contributors!!.# T$e As$8elon ex'erience #-3

!#.! 5ars$all eig$ts Counit &eelo'ent 6rganisation #2

!#.# 9ew 6rleans ierfront #000 #1#!#.3 Cowbos and culture4 t$e Fort :ort$ Partners$i',

Fort :ort$ Cit #1/

!#.- esources for counit econoic deelo'ent4 t$e Center The Editors

for Counit C$ange, :as$ington #11

!3.! %conoic deelo'ent in areas wit$ social 'robles #*!

!3.# %nironental action lin8ed to econoic goals #*! Peter Roberts is Professor of %uro'ean +trategic Planning at t$e (nier

!3.3 eitalisation of $istoric centres #*! sit of &undee. e is C$air of t$e Britis$ (rban egeneration Association

!3.- %x'loitation of tec$nological assets of cities #*# Best Practice Coittee, C$air of t$e Town and Countr Planning Asso

!3./ (rban excellence in 'roducts #*# ciation and an Adiser to t$e Local 7oernent Association. e $as

'ublis$ed on a wide range of to'ics, including urban and regional deelo'

ent and regeneration, %uro'ean regional 'olic and 'lanning, s'atial

deelo'ent, enironental anageent, and t$e 'olitics of deolution.'ir (gh 'y)es *+ was C$airan of t$e +$effield &eelo'ent Cor'ora

tion fro its foration in !*22 until it ceased o'erations in !**1. e

currentl seres on t$e boards of a nuber of 'ublic co'anies, including

;or8s$ire Ban8 'lc. e is a 'ast 5aster of t$e Co'an of Cutlers in

allas$ire and is Treasurer of t$e (niersit of +$effield.

The Contributors

,manda -eresford is a solicitor and a


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Foreword

Foreword

T$ere $as been a sea c$ange in t$e ( in t$e last two ears. "ncreasingl,regeneration $as becoe a centre'iece of counit and econoic regeneration

not ust in t$e (, but across %uro'e.

+ince t$e birt$ of t$e Britis$ (rban egeneration Association DB(A) in

!**0, t$e understanding of, and issues surrounding, regeneration $ae grown in

i'ortance and co'lexit.

"t seeed for a w$ile, $oweer, as if B(A was a oice in t$e wilderness. "t

atte'ted to ensure t$at eerone in w$at we now call regeneration was able to

gras' t$at erel dealing wit$ t$e built enironent, and not t$e 'eo'le

inoled, would si'l be rearranging t$e dec8c$airs on t$e Titanic.

T$ere was, at no stage, an guide or $el' along t$e wa.

T$is boo8 is B(As first atte't to fill t$at ga'.

"t $as been written b renowned ex'erts in t$eir res'ectie fields. %ac$ c$a'ter

is a treatise in and of itself, allowing t$e reader to ex'lore t$e issues and readfurt$er on t$e subect. T$e boo8 'laces into context t$e route fro w$ic$ current

t$in8ing on regeneration caeE it identifies 8e deelo'ents along t$e wa.

T$e boo8 loo8s elsew$ere as wellE t$e (, t$e (+A and %uro'e all feature.

T$eor and 'ractice ix across t$e boo8, allowing t$e reader to deelo' bot$

8nowledge and ex'ertise. "t deelo's ideas and abilit, bot$ of w$ic$ will $el'

t$e reader searc$ing for $el' in dealing wit$ t$e t$in8ing be$ind t$e !***s

i'eraties of t$e (rban Tas8 Force, t$e 'ro'osed (rban :$ite Pa'er and ore

besides.

As &ic8 Caborn, 5inister for Planning, egeneration for t$e egions, a8es

clear in t$e Preface, t$is boo8 is a aluable aid to all t$ose inoled in

regeneration.

T$e uni


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Preface List of Abbreviationsegeneration inoles t$e 'ublic, 'riate and counit and oluntar A5"& Alonaster5ic$oud "ndustrial &istrict

sectors wor8ing toget$er towards a clear single ai to i'roe t$e BB6 broadbased organising


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1 Introduction


(rban regeneration is a widel ex'erienced but little understood '$eno

enon. Alt$oug$ ost towns and cities $ae been inoled in regenerationsc$ees, and w$ilst an deelo'ent co'anies, financial institutions andcounit organisations $ae 'artici'ated in one or ore suc$ entures,t$ere is no single 'rescribed for of urban regeneration 'ractice and nosingle aut$oritatie source of inforation.

T$e ai of t$is boo8 is to reed t$is situation b distilling t$e eidenceof good 'ractice and b cobining t$is eidence wit$ ex'lanations of w$urban regeneration is necessar and $ow it functions. A ixture of ex'lanation, eidence and t$e ex'erience of i'leentation 'roides t$e 'ractical'$iloso'$ w$ic$ $as guided t$e 're'aration of t$is boo8. T$e intention is tooffer t$e reader a guide to urban regeneration w$ic$ is co're$ensie,accessible and 'ractical. "n 'articular, t$e boo8 ais to 'roide an insig$tinto t$e reasons for t$e occurrence and 'ersistence of urban 'robles, t$esuccessie c$anges t$at $ae occurred in t$e 'ractice of urban regenerationand t$e lessons of good 'ractice.

6ne of t$e aor difficulties encountered in 're'aring t$is boo8 was t$eirtual absence of


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4 Peter Roberts and Hugh Sykes Introduction 5

Alt$oug$ eac$ 'art and c$a'ter is selfcontained to t$e extent t$at it deals wit$ a

'articular t$ee or subect, t$e aterial 'resented is organised in a anner w$ic$

allows t$e reader to gain a ra'id oeriew of t$e enorous s'an of urban

regeneration issues and actiities. %en t$oug$ t$e sco'e and content of t$is boo8

is wideranging in an atte't to 'roide a co're$ensie treatent of t$e full

s'an of urban regeneration, it would be wrong to suggest t$at it is a co'lete

treatent of a subect t$at is so extensie in ters of its 'ractices and

a''lications t$at it is difficult to define it wit$ an degree of 'recision. Because

urban regeneration is b its er nature a dnaic rat$er t$an static '$enoenon,it is alost i'ossible to ca'ture all of t$e features of current 'ractice or to

'redict t$e future wit$ an degree of certaint.

"n order to assist t$e reader, and to set t$e context for t$e reainder of t$e

boo8, an introduction to t$e origins, c$allenges and 'ur'oses of urban

regeneration is 'resented in C$a'ter #. T$e aterial in C$a'ter # is

crossreferenced to later c$a'ters in order to guide t$e reader to t$e ore detailed

discussions w$ic$ t$e contain. C$a'ter 3 introduces t$e reader to basic notions

suc$ as 'artners$i', strateg and t$e lessons t$at a be gained fro t$e stud of

best 'ractice. T$ese are recurrent features t$at can be seen in an as'ects of

urban regeneration 'ractice, and t$e analsis atte'ts to identif coon

eleents w$ic$ $el' bind toget$er t$e dierse subects t$at are contained in t$e

following c$a'ters. C$a'ter # c$iefl 'roides an introduction to t$e indiidual

to'ics t$at are considered in Part #, w$ilst C$a'ter 3 introduces t$e anageent

issues contained in Part 3.

5ost of t$e c$a'ters in t$is boo8 $ae been 're'ared b a tea of aut$ors

w$o between t$e re'resent t$e re


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Peter Roberts and Hugh Sykes Introduction 7

're'aration. :e $ae coe to realise $ow daunting t$e tas8 of urbanregeneration ust a''ear to an w$o 'artici'ate in it, and we $aediscoered t$at w$at a see to be selfeident to one 'artici'ant in t$eregeneration 'rocess a neer $ae occurred to anot$er. 5ost i'ortantl,we $ae coe to a''reciate t$e need to iew urban regeneration as acontinuous 'rocess. 9o sooner $as one 'roble been soled, t$an anot$ereerges.

T$is suggests t$at it is essential to iew t$e 'rocess of urban regeneration

as a longter ccle of actiit, t$ere are no


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Acknowledgements


:e wis$ to t$an8 all t$ose w$o $ae $el'ed in t$e 're'aration of t$is boo8. T$e

bul8 of t$e tas8 of drawing toget$er our 8nowledge and understanding of urban

regeneration $as been underta8en b t$e aut$ors of t$e arious c$a'ters, and to

t$ese colleagues we owe a considerable debt of t$an8s. All of t$e aut$ors $ae

been assisted in t$eir tas8 b t$e willing 'artici'ation of urban regeneration

'ractitioners and analsts re'resenting t$e aut$orities, organisations and

counities t$at are bot$ t$e agents of urban regeneration and t$e beneficiariesof c$ange. To all of t$ese 'artici'ants we wis$ to ex'ress our t$an8s. :e are

siilarl grateful to t$e ebers of our Adisor Panel, to t$e tea at t$e Britis$

(rban egeneration Association DB(A) and to t$e staff of +age PublicationsE

t$ese grou's $ae $el'ed to steer t$is 'roect t$roug$ t$e ast and often

unc$arted waters of urban regeneration t$eor and 'ractice and, in t$e case of t$e

latter, $ae also guided t$e editors t$roug$ t$e steries of 'ublis$ing. Finall

we owe a 'articular debt of t$an8s to ic$ard As'inall, w$o $as 'roided

secretarial su''ort to t$e editors and w$o $as 'erfored sterling wor8 in

assebling t$e arious anuscri'ts.

$ The Evo%ution& 'efinition and

Pur(ose of UrbanRe"eneration

Peter Roberts

Introduction

(rban areas are co'lex and dnaic sstes. T$e reflect t$e an 'rocesses

t$at drie '$sical, social, enironental and econoic transition and t$e

t$eseles are 'rie generators of an suc$ c$anges. 9o town or cit is

iune fro eit$er t$e external forces t$at dictate t$e need to ada't, or t$e

internal 'ressures t$at are 'resent wit$in urban areas and w$ic$ can 'reci'itate

growt$ or decline.

(rban regeneration is an outcoe of t$e inter'la between t$ese an sources

of influence and, ore i'ortantl, it is also a res'onse to t$e o''ortunities and

c$allenges w$ic$ are 'resented b urban degeneration in a 'articular 'lace at a

s'ecific oent in tie. T$is s$ould not be ta8en to suggest t$at all urban

'robles are uni


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1 Peter Roberts

The Evo%ution of Urban Areas and so)e *e+ The)es

T$e 'ur'ose of t$is section is to trace t$e origins of atte'ts to identif and

resole urban 'robles, and to isolate t$e aor features and c$aracteristics of

t$e solutions t$at $ae been deelo'ed and a''lied. :$ilst it is i'ossible in t$e

s'ace of a few 'ages to 'roide ant$ing but t$e ost su'erficial coentar on

soe of t$e aor eents in t$e $istor of urban areas, t$e ost i'ortant

contribution of t$is section is to identif t$e factors t$at $ae influenced t$e

eergence of t$e odernda 'ractice of urban regeneration.

Preious eras of urban 'olic $ae seen t$e introduction of an noel and

wellintentioned sc$ees aied bot$ at t$e resolution of 'articular 'robleswit$in existing urban areas and at t$e establis$ent of new settleents wit$in,

adacent to or reote fro existing towns and cities. As will be seen in t$e

following 'aragra'$s, w$ilst soe of t$ese 'olic innoations $ae been based

u'on adances in tec$nolog, ot$ers $ae resulted fro new econoic

o''ortunities or fro t$e ado'tion of attitudes to


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Peter Roberts

t$e 'resentda 'ractice of urban regeneration4 t$is is t$e relations$i' between

urban '$sical conditions and social res'onse. "n @ose'$ C$aberlains

Biring$a of t$e !210s, urban i'roeent was 'rooted t$roug$ a ciic

gos'el DBrowne, !*1-, '. 1) aied at eradicating liing conditions, w$ic$, in

C$aberlains iew, $ad created a situation w$ereb it is no ore t$e fault of

t$ese 'eo'le t$at t$e are icious and inte'erate t$an it is t$eir fault t$at t$e

are stunted, defored, debilitated and diseased DBrowne, !*1-, '. 30).

C$a'ter / deals wit$ issues related to t$e '$sical and enironental condition

of towns and cities.

Housing and Health

Following t$e recognition and acce'tance of t$e lin8 between 'oor '$sical

conditions and social de'riation, a series of 'olic interentions eerged in an

atte't to i'roe t$e liing conditions of urban residents. T$e eradication of

disease, t$e 'roision of ade


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1& Peter Roberts !"olution, #e$inition and Pur%ose 1'

Table #.! The e.o#tion of rban regeneration Changing r!an Polic#

Period $%&'s $%('s $%)'s $%'& $%%'s

Polic# +econ, +e-ital, +enewal +ede-elo., +egener, +o t$e scene is now set for a brief descri'tion and assessent of t$et#.e struction isation ment ation eolution of urban 'olic oer t$e 'ast $alf centur, and for t$e identifica5aorstrateg# +econstruction Continuation /ocus on in,0an# ma1or0o-e towards tion of t$e fift$ and final t$ee fro t$e 'ast t$at $as influenced t$eand or ien, and e2tension of $%&'s situ renewal schemes of a more com

tat ion of older areas theme3 and neigh, de-elo.ment .rehensi-e current t$eor and 'ractice of urban regeneration. T$is final eleent reof towns and su!ur!an and !ourhood and redevelop- form of .olic# flects t$e c$anging assignent of res'onsibilit for t$e i'roeent and

cities oftenperipheral schemes;still ment3 flagshi. and .ractice3 anageent of towns and cities. Fro 'ost+econd :orld :ar reconbased

on a growth3 some de-elo.ment .ro1ects3 out of more em.hasis striation to t$e 'resentda odel of 'artners$i', 'ower and res'onsibilit4mauter.lan43 earl# attem.ts at .eri.her#5 town .ro1ects5 on integrated for t$e disc$arge of t$e tas8s of urban regeneration $as c$anged $ands insu!ur!an at reha!,treatments5

growth5 ilitation5 line wit$ t$e broader conentions of social organisation and t$e doinantforces of 'olitical life. T$e 'attern of eolution of urban 'olic, toget$erwit$ t$e c$aracteristics of eac$ era of 'olic, is suarised in Table #.!.

stakeholders local a 6e# actors and National and mo-e towards "rowing role Em.hasis on Partnershi. the "n t$e iediate 'eriod after !*-/ re'airing wartie daage and recongreater of .ri-ate .ri-ate sectordominant go-ernment7 !alance sector and de, and s.ecial a..roach5 structing t$e fabric of towns and cities, an of w$ic$ $ad been neglected.ri-ate sector !etween centralisation agencies3 for ears, initiall too8 'riorit. T$is 'rocess of reconstruction was seen asde-elo.ers .u!lic and in local growth of a tas8 of national i'ortance. T$e 'ace was set b central goernent,and .ri-ate sectors5 go-ernment5 .artnershi.s5

contractors5 wit$ t$e 5inistr of Town and Countr Planning een offering detailedguidance to local aut$orities on t$e 'rinci'les and standards t$at s$ould

S.atial le-el of Em.hasis on +egional le-el +egional and in earl# $%'s +eintroduction goern t$e 're'aration of redeelo'ent 'lans for Dcentral) areas D5inis8cti-it# local and site of acti-it# local le-els focus on site3 of strategic tr of Town and Countr Planning, !*-1, '. !). :it$ detailed guidance of

l e- el s5 e me rg ed 5 i ni ti al l# 3 l at er l at er e m. ha si s .e rs .e ct i- e3

more local on local le-el5 growth of t$is 8ind it is little wonder t$at so an of t$e end'roducts of t$e 'ostwarem.hasis5 regional sc$ees of central renewal loo8 de'ressingl ali8e.

acti-it#5 6t$er 'olic 'rescri'tions were launc$ed alongside centralEconomic Pu!lic sector Continuing +esource Pri-ate sector "reater redeelo'ent. (rban constraint t$roug$ t$e designation of green belts/ocus in- estment from $%&'s constraints in domi nant with !alance still 'eritted substantial 'eri'$eral ex'ansion wit$in t$e urban fence,

with some with growing .u!l ic sec to r se lect i-e .u!l ic !etween and furt$er suburbanisation also occurred at t$e edges of an existing.ri-ate sector influence of and growth of funds5.u!lic7 .ri-ate

in-ol-ement5 .ri-ate .ri-ate and -oluntar# towns and cities. Beond t$e green belt were t$e new and ex'andedin-estment5 in-estment5 funding5 towns, toget$er wit$ ra'idl growing freestanding count towns. T$e

Social content im.ro-ement Social and Communit#, Communit# Em.hasis on e'$asis in t$e !*-0s and !*/0s was on reconstruction, re'laceent ando f housing and wel fa re !ased ac tion se lf ,hel. w ith the ro le of t$e eradication of t$e '$sical 'robles of t$e 'ast. 7oernentled,

li-ing im.ro-ement5 and greater -er# selecti-e communit#5 wit$ ent$usiastic su''ort fro local aut$orities and t$e 'riate sectorstandards5 em.ower, state su..ort5 ali8e, t$e 'riorities of slu clearance and reconstruction led to t$e

ment5 ebrace of $ig$rise $ousing and industrialised building tec$ni


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1) Peter Roberts !"olution, #e$inition and Pur%ose

w$ic$ focus in a coordinated wa on 'robles and on t$e areas w$ere t$ose

'robles are concentrated D&onnison, !**3, '. !2).

(rban regeneration oes beond t$e ais, as'irations and ac$ieeents of

urban renewal, w$ic$ is seen b Couc$ as a 'rocess of essentiall '$sical

c$ange DCouc$, !**0, '. #), urban deelo'ent Dor redeelo'ent) wit$ its

general ission and less welldefined 'ur'ose, and urban reitalisation Dor

re$abilitation) w$ic$, w$ilst suggesting t$e need for action, fails to s'ecif a

'recise et$od of a''roac$. "n addition, urban regeneration i'lies t$at an

a''roac$ to tac8ling t$e 'robles encountered in towns and cities s$ould be

constructed wit$ a longerter, ore strategic, 'ur'ose in ind.Bringing toget$er t$e eidence fro t$e $istor of urban c$ange and 'olic

wit$ t$e 'oints ade in t$e 'reious 'aragra'$, it is 'ossible to identif a nuber

of '$ases or stages in t$e deelo'ent of t$e t$eor and 'ractice of w$at we now

define as urban regeneration. Building on t$e wor8 of +to$r D!*2*) and Lic$field

D!**#), Table #.! traces soe of t$e aor c$anges t$at $ae occurred in t$e

a''roac$ to, and content of, urban 'olic and 'ractice fro t$e !*/0s to t$e

'resent da.

Principles of Urban Regeneration

Building on t$e definition 'roided aboe, a nuber of 'rinci'les can be

identified t$at are t$e $allar8 of urban regeneration. eflecting t$e c$allenges

of urban c$ange and t$eir outcoes, w$ic$ were discussed in t$e 'reious

section of t$is c$a'ter, urban regeneration s$ould4

be based u'on a detailed analsis of t$e condition of an urban areaE be aied

at t$e siultaneous ada'tation of t$e '$sical fabric, social structures,

econoic base and enironental condition of an urban areaE atte't to

ac$iee t$is tas8 of siultaneous ada'tation t$roug$ t$e generation and

i'leentation of a co're$ensie and integrated strateg t$at deals wit$

t$e resolution of 'robles in a balanced, ordered and 'ositie annerE ensure

t$at a strateg and t$e resulting 'rograes of i'leentation are

deelo'ed in accord wit$ t$e ais of sustainable deelo'entE set clearo'erational obecties w$ic$ s$ould, w$ereer 'ossible, be


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2 Peter Roberts

Figure 241 The Urban Regeneration Process

%conoic analsis

e.g. structure of local

econo, incoe flows,

e'loent and

une'loent, out'ut,

%xternal driers of

c$ance

e.g. acrotrends in

econo, %uro'ean and

national 'olic, strategies

9eig$bour$ood strategies

e.g. counit action, inner

area renewal, local social

facilities, counitled

'lanning, local enironental

sc$ees

%conoic deelo'ent

e.g. su''ort for new and existing firs,

i'roed infrastructure, innoation, econoic

diersification

Fro) Theor+ to Practice

+ocial analsis

e.g. analsis of social

stress, de'riation, s8ills

and ca'abilities,

counit facilities,

et$nic and ot$er inorit

issues

A''lication to an indiidual urban

area4

K citwide analsis

K neig$bour$ood c$aracteristics

existing 'lans and 'olicies

s'ecified goals and ais future

re uireents

"9P(T+

6(TP(T+

Training and education

e.g. s8ills en$anceent,

counit training, en$anced

researc$ and deelo'ent,

su''ort for sc$ools and

sc$oolbased facilities

%nironental analsis

e.g. urban '$sical


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** Peter Roberts

of urban regeneration also dis'la a nuber of i'ortant c$aracteristics and

features w$ic$ $el' to define t$e role, content and ode of o'eration of urban

regeneration. 7ien t$at urban regeneration as a distinct actiit is rooted in

'ractice rat$er t$an t$eor, a $ig$ degree of siilarit between t$e features of

t$eor and 'ractice is to be ex'ected. +uarising t$ese features, urban

regeneration can be seen as4

an interentionist actiitE an actiit w$ic$ straddles t$e 'ublic, 'riate and

counit sectorsE an actiit w$ic$ is li8el to ex'erience considerable

c$anges in its institutional structures oer tie in res'onse to c$anging

econoic, social, enironental and 'olitical circustancesE

a eans of obilising collectie effort and 'roiding t$e basis for t$e

negotiation of a''ro'riate solutionsE

a eans of deterining 'olicies and actions designed to i'roe t$e

condition of urban areas and deelo'ing t$e institutional structures

necessar to su''ort t$e 're'aration of s'ecific 'ro'osals.

T$ese c$aracteristics and features reflect t$e 'receding debate, and are c$iefl

concerned wit$ t$e role and t$e ode of o'eration of urban regeneration.

T$e ot$er aor eleent of urban regeneration t$eor relates to t$e functioning

of t$e urban sste as a w$ole and to t$e o'eration of t$e econoic, social,

'$sical and enironental 'rocesses t$at deterine t$e content of urban

regeneration. obson D!*22) $as identified four ain eleents of t$e 'rocesses

inoled in urban c$ange4 industrial restructuring in 'ursuit of axiisingreturnsE factor constraints including t$e aailabilit of land and buildingsE t$e real

or 'erceied unattractieness of urban areasE and t$e social co'osition of urban

areas. T$e identification of t$ese eleents assists in defining t$e content of urban

regeneration. "n addition, t$is assessent also 'oints to t$e need to consider t$e

was in w$ic$ t$e dierse eleents inoled in regeneration can be integrated in

order to ensure t$at actions are utuall su''ortie.

"ntegration is a central feature of urban regeneration and t$is feature $el's to

distinguis$ urban regeneration fro earlier 'artial atte'ts to anage c$ange in

urban areas DLic$field, !**#). T$e earlier sections of t$is c$a'ter exained t$e

reasons for t$e existence of urban regeneration and deonstrated t$e was in

w$ic$ t$e arious forces of c$ange $ae been anaged in t$e 'ast. oweer,

w$ilst not wis$ing to suggest t$at indiidual sectoral initiaties are unwelcoe, itis a''arent t$at, for exa'le, an isolated 'ro'ertled solution cannot be

ex'ected to address t$e full range of econoic, social and enironental

'robles t$at are encountered in urban areas. 7enerating and deliering an

integrated and co're$ensie solution to t$e c$allenges of urban regeneration is

a difficult tas8, but it is well wort$ t$e effort inoled.

T$is suggests t$at t$e final eleent of a t$eor of urban regeneration is t$at it

is a strategic 'rocess or, to use ic8lings terinolog, it is about

!"olution, #e$inition and Pur%ose *+

anaging decisions t$roug$ t$e use of strategic c$oice Dic8ling, !*1-). 7ien

t$e wide range of issues inoled in t$e anageent of urban c$ange, and

acce'ting t$at an indiidual actions are li8el to be of liited sco'e and

s$ortter duration, it is essential t$at urban regeneration s$ould wor8 to a

strategic agenda. A sste for t$e strategic anageent of urban regeneration

s$ould 'lace e'$asis on t$e need to create clarit regarding t$e intended

outcoes of regeneration, t$e 'roision of a fraewor8 wit$in w$ic$ s'ecific

'lans and 'roects can be designed and i'leented, establis$ing and

aintaining lin8s between t$e 'olic sstes inoled, identifing t$e roles and

res'onsibilities of t$e actors and organisations inoled in regeneration, and

generating a sense of coon 'ur'ose and coo'eration Doberts, !**0). 5atters

of 'artners$i', strateg and t$e anageent of urban regeneration are dealt wit$

ore full in C$a'ters 3 and !! of t$e 'resent boo8.

-h+ Bother to Re"enerate Urban Areas.

T$e 'receding sections of t$is c$a'ter $ae discussed a nuber of causes of t$e

urban 'roble, t$e t$eories w$ic$ $ae been adanced to ex'lain urban c$ange

and t$e conse


17/159

2$ Peter Roberts !volution" #efinition and Purpose

A siilar se


18/159

, Peter Roberts !volution" #efinition and Purpose ,

!*1 Plowden e'ort on 'riar education Dall, !*2!). "n res'onse to growing

concern about t$e condition of t$e inner urban areas, and es'eciall t$ose

neig$bour$oods wit$ significant concentrations of iigrants, t$e (rban

Prograe was launc$ed b t$e oe 6ffice in !*2. "n !** t$e Local

7oernent 7rants D+ocial 9eed) Act 'roided t$e basis for financial assistance

t$roug$ t$e (rban Prograe.

6t$er 'olic initiaties followed, including t$e Counit &eelo'ent

Proects Destablis$ed b t$e oe 6ffice in !**), an ex'ansion of t$e

%ducational Priorit Areas +c$ee and t$e 'ioneering +9AP, w$ic$ was

'ublis$ed in !*1#. "n t$e earl !*10s a series of "nner Area +tudies were carried

out b consultants and t$is, toget$er wit$ ot$er initiaties, suc$ as t$e designation

of ousing Action Areas b t$e !*1- ousing Act, 'roided t$e basis for t$e

u'grading of t$e urban agenda t$roug$ t$e !*12 "nner (rban Areas Act. %en

t$oug$ t$e initial i'act of t$e easures introduced under t$e !*12 Act was

liited to a few inner cit areas D&onnison and +oto, !*20), t$e ost i'ortant

conse


19/159

+* Peter Roberts !"olution, #e$inition and Pur%ose ++

of bidding was sus'ended and eentuall abandoned 'ending a aor reiew of

urban 'olic.

T$e outcoe of t$e 'olic reiew of t$e earl !**0s was a furt$er oe down

t$e road of t$e new localis Danagerial, co'etitie and cor'oratist)

described b +tewart D!**-). :$at eerged in 9oeber !**3 was t$e +ingle

egeneration Budget D+B). T$e ten new integrated offices in t$e %nglis$

regions Dt$e 7oernent 6ffices for t$e egions, or 76s) were gien t$e role

of adinistering t$e existing ain 'rograes Dcuts in budget for bot$ t$e

(rban Prograe and t$e (&Cs $ad been announced in late !**#) and t$e new

+B. "n t$e 9oeber stateent t$e goernent also announced t$eintroduction of Cit Pride a 'ilot 'rograe w$ic$ inited ultiagenc

grou's in Biring$a, London and 5anc$ester to deelo' a tenear strategic

ision for t$eir cit and to 'resent an action 'rograe to ac$iee t$e ision.

&raft Bidding 7uidance for +B was issued in @anuar !**-, and it indicated

t$at it was ex'ected t$at ost +B 'artners$i's would be led b local aut$orities

or Training and %nter'rise Councils DT%Cs), alt$oug$ ot$er leaders$i'

arrangeents were not 'recluded. Final bidding guidance was 'ublis$ed 'rior to

t$e first bidding round, w$ic$ coenced in A'ril !**-. "n &eceber !**- t$e

successful #0! bids were announced. T$e successful 'roects coenced during

t$e !**/M* financial ear. A furt$er round of +B too8 'lace in !**/ /Bidding

0uidance &e'artent of t$e %nironent, !**/ was issued in 5arc$).

T$e final eleents of urban 'olic introduced during t$e earl and id!**0st$at desere coent $ere include t$e creation of %nglis$ Partners$i's and t$e

Priate Finance "nitiatie. "n @ul !**# a consultation 'a'er was 'ublis$ed

'ro'osing t$e establis$ent of an (rban egeneration Agenc. T$e intention

was to create a new statutor agenc to 'roote t$e reclaation and

deelo'ent of derelict, acant and underused land and buildings in %ngland,

es'eciall in urban areas. T$e agenc D%nglis$ Partners$i's) cae into full effect

in A'ril !**- and erged t$e functions 'reiousl disc$arged b %nglis$ %states,

Cit 7rant and &erelict Land 7rant.

"n !**# t$e goernent launc$ed t$e Priate Finance "nitiatie DPF"). T$e

'ur'ose in creating PF" was to reduce t$e Public +ector Borrowing e


20/159

+& Peter Roberts

T$erefore, t$e concluding section of t$e c$a'ter is ore concerned wit$ t$e

identification of atters of interest, t$an it is wit$ t$e deelo'ent of answers or

solutions.

oweer, t$ree general conclusions can be drawn fro t$e 'receding

discussion. T$e first is t$e i'ortance of ealuation in inforing t$e

deelo'ent and furt$er en$anceent of regeneration t$eor and 'ractice. T$is

atter is considered in greater de't$ in C$a'ter !0. +econd, it is essential to

tac8le t$e tas8 of regeneration t$roug$ t$e ado'tion of an integrated and

co're$ensie a''roac$. T$ird, it is i'ortant to acce't t$at todas new

regeneration initiatie is but a staging 'ost in t$e eolution of towns, cities andregions. egeneration is a constant c$allenge, and t$e a''roac$ ado'ted at a

'articular 'oint in tie re'resents t$e outcoe of a co'lex sste of social,

econoic and 'olitical c$oice.

T$e reaining c$a'ters of t$is boo8 address an of t$e co'lexities of

regeneration. T$e also 'roide insig$ts and guidance t$at will be of assistance

in ensuring t$at t$e 'resent generation of contributions to t$e 'rogress of towns,

cities and regions will be bot$ 'ositie and lasting.

Key Isses and ,ctions

It is essential to set a context for any proposed regenerationaction - this context should consider the historic evolution of

an area and the outcomes of previous policies. All tons! cities

and regions display a particular blend of problems andpotentials - this blend is the manifestation of both external

in"uences and internal characteristics. #he style of approach toregeneration has evolved over the years! and policy and

practice re"ect dominant socio-political attitudes. #heregeneration of urban areas can be seen as an important

element of regional and national success. $rban regenerationis a comprehensive and integrated vision and action hich

leads to the resolution of urban problems and hich see%s to

bring about a lasting change in the economic! physical! socialand environmental condition of an area that has been sub&ect

References

Ac$e, P., Bre, .@. and unGann, . D!**0) The Single !uro%ean arket2 Possible 3-%acts on S%atial

Structures o$ the Federal Re%ublic o$ 0er-any,"P(&, (niersit of &ortund, &ortund.

Balc$in, P.9. and Bull, 7.. D!*21)Regional and Urban !cono-ics, ar'er = ow, London.

Bodd, T. D!**#) (nderground and oer$ead4 building t$e analogous cit, in 5. +or8in Ded.) 4ariations on a

The-e Park, ill and :ang, 9ew ;or8.

Browne, . D!*1-)5ose%h Cha-berlain, Radical and 3-%erialist, Longan, London.

Couc$, C. D!**0) Urban Rene6al Theory and Practice, 5acillan, Basingsto8e.

Curran, @. and Blac8burn, . D!**-) S-all Fir-s and 7ocal !cono-ic 8et6orks, Paul C$a'an, London.

!"olution, #e$inition and Pur%ose

&e'artent of t$e %nironent D!**/) Bidding 0uidance2 9 0uide to Bidding $or Resources $ro- the

0o"ern-ent:s Single Regeneration Budget Challenge Fund, &e'artent of t$e %nironent, London.

&ennison, &. D!**3) Agenda for t$e future, in C. 5cConnell Ded.) Trickle #o6n or Bubble (' Counit

&eelo'ent Foundation, London.

&onnison, &. and +oto, P. D!*20) The 0ood City, eineann, London.

Fainstein, +.+. D!**-) The City Builders, Basil Blac8well, 6xford.

Feagin, @. and +it$, 5.P. D!*21) Cities and t$e new international diision of labor4 an oeriew, in 5.P. +it$

and @. Feagin Deds.) The Ca%italist City, Basil Blac8well, 6xford.

Fot$ergill, +. and 7udgin, 7. D!*2#) Une;ual 0ro6th, eineann, London.

Fot$ergill, +., itson, 5. and 5on8, +. D!*23) 3ndustrial 7and 9"ailability in Cities, To6ns and Rural 9reas,

"ndustrial Location esearc$ Proect, :or8ing Pa'er 9o. , &e'artent of Land %cono, (niersit of

Cabridge, Cabridge.

Fowler, %.P. D!**3)Building Cities That


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$ 0ndre* &arter Strategy and Partnership $

The Euro(ean 'i)ension

According to Alden and Boland D!**) t$e clearest ex'ression of t$e %uro'ean

Coissions 'olic on regional deelo'ent of s'atial 'lanning is to be found

in Europe #000O. T$e docuent e'$asises t$e eergence of a %uro'ean

diension in 'lanning 'olicies of eber states and adocates an en$anced role

for regional deelo'ent strategies in ac$ieing t$e obecties of nations,

regions and localities in an enlarged %uro'ean (nion D%().

:it$in t$is context, Europe #000O identifies a nuber of aor trends

eerging fro eber states w$ic$ adocate t$e role for s'atial 'lanning in

deising and i'leenting regional deelo'ent strategies.

T$e first aor trend is t$e growing awareness t$at s'atial 'lanning $as

s$ifted fro a concern for 'urel '$sical 'lanning and landuse atters to a

wider concern for social, econoic, enironental and 'olitical issues. T$is

reflects t$e return of t$e i'ortance of strategic t$in8ing in 'lanning, es'eciall

gien t$e i'ortance of cities and regions o'erating wit$in bot$ t$e %( and

een wider global econo w$ere strategic leels of decisiona8ing assue

significance DAlden and Boland, !**).

A second trend exained in Europe#000O is t$e need not onl to identif

strategic issues, but also to integrate t$e arious issues into a ore

co're$ensie and co'lex for of s'atial 'lanning. Planning at a ariet of

s'atial leels is now concerned wit$ a wider range of issues t$an $it$erto,including econoic deelo'ent, trans'ortation, retailing, touris, $ousing,

urban regeneration, t$e countrside, and t$eir integration wit$ eac$ ot$er.

T$ird is t$e increased decentralisation of res'onsibilit for 'olicies and

controls to regional and local leels of goernent. T$is is cou'led wit$ an

increased nuber of organisations res'onsible for deliering serices wit$in t$e

region.

T$e abilit to t$in8 and act strategicall is essential for t$e longter success

of t$e ( in %uro'e. As oberts argues, "n t$e absence of strategic ision it is

doubtful if t$e ( will be able to sustain a range of iable econoic, social and

'$sical enironents wit$in a %uro'e of regions Doberts, !**0, '. ). T$e

benefits of a''ling t$e 'rinci'les of strategic ision are alread a''arent in a

nuber of %uro'ean countriesE t$e strategic ision a''roac$ $as been used to$el' 'lan and regenerate a nuber of cities and regions, including Barcelona.

E%e)ents of a ,trate"ic A((roach

T$ere is a growing consensus aongst 'olica8ers about w$at t$e eleents of

a strategic a''roac$ to regeneration ig$t be. As Par8inson D!**) notes, w$en

t$e %uro'ean Coission reised its +tructural Funds

in !*22 it identified four necessar features of t$e refored 'olic4 it s$ould

bring added alue, be 'artners$i' based, be clearl targeted and integrate

different 'olic instruents and a''roac$es. +iilarl, w$en t$e +cottis$ 6ffice

introduced its 9ew Life for (rban +cotland initiatie in !*22 it defined t$e

strategic a''roac$ to regeneration as co're$ensie, ultisectoral and

'artners$i' based. T$is t$in8ing finds ec$oes in ore recent ( central

goernent regeneration initiaties Cit C$allenge and t$e +B.

"n tring to define t$e eleents of a strategic a''roac$ to regeneration,

5c7regoretal. suggest t$at it is concerned wit$ t$e use of resources to secure

lasting social and econoic c$ange b a8ing co'leentar inestents ininteracting local actiities. T$ese c$anges are designed to facilitate furt$er

desired c$ange and to $ae beneficial effects on ot$er sectors and areas wit$in

t$e local or urban econo. T$is a''roac$ i'lies soe 8nowledge of $ow

inestents and ot$er c$anges interact to 'roote local c$ange, to create a

dnaic and to 'roduce 'ositie s'illoers D5c7regoretal., !**#).

Par8inson D!**) drawing on t$is wor8 and ot$er researc$ states t$at a

strategic a''roac$ to urban regeneration s$ould4

$ae a clearl articulated ision and strategEs'ecif $ow its c$osen ec$aniss and resources would $el' to ac$iee t$e

longter isionE clearl integrate t$e different econoic, enironental and

social 'riorities of t$e regeneration strategE identif t$e intended

beneficiaries of t$e strateg and t$e was in w$ic$ t$e will benefitE identif

t$e leel of 'riate, 'ublic and counit resources, financial and in 8ind,

t$at would be coitted oer defined 'eriods of tieE s'ecif t$e role and

contribution t$at t$e 'ublic, 'riate and counit 'artners would a8e to

regenerationE integrate, erticall and $oriGontall, t$e 'olicies, actiities and

resources of t$ose 'artners in a co're$ensie strategE lin8 ex'licit

regeneration 'olicies to wider ainstrea 'rograes in $ousing, education,

trans'ort, $ealt$, finance w$ic$ constitute t$e i'licit urban strategE s'ecif

t$e relations$i' between s$ort, ediu and long ter goalsE establis$

econoic, social and '$sical baseline conditions before t$e 'olic

interention to allow an assessent of c$ange oer tieE $ae agreedilestones of 'rogressE onitor t$e out'uts and outcoes of t$e strateg and

ealuate t$eir i'act.

As Par8inson rig$tl ac8nowledges, t$is re'resents a foridable set of criteria

$ic$ in t$e real world of 'olic would be extreel difficult to ac$iee. &es'ite

t$is it is wort$ stating t$e as an ideal t'ical set of criteria, against w$ic$ to

ealuate actual strateg deelo'ent.

$2 0ndre* &arter Strategy and Partnership $,

Princi(%es of a ,trate"ic Fra)e#or!

&eising a strategic fraewor8 re


22/159

wide range of social, econoic and enironental issues. First, t$e current'olitical agenda is forcing t$e 'ace in t$is area. Funding re


23/159

Table 3.2 Types ofpartnership

Type Area of coverageRange of partners Activities Examples

Development Single site or small Private developer, housing

partnership, area, e.g. town association, local authority. mutual benefits.Development Agency,joint venture centre. Brighton Media CentreDevelopment Clearly defined Community-based, importantly,

Community-based regeneration. Generally concerned Coin St, North Kensingtontrustarea for independent from public bodieswith creating and spreading community benefits and Amenity Trust, Arts Factoryregeneration, e.g. but frequently some reps fromsince they are non-profit making, recycle all surpluses

neighbourhood or Local Authorities.into the trust.estate.

Informal District or city- Private sector-led. Sponsored by Place-marketing,

promotion of growth and The Newcastle Initiative,arrangement wide. Chamber of Commerce orinvestment. Concerned with problems, issues and

Glasgow Action, Eastdevelopment agency. strategy identification that are of mutual interest toLondon Partnership. Q

the parties involved. rip

Strategic Subregional,

metropolitan.

All sectors. Determining broad strategy for growth and Coventry anddevelopment. May act as an initial catalyst for activity.

WarwickshirePartnership,Often acts as a guide for development. Chester CityPartnership,

Source: After Bailey (1995/ and Boyle /1993/.

n0 D& se

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J. : : ot 5tp= ?FaFK3FF"1 P7?E :=0a:a3u := h= F; : 3oo?: n ;='=F=3n:=p=' FCL=F'FF'' :3o :? .F (;F F rMFnM? : ?;F F0 00

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E 2 1

4& Andre$ "arter Strategy and Partnershi%4'


24/159

4'

T$e


25/159

t$e regional and national econo, t$e state of t$e local labour ar8et, t$e

broader 'olitical context and t$e $ars$ realities of t$e coercial world are

broug$t to t$e attention of t$e 'artners$i' DBole, !**3, '. 3##). Partners$i'

obecties need to be realistic and attainable, gien t$e 'owers and resources

aailable.

"ndiidual sc$ees function best w$en clear 'riorities are set wit$in t$e

oerall context of a strategic 'lan, recognising w$at can be realisticall ac$ieed

wit$in t$e resources aailable. A strategic fraewor8 can 'roide t$e setting

wit$in w$ic$ a ulti'licit of neig$bour$ood regeneration initiaties can

establis$ t$eir local isions of $ow t$e contribute to t$e localit as a w$ole.T$is a''roac$ allows t$e 8e strengt$s and wea8nesses of an area to be analsed

and indiidual area initiaties to be 'lanned and anaged wit$in t$e oerarc$ing

strateg.

o3 ,41 &hester 0ction Partnership

T$e 'artners$i' is a ultisectoral networ8 establis$ed in !**3 wit$ a 'ro

grae to $ig$lig$t and address t$e c$allenges facing C$ester Cit and its

rural district. "t currentl re'resents ore t$an 300 organisations and leads

t$e deelo'ent and i'leentation of bot$ new and existing strategies for

regeneration."ts role is to facilitate action and 'roide a strategic fraewor8 for all ac

tiit ta8ing 'lace in C$ester. T$e 'rograe re'resents a co$erent set of

goals, 'riorities and actions w$ic$ $as 'roided a fraewor8 in w$ic$

indiidual 'roects can be i'leented as t$e a''ro'riate resources are

secured. Current actiities include4 anaging H!0 illion +B PrograeE

anaging %state Action +c$eesE Cit Centre 5anageentE Liing 6er

t$e +$o' ProectE Clean (' Ca'aignE Cultural +trategE AntiPoert

Integration

Fro an organisational 'ers'ectie, Carle D!**, '. 2) identifies bot$ ertical

and $oriGontal integration as 'rere


26/159

Inde%endence

5anageent also needs to be inde'endent of a single sector interest and

re'resentatie of t$e full range of sta8e$olders. Partners$i' arrangeents see

to wor8 best w$ere staff are a''ointed or seconded to an inde'endent

'artners$i' agenc rat$er t$an being t$e res'onsibilit of an existing agenc.

Li8ewise, 'artners$i's re


27/159

sociall res'onsible, 'roiding t$e can continue to a8e effectie businessdecisions. Counit organisations are flexible, close to inforal networ8sand su''ort t$e longter interests of t$e counitE but t$e often $aefew financial resources. 7oernents, bot$ local and national, $ae 8eroles to 'la in encouraging coo'eration, su''orting local initiaties anddecisiona8ing, leeraging resources and 'roiding adinistratie su''ortDBaile, !**/).

Things to a-oid

Aoiding t$e lowest coon denoinator a''roac$ to 'artners$i's isneeded to encourage bolder actions and to turn tal8ings$o's into 'roactie,'robleorientated entures, wit$ ore e


28/159

&rawing on t$e 6rganisation for %conoic Coo'eration and &eelo'ents

D6%C&s) D!**) and B(As D!**E !**1) ex'erience as to w$at constitutes

good 'ractice in urban regeneration, it is 'ossible to suggest a nuber of

'rinci'les for 'olic in relation to t$e establis$ent of successful 'artners$i's4

A strategic ision and fraewor8, 'roiding a clear 'icture of t$e desired

outcoes, encourages 'artners to align t$eir goals and obecties w$ile

a8ing a''ro'riate contributions. Partners$i's s$ould be built on s$ared

interests, oint understanding and action.

Partners$i's s$ould be deelo'ed to suit local and regional conditions. T$es'ecific c$aracteristics of t$e localit, t$e sta8e$olders and ested interests

s$ould deterine t$e structure, co'osition and ode of o'eration of t$e

'artners$i'.

Partners$i's s$ould cobine bot$ bottou' and to'down initiaties.

Ca'acitbuilding and utual understanding are essential across all t$e

sectors to ensure t$at t$e 'artners$i' can wor8 effectiel.

Partners$i's cannot wor8 in isolation. Locall based 'roects need to be

integrated into a wider fraewor8 for t$e region. T$e re


29/159

eale, P., Caeron, +., &aoudi, +., 7ra$a, +. and 5adaniPour, A. Deds.) D!**/)anaging Cities2 The 8e6 Urban Context, @o$n :ile = +ons, C$ic$ester,

5ac8intos$, 5. D!**#) Partners$i'4 issues of 'olic and negotiation,7ocal !cono-y, 4ol. +, PART $no. 1, ''. #!0#-.

5artin, +. and Pearce, 7. D!**/) T$e ealuation of urban 'olic 'roect a''raisal in .ableton and . T$oas Deds.) Urban Policy !"aluation2 Challenge and Change, PaulC$a'an, London.

5awson, @., BeaGle, 5., Collinge, C., all, +., Loftan, P., 9ein, B., +rblanin, A. and R THE0E, AN' TOPIC,Tilson, B. D!**/) The Single Regeneration Budget2 The Stocktake 3nteri- Re%ort Su--ary,(niersit of Biring$a and Central %ngland, Biring$a.

5c7regor, A., 5aclennan, &., &onnison, &., 7eell, B. and 5acArt$ur, A. D!**#) 9Re"ie6 and Critical !"aluation o$ Strategic 9%%roaches to Urban Regeneration, +cottis$oes, %dinburg$.

6rganisation for %conoic Coo'eration and &eelo'ent D6%C&) D!**) Strategies $orHousing and Social 3ntegration in Cities, 6%C&, Paris.

Par8inson, 5. D!**) +trategic a''roac$es for area regeneration4 a reiew and a researc$agenda. Pa'er 're'ared for t$e Area egeneration Prograe for t$e @ose'$ owntreeFoundation.

oberts, P. D!**0) Strategic 4ision and the anage-ent o$ the U> 7and Resource, +tage !!e'ort, +trategic Planning +ociet, London.

oberts, P. D!**1) 6'inion,BUR95ournal, 6ctober.+8elc$er, C., 5cCabe, A. and Lowndes, ?. D!**) Co--unity 8et6orks in Urban Regenera

tion2 E3t all de%ends 6ho you kno6:, T$e Polic Press, Bristol.

+tewart, 5. and +na'e, &. D!**/) ee'ing u' t$e oentu4 'artners$i' wor8ing in Bristoland t$e :est. (n'ublis$ed e'ort fro t$e +c$ool for Polic +tudies to t$e BristolC$aber of Coerce and "nitiatie.

Turo8, ". and +$utt, @. D!**-) T$e c$allenge for urban 'olic,7ocal !cono-y, 4ol. *, no. +,''. #!!!/.

:ilson, A. and C$arlton, . D!**1)aking Partnershi%s


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9 Econo)ic Re"eneration endFundin"

#a"id 8oon, 5a-es S-ithACanha-,artin !a land

Introduction

%conoic regeneration is a ital 'art of t$e 'rocess of urban regeneration. "tis needed to counter t$e econoic decline ex'erienced b cities wit$ t$ec$anges in t$e wor8ings of t$e econo and t$e increasing globalisation ofar8ets. T$e industrial reolution ade cities t$e focus of 'roduction,'o'ulation, culture and societ in Britain but t$e last t$ree decades $ae beenc$aracterised b a loss of e'loent and 'o'ulation, a relocation ofanufacturing and t$e readustent of ot$er econoic structures. After a

long 'eriod of continued growt$ t$e adent of decline led to


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3emand Side

T$e deand side will be deterined b t$e cits abilit to retain local

ex'enditure and to attract ore s'ending fro outside. T$is a ta8e t$e for

of deand for industrial 'roduction or for t$e out'ut of t$e serice sector.

%fforts to 'roote t$e cit ai to attract new sources of ex'enditure. For

exa'le, t$e deelo'ent of conferences and touris ar8ets $ae been

'ursued as 'art of strategies to sustain new t'es of econoic actiit in t$e cit.

Supply Side

6n t$e su''l side inestent ust be ade to i'roe infrastructure including

t$e building of new roads or i'roing existing roads and ot$er counication

lin8s. Land needs to be redeelo'ed and ade aailable to bot$ existing

industries, 8een to ex'and or relocate, and also for t$e deelo'ent of new

industries. "'ortant lin8s between education and researc$ institutions $ae a

role to 'la in t$e deelo'ent and o'eration of science, tec$nolog and

business 'ar8s. T$ere ust also be inestent in 'eo'le wit$ increased and

a''ro'riate training and su''ort for ideas deliered t$roug$ enter'rise and

training bodies suc$ as t$e T%Cs and local enter'rise co'anies DL%Cs), andbusiness su''ort agencies suc$ as Business Lin8.

&uring t$e "ndustrial eolution cities were t$e focus of 'roduction and

'o'ulation wit$ close 'roxiit to actiities generating external econoies

w$ic$ $ae been tered s'atial econoies of scale. T$e econo is now

c$anging, s'atial econoies of scale are of less i'ortance, and t$e cities need

to react and 'lan for t$e future. T$e econo is entering a new '$ase w$ere t$e

$andling and counication of inforation is becoing increasingl i'ortant.

&irectl lin8ed to t$is is t$e increasing use of inforation and counication

tec$nologies, often referred to as teleatics. Cities, to ensure t$eir future role in

t$e c$anging econoic cliate, need to $ae excellent telecounication

networ8s, not ust internall or wit$ ot$er urban centres in %uro'e but wit$ t$e

rest of t$e world. :it$out t$e '$sical establis$ent of t$ese networ8s and t$eir

o'tial utilisation, an urban area ris8s oing fro being a core regional ornational location to a 'eri'$eral global location. T$e su''l side will also be

influenced b t$e 'roductie ca'acit of t$e cit. 6f 'articular i'ortance $ere

is t$e abilit to attract inestent and for indigenous deelo'ent to be

'rooted t$roug$ new fir foration and t$roug$ t$e growt$ of existing

businesses. T$e cliate for inestent in 'roductie ca'acit will clearl be

influenced b t$e co'etitieness of t$e local econo as reflected in t$e


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Table -.! "xp#anations for rban dedine

Name of e2.lanation E2.lanation

Structuralist Structural change in the glo!al econom#3 ri se of new economies

with differing s.atialncreasing e2ternal ownershi. of firms in ur!an areas !# others with little

local allegiance5

Standardisation means that manufacturing can ha..en almostan#where so .roduction elsewhere !ecomes highl# .ro!a!le5

increasingl inflexible labour. To 'reent t$is urban regeneration strategies $ae focused on

i'roing urban infrastructure, reducing t$e reclaation and assebl costs of urban land

t$roug$ a range of grants and en$ancing t$e s8ill base of t$e local wor8force t$roug$ targetedtraining sc$ees designed to i'roe t$e ob 'ros'ects of t$e local wor8force.

Economic 5egeneration Programmes

Early Attempts

%arl atte'ts at econoic regeneration 'rograes are exe'lified b Boxes -.! and -.#,case studies of 7lasgow, Lowell Dnear Boston, (+A) and &ean Cloug$ Dalifax). T$ese

exa'les are c$aracterised b a co're$ensie a''roac$ to econoic regeneration w$ic$sered to bring toget$er a nuber of se'arate initiaties or b t$e ision and coitent of

8e 'eo'le.

rends in 6r'an Economic Policy

Fro t$e id!*0s to t$e 'resent da it is 'ossible to identif four '$ases in t$e deelo'ent

of urban 'olic as a res'onse to urban decline. T$e first '$ase ran fro t$e id!*0s until t$e'ublis$ing of t$e !*11 :$ite Pa'er D5+6, !*11). &uring t$is tie t$ere was a 'articular

iew of de'riation based on t$e culture of 'oert t$esis, deelo'ed in Aerica b writerssuc$ as Banfield D!*10), w$ic$ generall attributed urban 'robles to t$e

Box 4! +-asgo$

"n t$e late !*0s and earl !*10s 7lasgow was suffering an econoic crisis as ar8ets

for steel, s$i'building, railwa engineering and ot$er engineering actiit sli''ed awa.T$e industrial base was in serious decline and une'loent was ra'idl rising. +ince

t$en, 7lasgows fortunes $ae been successfull reersed, its iage en$anced and its'o'ularit as a isitor cit stands in star8 contrast to t$ose earlier de'ressing iages. A

nuber of reasons for t$e cits success in regenerating itself can be identified4

K t$e creation of t$e +cottis$ &eelo'ent Agenc in t$e id!*10sE

K a stable local goernentEK t$e abilit to create 'artners$i's between an agenciesEK a strategic a''roac$ t$at gae 'riorit to t$e creation of new ar8ets for t$e

cit rat$er t$an a sites'ecific a''roac$.

T$is a''roac$ graduall broug$t benefits fro isitors attracted to t$e cit and t$einward relocation of co'anies and 'eo'le w$ic$ in turn stiulated ot$er inestents in

t$e cit.Toda, t$e successes of t$e !*20s are being consolidated and furt$er deelo'ed b t$e

7lasgow egeneration Agenc.

Box 4/ Lo$e-- (assachusetts and ,ean "-ough Ha-ifax

T$e econoic fortunes of an towns in t$e nort$ of %ngland declined wit$ t$e slow butstead disa''earance of t$eir textile industries. Fro t$e !*0s onwards an large, and

often stri8ing, textile ills stood e't or were underutilised. "n t$e !*10s and !*20sLowell near Boston in t$e (+A led t$e wa in s$owing $ow suc$ ills could be reused

and econoic life returned to t$e local area. T$eir success was based u'on a nuber offactors4

0 t$e 'resence of $ig$tec$ industries and t$e willingness of soe of t$ese industries tooccu' t$e ills after refurbis$entE

local tax incenties for inestentE

K ca'italising on t$e 'resence of local waterwas to en$ance refurbis$entsc$eesEt$e ease wit$ w$ic$ local 'artners$i's were createdE

K a flexible a''roac$ to t$e a''lication of building regulations.

A siilar deelo'ent in a textile ill is &ean Cloug$ in alifax w$ere ! illion

s


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inade


34/159

was an i'ortant ste' in i'roing t$e c$ances of securing funding fro t$is

source.

Econo)ic Re"eneration Initiatives and Pro"ra))es

T$e 'reious section $as focused on t$e deelo'ent of urban 'olic fro t$e

!*0s to t$e 'resent da. &eelo'ents oer t$is 'eriod $ae resulted in t$e

establis$ent of a range of 'olic initiaties w$ic$ are described in t$is section.

T$e initiaties 'resented $ere $ae fored a significant co'onent of urban'olic during t$e !**0s.

0rant Support

Land grants $ae been an i'ortant eleent in an urban regeneration

sc$ees suc$ as at 5err ill in t$e Blac8 Countr and, on a saller scale, wit$

t$e redeelo'ent of t$e Birds Custard Factor in Biring$a. +uc$ use of

grant su''ort lowers t$e entr t$res$old for t$e 'riate sector and can induce

significant inestent as a result.

Box 44 )he "ustard 9actory Bir*ingha*

T$e forer Birds Custard Factor in &igbet$, Biring$a, $ad been

derelict for an ears before a Cit 7rant Award of H200,000 was ade in

@anuar !**#. T$is 'ublic sector funding leered in H!. illion of 'riate

sector inestent for t$e refurbis$ent of !00,000 s


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' ' ,

and anot$er in "nerclde in !*2*.

(rban &eelo'ent Agencies

T$e 'assing of t$e !*20 Local 7oernent Planning and Land Act gae t$e

goernent t$e 'ower to create (rban &eelo'ent Cor'orations, t$e first two

of w$ic$ were establis$ed in !*2! followed b a furt$er !! between !*21 and

!**3. T$ese were agencies created to aid t$e regeneration of s'ecific urban

localities ainl wit$ t$e one, ideas and focus of t$e 'riate sector 'ried bcentral goernent funding. T$ese agencies $ad t$e 'ower to ac


36/159

'

resources of t$e local oluntar sector, w$ic$ indicated a oe awa fro solel

econoic regeneration oties to include a stronger social 'olic diension.

Cit C$allenge encouraged t$e local aut$orit to act wit$ ision and to

include t$e local 'eo'le and counit organisations Dwit$, of course, t$e

'riate sector) in its 'roects. +tress was 'laced on an integrated a''roac$ to lin8

urban 'roects wit$ e'loent and training, c$ildcare, $ousing, enironental

concerns, and crie 'reention and safet. T$e innoatie 'art of t$e

'rograe was t$at it introduced a co'etitie bidding 'rocess wit$ t$e ai of

encouraging an entre'reneurial ideal into local goernent. "t was also felt t$ateen t$ose areas t$at lost out in t$e bidding 'rocess would benefit fro t$e

'rocess and wor8 better wit$ t$eir new 'artners in t$e 'riate sector.

e'orts b t$e Audit Coission D!*2*) and t$e 9ational Audit 6ffice

D!**0) identified a degree of oerla' in t$e goernents inner cit 'rograes

and concluded t$at t$is aounted to a waste of bot$ tie and funds. T$ese

re'orts stiulated t$e foration of t$e +ingle egeneration Budget in !**-

w$ic$ was to incor'orate t$e #0 existing 'rograes and initiaties into one

integrated regeneration budget. T$e +B introduced a wider and ore aried

range of regeneration actiit t$an before. "ntegration and coordination on a

ore local leel, initiated in t$e Cit C$allenge 'rograe, were furt$er

encouraged and en$anced t$roug$ t$e +B. T$is local focus was furt$er

su''orted b t$e establis$ent of 7oernent 6ffices for t$e egions in !**3

to establis$ control of s'ending and 'olic i'leentation at t$e regional leel

and to address t$e s$ortcoings of 'ast 'artners$i' atte'ts because of a failure

to inole local counities.

%x'erience to date suggests t$at t$e +B is li8el to be doinated b 'roects

aied at largescale '$sical deelo'ent. T$is is because bot$ t$e (&Cs and

%nglis$ Partners$i's Prograes, including land reclaation, are financed fro

+B funding DTable -.#).

Tab#e !42 The 'ing#e Regeneration -dget 56 n##ion7

$%%,%& $%%&,%( $%%(,%)

H8TS 5= %'5' %'5'

DCs =%$5' =&@5) =5)

8ll other S+? .rogrammes

Source9 De.artment of the En-ironment

)5$ )))5( )(5=

T$e +B signals a c$ange in t$e 'riar influences acting u'on urban

econoic 'olic. 5uc$ goernent urban 'olic $as been drawn fro

ex'eriences and ideas fro 9ort$ Aerica, 'articularl t$e (+A. "n t$e case of

t$e +B an arallels can be drawn fro t$e Frenc$ Contrat de

g ' '

institutions in order to for a utual understanding of t$e underling causes of

'robles and $ow best to tac8le t$e. T$e initiatie $as 'roduced co$esie

'artners$i's at t$e local leel w$ic$ oerride adinistratie boundaries and

de'artentalis bot$ centrall and locall, and it $as ac$ieed an i'ressie

degree of coordination of 'ublic 'olic and ex'enditure D6a8le, !**/aE

!**/b).

T$e +B now re'resents t$e ain for of su''ort fro central goernent

for urban regeneration in t$e (.

Financin" Urban Re"eneration

+ince t$e start of odern urban 'rograes following t$e !*11 :$ite Pa'er,

t$ere $ae been seeral ariations in t$e et$ods used to 'roide finance.

T$e ain source of funding for urban regeneration in t$e earl das of t$e

'rograes was t$e 'ublic sector. Prior to t$e 'ublication of t$e !*11 :$ite

Pa'er, t$e (rban Prograe was adinistered b t$e oe 6ffice w$o

'roided 1/ 'er cent grant aid to an local aut$orities and also to soe

oluntar grou's. "n !*11 t$e Labour goernent substantiall increased t$e

(rban Prograe fro H30 illion 'er annu to soe H!#/ illion 'er annu

and oed its adinistration to t$e &e'artent of t$e %nironent. T$e seen

urban 'artners$i's created in !*12 receied H illion directl fro t$e (rban

Prograe budget and a furt$er H illion fro a H!00 illion inner cit

ca'ital 'rograe.

Following t$e !*1* general election new ideas eerged on $ow to fund urban

regeneration. T$e new focus was to encourage greater 'artici'ation b t$e

'riate sector in urban regeneration initiaties. T$is aounted to neoliberalis

underwritten b state interention . . . a subsid to t$e 'riate sector t$roug$

infrastructural inestent DAt8inson and 5oon, !**-, '. !/). 6f course, t$ere

was still a considerable in'ut of direct goernent funding, t$e e'$asis was

s$ifted towards t$e 'riate sector wit$ t$e $o'e t$at a degree of entre'reneurial

initiatie would be instilled b t$e 'riate sector into t$e local aut$orities and

ot$er bodies associated wit$ regeneration. T$is c$ange in 'olic directionreflected t$e desire of t$e Conseratie adinistration for an econoic focus to

urban 'olic and it introduced a deelo'entled 'rocess concentrating on

refurbis$ent, building, infrastructural i'roeent and redeelo'ent.

"n a docuent 'ublis$ed in !*23, 5ic$ael eseltine stated t$at it is a aor

concern to axiise t$e aount of 'riate sector inestent in t$e inner cit

areas Deseltine, !*23, '. #!). 5an of t$e 'olicies of t$e Conseratie

goernent during t$is tie were based on w$at can be described as leerage

'lanning DAt8inson and 5oon, !**-, '. !*#). T$is is w$ere t$e ain ai of

'ublic inestent was to leer in 'riate inestent.

:4 , oon 6 S*ith7"anha* and ( 8ag-and

Leerage 'lanning w$ere additional 'riate resources are raised t$roug$

8cono*ic Regeneration and 9unding :5

T$e focus on t$e 'riate sector and its role in urban regeneration was reflected

i $ !*22 A i f Ci i $ li f $i

7' #4 )oon" 84 Smith-&anham and 94 !agland

+ince !**/ t$e 9ational Lotter $as 'roided a aor new financial resource

!conomic Regeneration and 6unding 77


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Leerage 'lanning w$ere additional 'riate resources are raised t$roug$

'ublic ex'enditure, so as to increase t$e net benefit of 'ublic s'ending for

econoic regeneration Dobson, !*2*) can be effectiel deonstrated b soe

of t$e Conseratie 'rograes introduced in t$e !*20s, an of t$e based

u'on siilar initiaties introduced in t$e (+A.

An exa'le of t$is is t$e (rban &eelo'ent 7rant w$ic$ was based on t$e

(+As (rban &eelo'ent Action 7rant. T$is was a sc$ee in w$ic$ local

aut$orities wor8ed u' ca'ital inestent 'roects in coo'eration wit$ 'riate

sector interests. T$e 'riate sector was to 'roide uc$ of t$e inestent

finance for t$e 'roect. T$e sc$ee was t$en subitted to t$e &e'artent of t$e%nironent. T$ere were no restrictions on t$e t'e of 'roect eligible for t$is

grant and t$e sc$ee inoled co'etitie bidding for a s$are of t$e ca'ital

resources aailable. +uccessful 'roects were awarded wit$ a grant 'aid at t$e

rate of 1/ 'er cent of t$e finance t$at t$e local aut$orit 'ut forward for t$e

'roect.

Anot$er exa'le of t$e a''lication of t$e 'rinci'le of leering in can be

seen in its a''roac$ to 'roiding lowcost $ousing. "n t$is case t$e 'ublic sector

was inited to bid for derelict land grants w$ic$ could be used to reclai land

u'on w$ic$ t$e 'riate sector could t$en build lowcost $ousing. "n !*23

5ic$ael eseltine stated t$at H/ illion of 'ublic one offered for t$is sc$ee

attracted H!- illion of 'riate sector one, i.e. H!* illion of ca'ital $ousing

inestent at a cost to t$e exc$e


38/159

creasingl i'ortant to success in ters of grant allocation as well as ensuring a

sc$ees long ter econoic iabilit. Proect 'rooters will need to ensure

t$at t$e total stoc8 of deelo'ents does not exceed t$eir ca'abilit to finance

t$eir continued o'erationMaintenance. T$is $as been a 'articular concern of t$e

large ca'ital 'roects 'art funded b t$e 5illenniu Coission.

6ne wa of oercoing t$is a be t$e increased use of 'riate resources

t$roug$ t$e PF", w$ic$, to date, $as been used to secure ca'ital inestent in

roads, lig$t rail, $ealt$ facilities and inforation tec$nolog D"T) serices aong

ot$ers. T$roug$ t$e foration of 'riate sectorled oint entures, t$e PF"transfers financial ris8 to t$e 'riate sector. "n 'articular, wit$ t$e recent

extension of t$e &esign Build Finance 6'erate D&BF6) odel to nearl all local

aut$orit serices, an ca'ital inestents using t$is et$od of funding will

be able to attract faourable reenue su''ort.

"ssues to be considered b 'articular t'es of 'roect are as follows4

Landsca'ingMenironental i'roeents usuall oneoff ca'ital 'roects

re


39/159

A national assessent of !#3 local aut$orities was used b obson to ealuate

i'acts and outcoes. :it$ regard to in'uts it a''ears t$at ex'enditure in t$e

(PAs s$ows a lac8 of fit between t$e classification of aut$orities as (PAs and

t$e aounts of resource t$e receied 'er ca'ita. T$e (PAs did not receie

substantiall ore 'er ca'ita t$an t$e arginal or co'arator areas. "ndeed, t$e

'oor'erforing (PAs, wit$ regard to outcoes, s$owed large 'ercentage

reductions in 'er ca'ita funding. "n considering outcoes, t$e figures s$ow t$at

oerall t$ere were deteriorating conditions in t$e (PAs oer t$e 'eriod as aw$ole, alt$oug$ soe of t$e indiidual indicators were 'ositie. Bot$ t$e

general and longter e'loent rates s$ow signs of i'roeent. T$ere

were also soe successful outcoes in ters of i'roing residential

attractieness in inner cit areas and so soe (PAs $ae been successful in

retaining t$e i'ortant #/3-earold age grou'. (rban 'olic $as $ad t$e

effect, in soe (PAs, of slowing down or reersing t$e erosion of t$e econoic

and residential base of soe towns and cities. Certain relations$i's are clear

fro t$e aboe. T$e ain one being t$at an increase in ex'enditure in a defined

area can be lin8ed to soe reduction in oerall and longter une'loent,

and also assists in t$e retention of t$e #/3-earold age grou'. T$ere is also a

lin8 between t$e increase in ex'enditure and a 'ositie $ouse 'rice c$ange

during !*22*.

Profiles of (PAs based on in'ut4 outcoe data reeals t$at !2 of t$e /1 (PAss$ow w$at ig$t be defined as 'ositie outcoes. 9ine of t$ese !2 $ad $ig$ or

relatiel $ig$ in'uts, two $ad a ixed leel of in'uts and seen $ad relatiel

low in'uts. A furt$er !2 (PAs s$owed ixed outcoes and of t$ese eig$t $ad

ixed in'uts and ten $ad relatiel low in'uts. Twentone (PAs $ad 'oor or

relatiel 'oor outcoes des'ite t$e fact t$at nine $ad $ig$ and two $ad ixed

in'uts. T$e ot$er ten $ad low in'uts.

ualitati-e E-aluation

Turning to t$e


40/159

leerin 'riate inestent $as $ad t$e effect of alienating local counities and

aut$orities in soe areas. Local aut$orities $ae encountered 'robles in su''orting

t$eir role in 'artners$i's because t$eir resources were oerextended and t$e were

unfailiar wit$ t$e wor8ings of t$e 'riate sector. Additionall, in t$e iew of soe

res'ondents, 'riate inestent $as a s$ortter focus w$ic$ does little to ensure t$e

stabilit of urban econoic 'olic or a 'rocess of continuous 'olic deelo'ent.

T$e re'ort concludes t$at uc$ of urban 'olic in t$e !*20s lac8ed co$erence and

s$ould $ae been ore strategic. 5an of t$e 'rograes $ad to be coordinated

across seeral goernental de'artents and t$is did not wor8 well. T$e areasw$ere urban 'olic $as wor8ed well are ainl areabased sc$ees wit$ a

counit focus and t$is suggests t$e need for regional budgets and ore local

coordination. T$e Cit C$allenge 'rograe reflected t$is desire as does t$e +!3.

T$e stud is also critical of t$e goernents econoic D'ro'ertled

regeneration) focus to urban 'olic, claiing t$at it $as failed to consider i'ortant

social and counit 'robles and issues, alt$oug$ it does state t$at soe success

$as been ac$ieed in ters of enironental i'roeents and '$sical renewal.

oweer, t$e re'ort considers t$at t$e needs of de'ried innerurban area residents

$ae been ignored and t$at a aor o''ortunit $as been issed to utilise t$eir s8ills

and build local ca'acit Dobson et al., !**-).

onclusions from te 5o'son 5eport

Box 4: "onc-usions fro* the Robson Re%ort

Fie conclusions drawn fro t$e obson e'ort are designed to influence

future urban econoic 'olic4

K T$ere is a need to create effectie coalitions of actors wit$in localities and

t$ese will 'roe ore effectie wit$ t$e deelo'ent of structures to en

courage longter 'artners$i's.K T$e local aut$orities ust 'la a significant 'art in an coalition.

K Local counities ust also be inoled in t$ese coalitions.

K T$e co$erence of 'rograes ust be i'roed bot$ wit$in and across

goernental de'artents. +trategic obecties ust guide 'riorities.

K T$e deelo ent of an urban bud et adinistered at a re ional leel is needed

As t$e stud was 'ublis$ed in !**- it is wort$ bringing t$e situation u' to date b

considering w$et$er an of t$e 'ro'osals $ae been et. "n ters of t$e first two

'oints soe 'rogress $as been ade. Across t$e countr a nuber of new

'artners$i's $ae been initiated suc$ as t$e Coentr and :arwic8s$ire Partners$i'

Ltd.

Box 4& "oventry and #ar$ickshire Partnershi% Ltd

T$e Coentr and :arwic8s$ire Partners$i' Ltd was set u' in @une !**-, as a

co'an liited b guarantee, to 'roide a foral ec$anis for coordination

and integration of 'olic initiaties. T$e establis$ent of t$e 'artners$i'

follows a long $istor of inforal arrangeents across a nuber of local

aut$orities and ot$er organisations designed to su''ort and 'roote t$e

econoic deelo'ent of t$e area.

e 'artners include t$e Coentr and :arwic8s$ire local aut$orities, t$e

Coentr and :arwic8s$ire T%C and t$e C$abers of Coerce. T$e 'artners$i' $as ac$ieed earl success 'articularl in res'ect of t$e first round of

+B. A single econoic strateg for t$e subregion $as been deelo'ed to

T$ere $as also been a nuber of deelo'ents regarding t$e organisation and

adinistration of urban econoic 'olic. "n A'ril !**- 7oernent 6ffices for t$e

egions were establis$ed. T$ese ten integrated regional offices drew toget$er

resources fro t$e &e'artents of %'loent, %nironent, Trans'ort and

"ndustr and eac$ is accountable to a senior regional director. T$e intention of t$e

76s was, according to @o$n 7uer w$o announced t$e launc$, to initiate

swee'ing easures to s$ift 'ower fro :$ite$all to local counities and a8e

t$e goernent ore res'onsible to local 'riorities. To aid t$e wor8 of t$e 76s t$e+B was deelo'ed w$ic$ $as been 'reiousl discussed.

The #uture of Economic $egeneration

6er t$e 'ast t$ree decades econoic regeneration $as res'onded to and $as been

influenced b a wide range of econoic, 'olitical and social factors. Polic

initiaties deelo'ed out of a strong econoic rationale w$ic$ in t$e !*0s and

!*10s saw urban areas facing t$e 'ros'ect of continuous decline in t$e absence of

aor inections of 'ublic ex'enditure. 5an initiaties were designed to oercoe

t$e disadantage of inner cit locations in ters of accessibilit, enironental


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ca'able of generating a $ig$ local i'act, bot$ econoicall and 'oliticall."t is also eident t$at t$ere $as been a s$ift awa fro traditional industrialand coercial 'roects to t$ose w$ic$ $ae a stronger e'$asis onaddressing t$e needs of t$e local counit. For exa'le, an recent'roects $ae incor'orated leisure and recreation facilities to eet t$eseneeds and as 'art of wider touris deelo'ent strategies $ae includedfacilities to attract bot$ da and oernig$t isitors. As t$is a''roac$ isfurt$er deelo'ed successful bids for econoic regeneration funding will

need to4inole a broad range of 'artnersE address t$e needs oflocal counitiesE reflect t$e sectoral c$angesoccurring in t$e econoE deonstrate innoationE'oint to tangible benefitsE be ca'able of re'lication.

T$ere is eidence, t$roug$ recent funding decisions, t$at flags$i' 'roectsare beginning to eerge as t$e 'referred a''roac$ to address t$e aorc$allenges facing towns and cities in t$e twentfirst centur. Pro'osalsw$ic$ address issues suc$ as t$e wider use of tec$nolog andtelecounications, trans'ort and counications, econoic and en

ironental sustainabilit and 'roote urban liing, for exa'le t$roug$

Key Isses and

ecentl, due to c$anges in t$e wor8ings of urban and regional econoies and t$eincreasing globalisation of ar8ets and econoic and industrial restructuring, cities

$ae been in decline. %conoic regeneration is a ital 'rocess in urban

regeneration. (rban regeneration ais to attract and stiulate inestent, createe'loent o''ortunities and i'roe t$e enironent of cities. Funding for

sc$ees and 'rograes coes fro a wide ariet of sources wit$ increasingco'etition for liited resources. (rban econoic regeneration inoles a

'artners$i' created fro national and local goernent, t$e 'riate and oluntarsectors and ebers of local counities. T$e deelo'ing role of egional

&eelo'ent Agencies in econoic and urban regeneration. (rban econoic'olic ust continue to be dnaic and res'onsie to c$anging circustances.%xa'les of best 'ractice in 'artners$i' arrangeents s$ould be widel 'ublicised.

Potential fragentation of urban 'olic 'laces an increasing role on t$edeelo'ent of a clear strategic context and ision of t$e future. "t is essential t$at

t$e case for urban regeneration funding is set wit$in a wider costMbenefit contextand its role in sustainable deelo'ent at t$e national and international leel is

full recognised.

is increasingl concerned wit$ t$e efficient use of financial resources rat$ert$an si'l 'rooting t$e axiisation of econoic growt$. Fro a regional econoic deelo'ent 'ers'ectie t$e deelo'ing role of t$e newlfored egional &eelo'ent Agencies as 'rooters and coordinators ofeconoic and urban regeneration will be an i'ortant issue for 'ractitionersoer t$e coing ears.

References

At8inson, . and 5oon, 7. D!**-) Urban Policy in Britain, Public Polic and Politics Series,

5acillan, London.Audit Coission D!*2*) Urban Regeneration and !cono-ic #e"elo%-ent2 The 7ocal 9uthA

ority #i-ension, 5+6, London.

Banfield, %. D!*10) The Unhea"enly City,Little, Brown = Co., Boston.

&e'artent of t$e %nironent D&o%) D!*2)9ssess-ent o$ the !-%loy-ent !$$ects o$!cono-ic #e"elo%-ent ProGects Funded by the Urban Progra--e, 5+6, London.

&e'artent of t$e %nironent D&o%) D!*22a) City 0rant 0uidance 8otes, 5+6, London. &e'artent of t$e

%nironent D&o%) D!*22b) Urban Policy and #o! Progra--es, 5+6,

London.

&e'artent of t$e %nironent D&o%) D!**!) 0eneral 8ote. #erelict 7and 0rants, 5+6, London.

Heseltine, . D!*23)Re"i"ing the 3nner Cities, Conser"ati"e Political Centre, London. 5+6 D!*11) Polic$orthe 3nner Cities, Cnd 2-/, 5+6, London. 5+6 D!*21)9n e"aluation o$ the !nter%rise one !x%eri-ent,

5+6, London.

5+6 D!*22)9ction $or Cities, 5+6, London.

5+6 D!**/)Final !"aluation o$ !nter%rise ones, 5+6, London.

"rie, . and T$oas, . Deds) D!**3)British Urban Policy and the Urban #e"elo%-ent

Cor%orations,Paul C$a'an, London.

Lawless, P. D!*22) Britis$ inner urban 'olic4 a re"ie6, Regional Studies, ?ol. ##, no. , ''. /3!-#.9ational Audit 6ffice D!**0)Regenerating the 3nner Cities, 5+6, London.

6atle, 9. D!**/a) Co'etitie urban 'olic and t$e regeneration gae, To6n PlanningRe"ie6, 4ol., no. !, ''. !!-.

6atle, 9. D!**/b) (rban regeneration,Planning Practice and Research, 4ol. 1, no. 3-, ''. #!10.

Public Accounts Coittee D!*2*) T6entieth Re%ort2 Urban #e"elo%-ent Cor%orations, 5+6, London.ic$ardson, . D!*1!) Urban !cono-ics, Penguin, 5iddlesex.obson, B. D!*2*) Those 3nner Cities, Clarendon, 6xford.

obson, B., Bradford, 5., &eas, L, all, %., arrison, %., Par8inson, 5., %ans, ., 7arside,

P. and obinson, F. D!**-) Dt$e obson e'ort), 9ssessing the 3-%act o$ Urban Policy,5+6, London.

Physical and !n"iron-ental 9s%ects )

t$e co'onents of t$e '$sical stoc8E socioeconoic c$anges and t$enew re


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8

1 Ph+sica% and Environ)enta%

As(ects

Paul 5e$$rey and 5ohn Pounder

-ntroduction

T$e '$sical a''earance and enironental


43/159

' g

DPP7) !3, and indeed t$e 'reoccu'ation of an regeneration sc$ees in inner

cit or town centre areas, eans t$at t$ere is a need to ensure t$at access b

ass trans'ort sstes is iable as t$e 'ressures of congestion and traffic

'ollution result in restrictions on car use. Furt$erore, soe of t$e growing

sectors w$ic$ ig$t be relied u'on to $el' regeneration Dsuc$ as tradable

business serices, software $ouses, s'ecialised and $ig$ alueadded

anufacturing) o'erate in national and international ar8ets and re


44/159

' g counitoriented, 'artners$i' a''roac$ is well establis$ed, but t$e deelo'ent of agencies suc$ as %nglis$ Partners$i's and t$e reit and'owers t$e $ae will significantl affect t$e t'es of regeneration t$at canget funded. Beond t$is, t$e longerter i'act of telecounications onfinancial serices and t$eir location D'ossibl reducing t$e need for retailoutlets), on $oewor8ing 'atterns and on s$o''ing and leisure a well bedraatic for urban areas.

+:6T Analses

A%%raising the Stock

At an earl stage during t$e 'rocess of a''raising an area and deelo'ingideas for a regeneration strateg it is $el'ful to 'roide a


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serices, sites and buildings is ade


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Leading the Change

T$e er isible nature of new deelo'ents eans t$at t$e can 'la a significant role in

establis$ing a c$anged iage for an area, act as a declaration of intent and ote of confidence

in t$e area and so bring in ot$er deelo'ents be$ind t$e. +uc$ socalled flags$i' 'roects

were at one stage $ig$l fas$ionable. A classic exa'le of t$is is t$e Biring$a +'$on

all and Conention Centre w$ic$ establis$ed t$e clear intent to su''ort and encourageregeneration of a w$ole swat$e of derelict and underused land to t$e west of t$e inner cit. A

8e feature of suc$ a''roac$es is t$at t$e are large enoug$ to $ae a aor isible i'act on

t$e iediate area and so c$ange t$e context for furt$er inestent b reducing t$e negatie

iage and rundown nature of t$e area. "n Biring$a t$is '$sical transforation of 'art of

t$e cit centre t$roug$ t$e deelo'ent of 8e 'restige 'roects was fundaental to t$e

reconstruction of t$e iage of t$e cit, bot$ nationall and internationall, as a centre for busi

ness touris DLoftan and 9ein, !**).

Flags$i' 'roects were c$aracteristic of t$e a''roac$ to urban regeneration ta8en b an

of t$e (rban &eelo'ent Cor'orations set u' in t$e !*20s. :ell8nown exa'les include

Canar :$arf DLondon &oc8lands &eelo'ent Cor'oration) and Albert &oc8 D5erseside

&eelo'ent Cor'oration). T$e ai of t$ese sc$ees was to boost confidence in t$e

designated (rban &eelo'ent Area and t$ereb $el' stiulate 'riate sector inestent.

P$sical deelo'ent can lead regeneration in less draatic was. For exa'le it a be

t$at t$e ost effectie wa of beginning to obilise counit deelo'ent in 'oor $ousingestates is to begin b i'roing t$e '$sical condition of t$e $ousing itself. %xa'les of t$is

are4 ?aux$all (rban ?illage, Lier'oolE T$e %ldonians, Lier'oolE ule, 5anc$esterE and

5iles Platting, 5anc$ester. 6ne of t$e interesting as'ects of t$is a''roac$ is t$at it gies t$e

o''ortunit to inole t$e residents directl in t$e deelo'ent 'lans and, t$roug$ counit

deelo'ent sc$ees, to inole t$e in t$e wor8 t$roug$ training and wor8 ex'erience

sc$ees.

Box 53 1auxha-- ;rban 1i--age Liver%oo-

A 'artners$i' between t$e resident counities and t$e 5erseside &eelo'ent

Cor'oration. Began as a 'lan to build new $ousing and deelo'ed t$roug$ a bottou'

a''roac$ to regeneration into a co're$ensie 'roect to 'roide counit facilities,

training o''ortunities and local enter'rise initiaties.

T$e refurbis$ent of a $ig$densit 'ublic $ousing estate Doriginall consisting of -,3/0

units). B earl !*20s t$e estate was c$aracterised b t$e t'ical enironental and

social 'robles associated wit$ !*/0M!*0s $ousing estates, and $eig$tened b $ig$ rates

of une'loent. "t was recognised at t$e outset t$at significant '$sical refurbis$ent

wit$out co'leentar enironental i'roeents would $ae a liited i'act on t$e

low leels of confidence t$e residents $ad in t$e estate. %xtensie counit

inoleent was crucial to t$e successful deelo'ent of t$e 'roect. "noleent was

'rooted on t$e estate as a w$ole and wit$in indiidual $ousing bloc8s, allowing

residents to discuss t$e details of 'olic. A result $as been reduced andalis, a greater

leel of coitent and inoleent b residents and a lessening of t$e $ostilit felt b

t$e towards t$e estate.

D+ource4 %C6T%C, !*22)

Box 55 (anchester 7 Hu-*e ho*es for Hu-*e

ule coers an area of #1# acres De


47/159

A local aut$oritled '$sical redeelo'ent aied at creating a uni


48/159

6'erates in t$e $eart of t$e forer &erbs$ire Coalfield, 'roiding adice to local'eo'leE su''orting local businessE 'rooting t$e town centre and reno ating 'roinent

derelict 'ro'erties. T$e executie co'rises local olunteers w$o re'resent t$e interestsof t$e local counit. "t $as deelo'ed its own assets t$roug$ 'ro'ert 'urc$ase Dw$ic$

'roides a longter incoe strea) w$ilst wor8ing towards t$e reintegration of t$e local

wor8force into t$e

broader econo .

Box 5 ' )he Roundsha$ 8state London Borough of Sutton

T$e ounds$aw %state is a !*0s deelo'ent, '$sicall and isuall cut off fro t$e

rest of t$e counit, in need of extensie redesign and refurbis$ent. T$e regenerationof t$e estate $as been enabled b a successful +B bid b t$e +utton Area egeneration

Partners$i'. T$e 'artners$i' co'rises4 residents of t$e estateE t$e business counit,

'ublic sector agencies, and oluntar organisationsE t$e Local Agenda #! ForuE and$ealt$ 'rofessionals. T$e 'riate sector ta8es t$e lead in t$e regeneration 'rograe and

subgrou's are directl res'onsible for t$e delier of eac$ of t$e strategic obecties,w$ic$ include4

s $el'ing generate sustainable econoic growt$ in t$e areaE

i'roing liing conditions,


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ex'enditure of +tructural Funds for regional deelo'ent in 6bectie #regions. :it$out 'ublic interention, t$e deand for land and 'ro'ertwould increasingl be c$annelled into odern, flexible, accessible greenfieldsites w$ic$ do not$ing for t$e 'robles associated wit$ inner urbanindustrial decline and une'loent. ence, for t$e 'ur'oses of urbanregeneration strategies it is i'ortant to deelo' strategic assessents ofland and buildings su''l and deand c$aracteristics w$ic$ can identif4 t$e


50/159

A recent exa'le of co're$ensie land assebl and deelo'ent 'roo

tion b Biring$a Cit Council, incor'orating tow'at$ and bridge

re'laceent, canalside engineering wor8s and i'roeents to listed

structures. T$is 'u''riing actiit $as broug$t about considerable leels

of new inestent in ixeduse deelo'ent incor'orating office, retail,

leisure and $ousing sectors. T$e ixeduse eleent $as been critical to its

success wit$ its $ig$


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g ' g ' ' ,

urban neig$bour$oods. "t is wor8ing alongside, adising and $el'ing to deelo'

in

urban regeneration, a handbook

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